MODULE 4

SKELETAL SYSTEM

Learning Tasks and Performance Indicators:

1. Describe the six main functions of the skeletal system;

2. Describe the structure and functions of each part of a long bone;
3. Describe the histological features of bone tissue;
4. Describe the steps of intramembranous and endochondral ossification;
5. Explain how bone grows in length and thickness;
6. Identify and describe the parts and location of the axial and appendicular divisions;
7. Classify bones based on their shape or location; and
8. Describe the structural and functional classifications of joints.

Course Outline:

1. Skeletal System: Overview 7. Maintaining the Homeostasis of the Skin

2. General Functions of the Bones 8. Factors Affecting Bone Growth and Bone
3. Structure of the Bone Remodeling
4. Type of Bones 9. Classification of Bones (Shape)
5. Bone Formation 10. Division of Skeletal System
6. Bone Growth During Infancy, Childhood, 11. Joints
and Adolescence

Bone tissue is continuously growing, remodeling, and repairing itself. It contributes to homeostasis
of the body by providing support, protection, the production of blood cells, and the storage of minerals
and triglycerides.

A bone is composed of several different tissues working together: bone or osseous tissue,
cartilage, dense connective tissues, epithelium, adipose tissue, and nervous tissue. For this reason, each
individual bone in your body is considered an organ.
Bone tissue, a complex and dynamic living tissue,
continually engages in a process called
remodeling—the construction of new bone tissue
and breaking down of old bone tissue. The entire
framework of bones and their cartilages, along with
ligaments and tendons, constitutes the skeletal
system. In this chapter we will survey the various
components of bones to help you understand how
bones form and age, and how exercise affects their
density and strength.

GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF THE BONES:

1. Support
2. Protection
3. Assistance in Movement
4. Mineral Homeostasis
5. Blood Cell Production (Hemopoeisis)
6. Triglyceride Storage
STRUCTURE OF THE BONE

A. Macroscopic Structure
1. Diaphysis
- The bone shaft or body
- Long, cylindrical, main portion of the bone
2. Epiphysis
- Proximal and distal ends of the bone
3. Metaphysis
- Regions between the diaphysis and the epiphysis
- ** Epiphyseal plate – layer of hyaline cartilage that allows the diaphysis of the bone to
grow in length but not in width.
4. Articular Cartilage
- Thin layer of hyaline cartilage covering the part of epiphysis where the bone forms an
articulation with another bone
- Reduces friction and absorbs shock at freely movable parts (joints)
5. Periosteum
- Tough sheet of dense irregular connective tissue
- Functions:
a) Contains bone forming cells (thickness)
b) Protects bone
c) Assists in fracture repair
d) Helps nourish the bone
e) Attachment points of ligaments and tendons
6. Medullary Cavity or Marrow Cavity
- Contains the yellow bone marrow
7. Endosteum
- Contains bone forming cells
B. Microscopic Structure
1. Matrix
- 25% water
- 25% collagen fiber
- 50% crystallized mineral salts like calcium phosphate, calcium carbonate, etc.
2. Cells
a. Osteogenic cells
- Unspecialized stem cells derived from mesenchymal tissues
- Undergo cell division to produce daughter cells called osteoblasts
- Inner portion of periosteum, endosteum, canals with bones

b. Osteoblasts
- Immature bone cells
- Bone building cells
- Synthesize and secrete collagen fibers and matrix
- ** Calcification – deposition of minerals (hardness) and collagen fibers (flexibility)
- Continuously surrounds themselves with extracellular matrix forming osteocytes

c. Osteocytes
- Mature bone cells
- Make majority of bone tissues
- Maintain metabolic activity of the cell
- Do not undergo cell division

d. Osteoclasts
- Huge cells derived from the fusion of monocytes (white blood cell)
- Releases powerful lysosomal enzymes and acids to digest the protein and mineral
components of the underlying bone tissue
- ** Bone resorption – eat bone cells to make new bone cells (repair and
maintainance)
- Helps regulate blood calcium level
- Multinucleated
TYPES OF BONES

1. Compact Bone
- Fewer spaces
- Composed of Haversian system or Osteons
- Function: resists stresses produced by weight and movement
- Components:
a) Haversian canal or Central Canal
- Contains blood vessels
b) Concentric Lamellae
- Matrix
c) Canaliculi
- Small canals
- Passageway of nutrients and wastes
d) Osteocytes
e) Lacunae
- Space which contains osteocytes

