SW3C2 - ADMINISTRATION OF HUMAN SERVICE ORGANIZATIONS

• Develop understanding of the evolution of administration as a science and as a

method in Social Work Practice.
• Develop understanding and appreciate the utility of the administrative
structures, processes and procedures in an organization.
• Acquire knowledge and skills in the use of different management techniques in
Course
HSO.
Objectives
• Develop an understanding of elements of management and different concepts
in organizational management.
• Develop an overview of human resource management as an important
component of AHSO
• Acquire knowledge of the concept of social marketing and its scope in social
work practice.

Course Outline

Module 1 Introduction to Administration:

Evolution of administration as a science.

In earlier times social work administration was performed by a few individuals.The

motivation was the compassion and concern for the
poor,the need and the destitutes.One it was carried out by a person with average
intelligence and good intention.Today social work administration is not 'every ones cup of
tea'.Proffessionalisation of the discipline has increased the ability of person who worked in
the field of social work administration.
According to Haward Galdstein "the final measures of a professions identity lay
in the fullfillment of social needs". During 1915 Social work administration was being
considered as a 'semi profession' by experts like Abraham Flexner, since it was
underdeveloped scientific knowledge. But Brown asserted that the discipline social work
administration essentially fulfill the characteristics of a good proffession. Green wood also
supported Brown. The increased demand for qualified and trained professionals in the
developed countries further strengthed the arguement. Hence it is now being considered as
a developing profession as social work.
In our country social work administration deserves a professional status since it fulfills,
societal needs, it has started in 1914 in some professional organisation like 'The Indian
council of welfare' and journal,researches etc.

Concepts - Administration,

The word administration has been derived from the Latin word 'ad+Ministiare',which means
'to care or to look after people, to manage
affairs'. It is a process of management which is practised by all kinds of organisations from
 the household to the govenment. The giving of directions by the wife to her cook to
prepare food, the looking after the child by the mother, the collection of income tax by
income tax department constitutes some instances of administration.
Administration is a process of direction,co-ordination,oversight,and stimulation in
an agency designed to carry out some agreed purpose with economy and effectiveness in
the means employed(both men and material)and with all possible regarding for the claims
of the individual involved.

Meaning:-To manage affairs/to care for or to look after people

• A process of management which is practised by all kinds of organisation.
•Common to all group efforts eg.Hotel,bank,etc

Definitinon:- "Administration consists in the systematized ordering of affairs and the

calculated use of resources aimed at making those things
happen which we want to happen and simultanously preventing developments that fail to
square with our intentions".
-
F.M.Marx
It is the activities of the executive of an organisation who are charged with
ordering,forwarding,and facilitating the associated efforts
of a group of persons to realise certain objectives or puposes.
Administration is an instrument with two blades:-
1)Knowledge of techniques of POSDCORB
2)Knowledge of subject matter of the programmes and the field in which techniques are
applied.

Task of Administration/POSDCORB
• Planning-Formulation of intended future objective.
• Organizing- Conscious integration of human efforts.
• Staffing-Providing adequate manpower to the organization.
• Directing-Stimulating the organization and staff to execute plan (guiding, supervision
etc).
• Coordinating-Integration of different activities of different departments.
• Reporting-Keeping the superiors and subordinates informed of what is going on.
• Budgeting-A process by which the financial policy of a public agency is formulated,
evaluated and carried out.
Administration is a process that are done in order to plan,organize,and run a
business school or other institutions.

Definition:-"The art of administration is the direction, coordination and control of many

people to achieve some purpose and objectives"

-L.D. White
Characteristics of administration
• Administration is a determinative function.
• It is concerned with the determination of major objectives, plan, and policies.
• It is the top level management functions.
• Planning and control are the main functions involved in administration.
• Conceptual and human skills are required for a good administration.
Administration is largely used in government and public sectors

Organization,

Administration involves cooperative effort by a number of people to achieve certain

objectives. It is obvious that these number of people
must be organized so as to achieve the desired end. They should work in co-operation with
each other and all their cooperative energy should be desired towards the same end. This is
possible if their exists an organizational structure where in their energies are characterized
towards a common goal. so organization is prior to every administrative action for no
administrative action can be implemented without an organization.

