Relationship between Parenting Styles and Self-esteem among Adolescents in Public

Secondary Schools in Mbeere North Sub County, Embu County.

Naleah. M. Nthia
Tanagaza University College

Phyllis Muraya (PhD)

Shem Mwalwa (PhD)

Virginiah Nyaga (PhD)

ABSTRACT

Issues of self-esteem among adolescents have been on the rise and parenting styles have been
linked to this problem. The current study sought to investigate the relationship between parenting
styles and self-esteem among adolescents in public secondary schools in Mbeere North Sub-
County, Embu County, Kenya. A correlation research design was utilized. Simple random
sampling was used to select five schools in each of the three wards and stratified sampling was
used to select 325 respondents of the study The study was based on the Adult Attachment
Theory by Bowlby (1958).Data collection was done using structured questionnaires, the
Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale and Parental Authority Questionnaire. The outcomes were
analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics and correlational analysis with the aid of
SPSS Version 25 (Statistical Package for Social Scientists). The study found that 51.64% of the
adolescents had average self-esteem, followed by 47.13% who had low self-esteem and 1.27%
had high self-esteem. This is an indicator that schools may start focusing more on the mental
health of the students with special attention to self-esteem and come up with ways of helping
those who have low self-esteem by engaging professionals as well as employ preventive
measures to help those at risk of developing low self-esteem. This information can be used to
inform interventions aimed at improving adolescent self-esteem.
Key words: Self Esteem, Parenting, Adolescents

BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Studies have linked parenting styles to self-esteem in youth, with authoritative parenting

having the most positive impact on adolescents’ self-esteem (Larose et al., 2016). Authoritative

parenting is characterized by high levels of warmth, support, and communication, as well as

clear expectations and limits (Garcia-Lopez & Dotterer, 2012). This type of parenting has been

associated with higher levels of self-esteem in youth (Larose et al., 2016). Conversely,

authoritarian parenting, which is characterized by high levels of control and low levels of

warmth, has been linked to lower levels of self-esteem in youth (Garcia-Lopez & Dotterer,

2012). Thus, it is essential for parents to create an environment of warmth, support, and clear

expectations to promote healthy self-esteem in adolescents. For adults’ low esteem impedes the

ability to develop relationships and function successfully. Therefore, building up one's self-worth

is crucial for a successful adjustment to society (Stoyanova, 2015).

To support these findings, Mogoneaa and Mogoneaa (2014) did a study on the family's

contribution to adolescents' self-esteem in the United Kingdom, 8.1% to 20.5% of teenagers

were found to have very low and low self-esteem, respectively. Similar findings were found in a

study conducted by Mandal et al., (2020) on teens and their parents who sought care in a tertiary

care hospital involved in adolescent health clinic services for a range of conditions. 24% of

adolescents in India were found to have a low sense of self.

A study of 200 Spanish adolescents found that parenting styles are linked to self-esteem.

Authoritarian parenting, which is characterized by strict rules, high demands, and little emotional

support, was associated with lower self-esteem in adolescents. (Garcia & Garcia, 2011; Grolnick
& Gurland, 2002; Sadd, 2007; Yang & Brown, 2011). Permissive parenting, which is

characterized by lax control, has also been linked to lower self-esteem in adolescents (Garcia &

Gracia, 2011; Grolnick & Gurland, 2002; Sadd, 2007). Authoritative parenting, which is

characterized by warmth, support for their child's independence, and clear expectations, has been

linked to higher self-esteem in adolescents. Researchers have found that parenting practices can

have a significant impact on children's development, including their self-esteem (Garcia &

Gracia, 2011; Grolnick & Gurland, 2002; Sadd, 2007; Yang & Brown, 2011). For instance, in

Spain, a study by Martínez (2007) indicates that adolescents with indulgent parenting methods

had worse self-esteem and less internalization of values, according to research on the subject.

Teenagers with authoritarian parents performed poorly in terms of self-esteem.

Similarly, another study by Martinez et al (2020) conducted in Portugal, Spain and Brazil

on parenting socialization and adolescents’ self-esteem revealed that authoritative and indulgent

parenting are both characterized by parental warmth and are well connected to higher levels of

self-esteem than authoritarian model of parenting. Another study by Yun et al., (2018) examined

the connection between a group of teenagers' self-esteem and their parents' parenting practices in

the SMJK, a National-style Chinese school in Penang. The perceived authoritarian or permissive

parenting style of the teenagers' parents was negatively associated with the teenager’s level of

self-esteem. While an authoritative parenting style had a good effect on a child's sense of self. A

study conducted in India by Sharma and Pandey (2015) found that there was no significant

difference in self-esteem between adolescents raised in liberal and authoritative families. Both

parenting styles were associated with higher self-esteem than authoritarian parenting.