2. Spongy Bone or Cancellous Bone

- Do not have osteons
- Lamellae arranged in lattice of thin columns called trabeculae
- Spaces between the trabeculae makes bones lighter
- Trabeculae of spongy bone support and protects red bone marrow
- Hemopoeisis takes place in spongy bones
BONE FORMATION

 Ossification
1. Formation of bone in an embryo
2. Growth of bones until adulthood
3. Remodeling of bone
4. Repair of fractures

 Initial Bone Formation in an Embryo and Fetus

1. Intramembranous ossification
- Flat bones (skull and mandible)
- Soft spot – helps fetal skull pass through the birth canal
- Within fibrous connective tissues
- Bone cells directly formed of mesenchyme without undergoing osteocyte
development
- Mesenchyme  osteogenic  Osteoblasts  Osteocytes

a. Development of the ossification center.

- specific chemical messages cause the mesenchymal cells to cluster
together and differentiate
- first into osteogenic cells and then into osteoblasts
- **Ossification center – site of such a cluster
- Osteoblasts secrete the organic extracellular matrix of bone until they
are surrounded by it.
 b. Calcification.
- secretion of extracellular matrix stops
- osteocytes, lie in lacunae and extend their narrow cytoplasmic
processes into canaliculi that radiate in all directions.
- calcium and other mineral salts are deposited and extracellular matrix
hardens or calcifies (calcification)
c. Formation of trabeculae.
- extracellular matrix develops into trabeculae that fuse with one
another to form spongy bone.
- Blood vessels grow into the spaces between the trabeculae.
- Connective tissue that is associated with the blood vessels in the
trabeculae differentiates into red bone marrow.
d. Development of the periosteum.
- mesenchyme condenses at the periphery of the bone and develops
into the periosteum.
- a thin layer of compact bone replaces the surface layers of the spongy
bone, but spongy bone remains in the center.
- Much of the newly formed bone is remodeled (destroyed and
reformed)

2. Endochondral ossification
- Formation of bone within hyaline cartilage
- Most bones of the body including long bones
- Mesenchyme  osteogenic  chondrite  osteocyte
 a. Development of Cartilage Model
- specific chemical messages cause the mesenchymal cells to crowd together
in the shape of the future bone, and then develop into chondroblasts.
- The chondroblasts secrete cartilage extracellular matrix, producing a
cartilage model consisting of hyaline cartilage.
- **Perichondrium – a covering that develops around the cartilage model.
b. Growth of Cartilage Model
- Growth occurs by cell division of chondrocytes accompanied by further
secretion of the cartilage extracellular matrix
- Interstitial growth – growth from within causing increase in length
- Appositional growth – growth at the outer surface causing increase in
thickness
c. Development of Primary Ossification Center
- The region of diaphysis
- Bone tissue replaced most of the cartilage
- A nutrient artery penetrates the perichondrium and the calcifying cartilage
model stimulating cells in the perichondrium to differentiate into osteoblasts
- Once the perichondrium starts to form bone, it is known as the periosteum.
- Periosteal capillaries grow into the disintegrating calcified cartilage, inducing
growth of a primary ossification center, a region where bone tissue will
replace most of the cartilage.
- Osteoblasts then begin to deposit bone extracellular matrix over the
remnants of calcified cartilage, forming spongy bone trabeculae.
- Primary ossification spreads toward both ends of the cartilage model
d. Development of the medullary (marrow) cavity
- osteoclasts break down some of the newly formed spongy bone trabeculae
forming the medullary (marrow) cavity
- most of the wall of the diaphysis is replaced by compact bone.
e. Development of the secondary ossification centers
- When branches of the epiphyseal artery enter the epiphyses, secondary
ossification centers develop.
- Bone formation is similar to that in primary ossification centers. One
difference, however, is that spongy bone remains in the interior of the
epiphyses (no medullary cavities are formed here).
f. Formation of articular cartilage and the epiphyseal plate.
- The hyaline cartilage that covers the epiphyses becomes the articular
cartilage.
- Prior to adulthood, hyaline cartilage remains between the diaphysis and
epiphysis as the epiphyseal (growth) plate.