Meaning:- Organization is the work of connecting interdependent parts so that each has a
special function, act, office or relation to the whole. It is group of people working together
with shared purpose to do the work most effectively.

Definition:- "Organization is the form of every human association for the attainment of a
common purpose"
-
Mooney

The term organization is generally used in at least three different meanings:-

• The act of defining the administrative structure
• Both designing and building the structure
• The structure itself.
The primary elements of organization are:-
• persons
• Combined efforts
• a common purpose
Characteristics of organization:-
• Organization is a group of people, small or large.
• The group works under the executive leadership.
• Organization is a tool of management.
• It leads to division of work and responsibilities.
• It defines and fixes the duties and responsibilities of employees.
• It establishes a relationship between authority and responsibility and controls the
efforts of the group.
• It is a step towards the achievement of established goals.
Nature of organization
The nature of organization can be explained by
• A group of people- To form an organization it is necessary to have a group of people.
These should be at least 2 or 3 persons.
• Goal oriented -All the efforts of all individuals and all departments should be goal
oriented. The operations are divided and efforts are put to achieve the organisational
objective.
• Communication- No organisation can survive without proper and effective
communication system.
• A structure of relationship-It includes both formal and informal relationships within the
member of organisation.
• Authority and responsibility-There should be a proper flow of authority and
responsibility and there should be a balance between both of them.
• Employer employee relationship-There should be employer and employee to form an
organisation and there should be a proper hierarchy of
position.
• Continous process-It is not a one time job but continous process of work in order to
achieve the organisation goals in terms of planning
organising.controlling etc.

Types of organisation

Mainly there are two types of organisations based on the relations in organisation.

Formal Organisatintion

Definition:- Organization is a planned system of cooperative effort in which each participant

has a recognized role to play and duties and
Tasks to perform
-Simon

• There exists a definite structure of social position.

• The interpersonal relations between members reflects their particular formal role.
• There exists bureaucratic elements but in various degree.

Formal organisation are again divided in to three based on the goals

• Work organisation-aimed at community.
• Treatment organisation-to act on people in a special way.
• Voluntary organisation-to provide a setting to persons to share common interests.

Informal organisation
• It may be based on friendship, kinship, or some other close relationship.
• There may not be any special procedures and regulations or division of men into
department.(no delegation of authority)
• More importance is given to like and dislikes.
• Freedom of action is there.
• Network of personal and social relationship which is not required by formal
organisation.
• It is pervasive in nature but the degree of relationship varies from organisation to
organisation.

Informal organisation refers to what people do of thereown in relation to their

needs, emotions and attitudes

Management,

Management is a co-operative Endeavour for achieving a particular objective. Every

organization which aims at achieving a particular objective must have a well established
management. The success or failure of administration depends largely how well the
organization is in a position to manage the programmes of social welfare. In the words of
P.H.Appleby "The heart of administration is the management of programmes designed to
serve the general welfare."

Meaning:-Being a comparitively new discipline,it is used to explain the whole system of

administration or only one of its aspect.

Normally management is considered complementary to organize the anatomy of

administration.If organisation represents the static or structural aspect of administration,
the management represents its dynamic aspect.The two words are therefore used in
combination organisation and management. Infact both are supplimentary to each other.
Neither of two can exist in isolation. If organisation is the apparatus of administration,
management signifies the running of it. Organisation signifies the overall structure whereas
management is the process for achieving the goal of the structure. Hence management can
be regarded as the collective utilization of human resources and material in an effort to
reach the goal.

Definition:-"Management is the accomplishing of predetermined objective through the effort

of other people"

-Terry

A manager should posses the quality of putting things together and getting the
work done rather than having the capacity to do it himself. Thus management is a process of
achieving desired goal, not doing of things but getting them done

Characteristics of management:-
• Management is a process of organized activities
• The organized activities are directed towards an objective or a set of objectives.
• The goal oriented organized activities establish relationship among the available
resources which include material, money and people in the organization.
• Management involves working through others to accomplish the desired objectives.
• Management involves decision to give things done by others.