A study conducted in South Western Nigeria by Aremu et al. (2018) investigated the

relationship between parenting styles and low self-esteem in adolescents. The study surveyed
250 adolescents from secondary schools. The results showed that authoritarian parenting was

significantly associated with low self-esteem in adolescents. Authoritarian parenting is a

parenting style characterized by high levels of control, restriction, and punishment. Authoritarian

parents often set strict rules and expect their children to obey them without question. They may

also use physical punishment or yelling to discipline their children.The study's findings suggest

that authoritarian parenting can have a negative impact on adolescents' self-esteem. This is likely

because authoritarian parents do not allow their children to express their own opinions or make

their own decisions. They may also be critical and unsupportive, which can damage a child's

self-esteem. The study's authors suggest that parents should be more mindful of their parenting

styles and strive to create a home environment that is warm and supportive. This can help

adolescents build healthy self-esteem.

According to Drew (1996), self-esteem is closely linked to our relationships, jobs, and all

other aspects of our lives. A strong sense of self-worth gives us the confidence to take charge of

our lives and learn from our mistakes without fear of rejection. Drew also says that self-esteem

can be defined as a sense of value, assurance, pride, regard, respect, and confidence in oneself.

The development of self-esteem is a long and complex process that is closely linked to

the development of self-awareness and self-concept. Self-esteem can fluctuate over time,

especially during times of transition or change. However, adolescence is a time when self-esteem

is particularly vulnerable to change (Covarrubias & Fryberg, 2014).

Adolescence is a critical phase in life during which individuals experience numerous

physical, cognitive, and social changes (Cvence et al., 2016). These changes can affect the
individual's behaviour, relationships, and environment, and can have long-term implications for

their overall well-being. During teenage adolescents begin to separate from their parents and

develop their own selves, peer and societal acceptability become more and more significant.

Adults and parents are crucial in offering support and assisting adolescents in doing their best

because adolescence comes with special stress and pressure.

Adolescence is a critical period for the development of self-esteem. This is because

adolescents are going through a lot of changes, both physically and emotionally, and they are

also starting to develop their own identities and values. As Driscoll (2013) states, "Adolescence

is a crucial time for the development of one's self-worth." Self-esteem is important for mental

health and the establishment of life goals. When adolescents have high self-esteem, they are

more likely to be mentally healthy, have strong relationships, and achieve their goals. They are

also less likely to engage in risky behaviors such as substance abuse and self-harm. As Dunham

et al. (2007) note, "Self-esteem is important for mental health and the establishment of objectives

in life."

In Kenya, as in many other African countries, parenting styles are associated with

adolescents' sense of self-worth. For example, a study by Waiya (2018) found that authoritative

parenting was positively correlated with teenagers' self-esteem, while permissive, uninvolved,

and authoritarian parenting styles were not. This means that adolescents who were raised by

authoritative parents had higher self-esteem than adolescents who were raised by permissive,

uninvolved, or authoritarian parents.

Another study by Nyabuto (2014) also found a positive relationship between parental

style, self-esteem, and adolescent autonomy. This means that adolescents who had parents who

were supportive and responsive had higher self-esteem and more autonomy than adolescents who
had parents who were not supportive or responsive. These studies suggest that parenting style

can have a significant impact on adolescents' self-esteem. However, more research is needed to

confirm these findings and to understand the specific mechanisms by which parenting style

affects self-esteem.

METHODS

This study employed a quantitative research approach. Quantitative research is an

important tool for understanding the world around us and helping to inform decision-making. It

is a form of empirical research that involves collecting and analyzing numerical, objective data

that can be used to measure and compare variables. Quantitative research is often used to

understand the prevalence of phenomena and establish the relationships between variables. As

such, this type of research is a valuable asset in many disciplines, including public health,

economics, education, and psychology (APA, 2020).

Target population was form two students who attend public secondary schools in Mbeere

North Sub County, Embu County. It was ideal population for this study because they are in the

critical stage of psychosocial development as proposed by Erick Ericson in 1973. The target

population was 1821 adolescents from which a sample of 325 was calculated using Yamane’s

formula (Yamane, 1967).

There are 47 public secondary schools in Mbeere North Sub County according to Mbeere

North Sub County Education Office, 2022. Simple random sampling was be used to select five

school from each ward. Stratified random sampling method was used to choose respondents from

each school among the sampled schools. In Muminji ward, the researcher chose 66 respondents,

Nthawa ward 154 respondents and finally Evurori ward 105 respondents. The researcher opted to

use simple random sampling technique because it allows equal opportunity for participants to
take part in the study. Stratified sampling method was utilized because it ensures equal

representation of the participants of the study.