BONE GROWTH DURING INFANCY, CHILDHOOD, AND ADOLESCENCE

During infancy, childhood, and adolescence, long bones grow in length and bones throughout
the body grow in thickness.

1. Growth in Length
a. Interstitial growth of cartilage on the epiphyseal side of the epiphyseal plate
- epiphyseal (growth) plate is a layer of hyaline cartilage in the metaphysis of a growing
bone that consists of four zones:
 i. Zone of Resting Cartilage
- nearest the epiphysis
- consists of small, scattered chondrocytes
- cells do not function in bone growth
- anchor the epiphyseal plate to the epiphysis of
the bone

ii. Zone of Proliferating Cartilage

- Slightly larger chondrocytes arranged like
stacks of coins.
- Chondrocytes undergo interstitial growth as
they divide and secrete extracellular matrix.
- Chondrocytes divide to replace those that die
at the diaphyseal side of the epiphyseal plate

iii. Zone of Hypertrophic Cartilage

- consists of large, maturing chondrocytes
arranged in columns

iv. Zone of Calcified Cartilage

- only a few cells thick and consists mostly of
chondrocytes that are dead because the
extracellular matrix around them has calcified
- Osteoclasts dissolve the calcified cartilage,
and osteoblasts and capillaries from the
diaphysis invade the area.
- Osteoblasts lay down bone extracellular matrix, replacing the calcified cartilage
by the process of endochondral ossification.
- the zone of calcified cartilage becomes “new diaphysis” that is firmly cemented to
the rest of the diaphysis of the bone.

At about age 18 in females and 21 in males, the epiphyseal (growth) plates close; the epiphyseal
cartilage cells stop dividing, and bone replaces all the cartilage. The epiphyseal plate fades, leaving
a bony structure called the epiphyseal line. The appearance of the epiphyseal line signifies that the
bone has stopped growing in length. The clavicle is the last bone to stop growing. If a bone fracture
damages the epiphyseal (growth) plate, the fractured bone may be shorter than normal once adult
stature is reached. This is because damage to cartilage accelerates closure of the epiphyseal plate,
thus inhibiting lengthwise growth of the bone.
 2. Growth in Thickness
- Bones grow in thickness by appositional growth (growth at the outer surface).
- Cells in the periosteum differentiate into osteoblasts, which secrete bone extracellular matrix.
- Osteoblasts develop into osteocytes, lamellae are added to the surface of the bone, and
new osteons of compact bone tissue are formed
- Osteoclasts in the endosteum destroy the bone tissue lining the medullary cavity.
- Bone destruction on the inside of the bone by osteoclasts occurs at a slower rate than bone
formation on the outside of the bone. Thus the medullary cavity enlarges as the bone
increases in thickness.

FACTORS AFFECTING BONE GROWTH AND BONE REMODELING

CLASSIFICATION OF BONES (SHAPE)

1. Long bone – greater and wider bone, with shaft

2. Short bone – cube shaped
3. Flat bones – thin and wide
4. Irregular bones – complex shapes
5. Sesamoid bones – found in tendons where there is friction,
tension, and physical stress
6. Sutural bones – small bones within joints and cranial bones

DIVISION OF SKELETAL SYSTEM

A. Axial Division
- Consist of 80 bones
a) Skull (22 bones)

 Cranial bone (8)

- Parietal bone (2)
- Frontal (1)
- Temporal (2)
- Occipital (1)
- Spheroid (1)
- Ethmoid (1)

 Facial bone (14)

- Nasal (2)
- Maxilla (2)
- Zygomatic (2)
- Lacrimal (2)
- Palatine (2)
- Inferior nasal conchae (2)
- Vomer (1)
- Mandible (1)
b) Hyoid bone (1)
 Suspended by the styloid process of temporal bone by
ligaments and muscle
 Attachment of muscles of tongue, neck, and larynx

c) Vertebral column
 Cervical region (7)
 Thoracic region (12)
 Lumbar region (5)
 Sacral curve (1)
- Composed of fused bone (5 vertebrae)
 Coccyx (1)
- Tail bone
d) Thorax
 Sternum (1)
 Ribs (24)
- True ribs or vertebrosternal (1 – 7)
- False ribs or vertebrochondral (8 – 10)
- Floating ribs (11 – 12)

e) Auditory ossicles (6)