Nature of management
• It is a technique-Management is a technique or a distinct skill for getting the work done.
Whatever may be the type of organization it may be the skill of management which has
been applied for achieving the objective.
• Management is a collective activity-It is a team work. Management is not a single
individual but a whole group of persons who exercise jointly the authority and the
responsibility of group work
• Management is a profession-It posses all the attributes of a profession
• Authority is the basis of management-Authority is the foundation up on which
management constitutes its efforts to influence the action of the
Subordinates of organizational hierarchy.
• Accountability of management:-Management must be responsible and accountable.

Types of management
• Top management:-It comprises political and administrative person(minister, secretary,
joint secretary etc)
• Middle management-Executive services comprise middle management(Division and
section heads, PRO etc)
• Rank and file management-It forms operative part of an organization include the clerical
services

To summarize management is the art of getting things done through and by the
people in informally organised group.

Definition:- "Management means forecasting the future, planning, organizing, commanding

and controlling"
-Henry Fayol

• Forecasting-preparing plans with a view to the progress of the business in future.

• Organising-combination of manpower and material.
• Commanding-To maintain continuity in the work of different employees to combine
different functions,process and jobs.
• Controlling-To see that the work is being done as per the set rules and regulation

Business Administration,

The term business literally means ‘being busy’. It is an economic activity which refers to the
development and processing of economic values in the society. Usually this term is applied
to that portion of economy, whose primary purpose is to provide goods and services in
society in an effective manner. It is also applied to economic and commercial activities of
institutions having other purposes like the business office of a department. Business
comprises all profit seeking activitites and enterprises that provide goods and services
necessary to an economic system. It is the economic pulse of a nation striving to increase
societies standard of living profits are primary mechanism for motivating these activities.

Definition:- "Business may be defined as "the organised effort by individuals to produce

goods and services, to sell these goods and services in a market place and to reap some
reward for this effort". Functionally we may define business as "those human activities
which involve production or purchase of goods with the object of selling them at a
profit".

In essence business represents an organised effort by an individual or individuals engaged in

making a living. Each firm furnishes goods and services to others and each operates with
the aim of furnishing some return to its members.

Characteristics of Business
• Sale,transfer/exchange of goods and services for the satisfaction of human needs:-
It is done either directly or indirectly.
It is not ffor personal consumption.
Its ultimate object is meeting felt needs of the community people.
• Dealings in goods and services:-
Goods may be consumers goods(cloth,crockery etc) or producers goods(tools and
machinery).
Services are those intangible and invisible goods supplied by business concerns which
cannot be stored by the consumer.
eg:supply of water/electricity,transportation of goods and services.
• Recurrence of transaction:-
Exchange is undertaken continually ie businessmen keep a stock of goods & conduct a
series of transactions.
• profit motive:-
It is a human activity directed towards acquisition of wealth,ie to reap more than the
 investment.
• Element of risk::-In business there is possibility of loss.

As a whole business is the organized production and scale of goods undertaken with the
object of earning profits through satisfaction of human.

Business Administration
Administration is necessarily the activities of the executives of an organization who are
charged with ordering forwarding and facilitating the associated efforts of a group of
persons to realize certain objectives or purposes. Hence business administration is
concerned with the activities or functions of executives of a manufacturing firm or
business house who bear the responsibility of directing, ordering, influencing, motivating
facilitating and utilizing manpower for the satisfaction or fulfillment of specific goals
aiming at growth and development of the business concerned.

Public Administration,

Public administration is the particular sector of the broader field of administration and it
connotes the administration of government
Affairs which are undertaken for public goods.It includes all the operations having for their
purpose, fulfillment or enforcement of public policy.
Public administration has become the machinery for formulating plans and programmes
and carrying them out.It reflects that public administration is imperative for all
societies,developed or developing dictorial democratic.

Definition:-"Administration consist of getting the work of government done by coordinating

the effort of the people so that they can work together to accomplish their set task".
- Pfinffer

The term public administration can be used in two senses. In the wider sense it includes
all the activities of the government whether falling in the sphere of the legislative,
executive or judicial branch of the government. In the narrow sense it is concerned with
the activities of the executive branch only. By the common usage and practise the term
public administrations limited/restricted to the organisation operation of executive
branch only.
According to Simon Public administration is the activities of the executive branches of
national,stae and local governments. Public administration can be explained as the
actionpart of government and the means by which the purposes and goals of government
are realised.