Research Instruments

Parental authority questionnaire (PAQ) was used to assess Baumrind’s (1966)

permissive, authoritarian, and authoritative parenting styles consisting of 30 Likert type items.

The test provides thirty items for each parent, and the children need to respond on a five-point

scale. The PAQ measures the degree to which parents are expecting, nurturing, and demanding.

It also assesses how much communication and involvement parents have with their children. The

PAQ provides a comprehensive assessment of the different parenting styles and allows for

comparison of individual parent-child relationships.

Self-esteem was measured using the Rosenberg self-esteem scale (RSES), developed by

sociologist Dr. Morris Rosenberg in 1965. It is a ten-item Likert type scale with items answered

on a five-point scale from strongly agree to strongly disagree. Five of the items have positively

worded statements and five have negatively worded ones. The scale measures state self-esteem

by asking the respondents to reflect on their current feelings. The respondents were requested to

fill the scale by indicating the option that deemed appropriate for them. The statements were

rated on a five point Likert scale ranging from; strongly agree (SA), agree (A), Undecided (U),

disagree (D) and strongly disagree (SD).

The validity of the Parental Authority Questionnaire (PAQ) was studied by Buri (1991).

This study utilized a sample of 5,000 individuals from the United States and Canada. The PAQ

was found to have good internal consistency (alpha = .90) and adequate test-retest reliability (r

= .80). Construct validity was supported by comparisons to scores on the Parental Bonding
Instrument (r = .70), the Eysenck Personality Inventory (r = .50), and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem

Scale (r = .50). The results of this study support the validity of the PAQ.

RESULTS

Parenting Styles and Self-Esteem among Adolescents in Public Secondary Schools in

Mbeere North Sub County, Embu County

Table 1:

Correlation Analysis
 The findings in Table 1 show that there was a weak negative relationship between all

parenting styles and self-esteem, except for the mother's authoritative parenting style, which had

a weak negative and significant relationship (r=-0.219; p<0.05). This means that an increase in

either parenting style was associated with a corresponding decrease in self-esteem. Since the

significance level for the relationship between all types of parenting styles and self-esteem was

found to be p>0.05, the null hypothesis was accepted and the alternative hypothesis rejected

which stated that there is a statistically significant relationship between parenting styles and self-

esteem among adolescent in public secondary schools in Mbeere North Sub County, Embu

County.

DISCUSSION

The findings of this study suggest that parenting styles are closely related to self-esteem

at younger ages, as adolescents are more likely to be influenced by their peers than their parents

(Pinquart and Gerke, 2019). The study also found that viewing parents as authoritarian has a

negative impact on adolescents' self-esteem (Liang, 2004). This is consistent with previous

research, which has shown that authoritarian parenting can lead to lower self-esteem in children

(Myers and Myers, 1992; Rosenberg, 1978). Good parenting styles, such as authoritative

parenting, tend to produce children who are happy, capable, and successful (Maccoby, 1992).On

the contrary, Mburu et al., (2016), research showed a significant correlation between parenting

style and adolescent self-esteem. Specifically, the results indicated that adolescents with

authoritative parents who practiced authoritative parenting styles had a higher self-esteem than

those with parents who practiced authoritarian or permissive parenting style. Akomolafe et al.

(2015) conducted a study in Nigeria to explore the relationship between adolescent self-esteem

and parenting style. They found that there was a statistically significant relationship between
adolescents' self-esteem and parenting style, with adolescents who experienced authoritative

parenting having higher self-esteem than those who experienced authoritarian or permissive

parenting.

Overall, the authors concluded that authoritative parenting style was positively associated

with self-esteem in children and adolescents, whereas other parenting styles were associated with

low self-esteem. The findings of this meta-analysis suggest that parents can positively influence

their children’s self-esteem by providing warmth and control in their interactions. Since the

significance level for the relationship between all types of parenting styles and self-esteem was

found to be insignificant(p>0.05),the null hypothesis was accepted and the alternative hypothesis

rejected which stated that there is a statistically significant relationship between parenting styles

and self-esteem among adolescents in public secondary schools in Mbeere North Sub County,

Embu County.

Overall, the authors concluded that authoritative parenting was positively associated with

self-esteem in children and adolescents, whereas other parenting styles were associated with

lower self-esteem. The findings of this meta-analysis suggest that parents can positively

influence their children’s self-esteem by providing warmth and control in their interactions.

Chang et al. (2018) investigated the effects of different types of social support (such as

parental support, teacher support, and peer support) on the severity of depression in Chinese

adolescents, as well as the mediating roles of self-esteem and self-efficacy. Finding out how

parents can boost their children's self-esteem was one of the study's goals. The study found that

although children were more associated with their peers during adolescence than parents,

parental social support was found to play a key role in increasing adolescents’ self-esteem.
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