 B. Appendicular Division (126)
 Pectoral Girdle (4)
- Clavicle (2)
- Scapula (2)

 Upper Limbs (60)

- Humerus (2)
- Ulna (2)
- Radius (2)
- Carpals (16)
- Metacarpals (10)
- Phalanges (28)

 Pelvic Girdle
- Hip / Pelvic / Coxal
Bone (2)

 Lower Limbs
- Femur (2)
- Patella (2)
- Fibula (2)
- Tibia (2)
- Tarsals (14)
- Metatarsal (10)
- Phalanges (28)

JOINTS

The joints of the skeletal system contribute to homeostasis by holding bones together in ways
that allow for movement and flexibility.

Bones are too rigid to bend without being damaged. Fortunately, flexible connective tissues
form joints that hold bones together while still permitting, in most cases, some degree of movement. A
joint, also called an articulation or arthrosis, is a point of contact between two bones, between bone
and cartilage, or between bone and teeth.

Joints are classified structurally, based on their anatomical characteristics, and functionally,
based on the type of movement they permit.

The structural classification of joints is based on two criteria:

1. the presence or absence of a space between the articulating bones, called a synovial
cavity
2. the type of connective tissue that binds the bones together

The functional classification of joints relates to the degree of movement they permit.
Functionally, joints are classified as one of the following types:

1. Synarthrosis
- Immovable joint
 2. Amphiarthrosis
- Slightly movable joint

3. Diarthrosis
- Freely movable joint
- synovial joints
- have a variety of shapes
- permit several different types of movements.

Structurally, joints are classified as one of the following types:

1. Fibrous joint
- no synovial cavity
- bones are held together by dense irregular connective tissue
that is rich in collagen fibers.
- Permit little to no movement
- Types:
a. Sutures
- occur only between bones of the skull
- immovable
- gives strength and decrease their chance of
fracturing
b. Syndesmoses
- Found in articulating surfaces with greater
distance in between
- Permits slight movement
c. Interosseous Membranes
- Binds neighboring long bones
- permits slight movement
2. Cartilaginous joints
- no synovial cavity
- bones are held together by hyaline cartilage
or fibrocartilage
- allows little or no movement
- Types:
a. Synchondroses
- immovable
- Made up of hyaline cartilage
- Found in the epiphyseal (growth)
plate that connects the epiphysis
and diaphysis of a growing bone
b. Symphyses
- ends of the articulating bones are
covered with hyaline cartilage
- broad, flat disc of fibrocartilage
connects the bones
- location: pubic symphyses, junction
of manubrium and sternum,
intervertebral joints
3. Synovial joints
- have a synovial cavity
- united by the dense
irregular connective
tissue of an articular
capsule, and often by
accessory ligaments
- composed of articular
cartilage which reduces
friction between bones in
the joint during
movement and helps to
absorb shock.
- Locations: Between
bones of the finger,
elbows, hips, and knee

- Type:
a. Planar
- Articulated surfaces are flat or slightly curved
- Many biaxial diarthroses (freely movable)
- back-and-forth and side-to-side movements.
- Intercarpal, intertarsal, sternocostal (between sternum and the second–
seventh pairs of ribs), and vertebrocostal joints
b. Hinge
- Convex surface fits into a concave surface
- Monaxial diarthrosis: flexion– extension
- Knee (modified hinge), elbow, ankle, and interphalangeal joints
c. Pivot
- Rounded or pointed surface fits into a ring formed partly by bone and
partly by a ligament
- Monaxial diarthrosis: rotation
- Atlanto-axial and radioulnar joints
d. Condyloid
- Oval-shaped projection fits into an oval-shaped depression
- Biaxial diarthrosis: flexion- extension, abduction- adduction
- Radiocarpal and metacarpophalangeal joints
e. Saddle
- Articular surface of one bone is saddle-shaped, and the articular surface
of the other bone "sits" in the saddle
- Triaxial diarthrosis: flexion- extension, abduction-adduction, and rotation
- Carpometarcarpal joint between trapezium and thumb
f. Ball-and-Socket
- Ball-like surface fits into a cuplike depression
- Triaxial diarthrosis: flexion- extension, abduction- adduction, and rotation
- Shoulder and hip joints