Activities in Public administration

• Decision making and formulating goals and objectives
• Planning the work that to be done.
• Working with legislature and citizen organizations to gain public support and funds for
government programme.
• Establishing and raising organization.
• Directing and supervising employees.
• Providing leadership
• Communicating and receiving communication
• Determining work methods and procedures
• Appraising performance, executive controls and other functions performed by
government executives and supervisors.

Scope of public administration

Luther Gulick sums up the scope of the public administration by the letters of the word '
POSDCORB'. by which he means planning,
staffing,organising,directing,coordinating,reporting and budgetting. A public administration
is supposed to make his nation dynamic,progressively establishing relationship with
national and international organisatios and associations.He is supposed to be an
executive,legislator and judicial officer.He is expected to know the administrative system
and constitutional aspect of other countries.A good public administrator should poss.
uptodate comparitive data about basic aspects with which he is frequently concerned.He
should appreciate cultural and historical background of other countries as well as their
religious sentiments in order to establish healthy relationship with them.

Social Welfare Administration: Meaning, definition, scope, social welfare administration as a

method of social work

• social welfare

Meaning of Social welfare:- is the total well being of individual and the community.

Definition of social welfare:- Social welfare is the organised system of social services and
institutions designed to aid individuals and group to attain satisfying standards of life
and health and personal and social relationship which permit them to develop their full
capacities
and to promote their well being in harmony with the needs of the families and communities
-Friedlander

Definition of social welfare:- The main objective of social welfare is to create basic
conditions that will enable all members of the community realise their potential for growth
and self fulfillment. Welfare must be a common property of everyone in India and not the
monopoly of a privileged group,in particular those who are underprivileged and have no
oppertunities of growth and progress.
-Nehru
According to Nehru social services include all those services which aim at the wellbeing of
entire community whereas social welfare activities aim at promoting those services which
would meet special needs of persons and groups who by means of social, economic,
physical or mental handicap are unable to make use of the amenities provided for the
general community.
Characteristics of social welfare
• Utilization of welfare measures to support\strengthen family as a basic social institution
through which the needs are met.
• The intent to strengthen the individual capacity to cope with his life situation.
social wefare services
Those services which are required by the weaker sections of the society including the
handicapped and the traditionally Underprivileged group like backward classes. social
welfare in India means provision of social welfare services for the socially underprivileged
groups and thereby ameliorate their conditions.

• social welfare administration(swa)

Definition of social welfare administration:-"Social welfare administration is the process of

transforming social policy in to social services;ie a two way process which is transforming
policy in to concrete social services and the use of experience in recommending
modification of policy".

-Kidnight
Therefore social welfare administration is the study of development, structure, and
practices of the social services encompassing every activity of transforming social policy
in to social services.

Definition:-Social welfare administration is considered as the study of welfare system and

particularly the government sponsored social services
-Forder

Social welfare administration refers to the process of applying professional standards,

competence and resources to secure
Successful implementation of the targeted programmes of social welfare through various
social agencies for the fulfillment of the ideals, goals
and aspirations.

To achive the aim of social welfare the government:-

• Formulate social policies
• Enact social legislation
• Delinates various projects,schemes and programmes
• Makes financial contributions
• Provide organisational structure and administrative apparatus in the form of
monisteries,departments,agencies,corporation etc.
• Solicit the support and co-operation of NGO's form the implimentation of various
projects.

The administrative activities of a social welfare organisation would range all the way from
determination of functions and policies,
overall planning, executive leadership and professional supervision such as dictating
letters, keeping records and accounts and carrying on housekeeping and maintenance
services.
The contents and scope of social work administration:-
• Personnel selection, classification and management
• Role of voluntary agencies and international social welfare agencies
• Financial administration
• communication
• Records
• public relations
• The organizational and administrative structure
• public participation
• Tasks of administration
• The organizational and administrative structure
• public participation
• POSDCORB
• professional services
• Research and evaluation

Principles of social work administration and social welfare agency

• The objectives and function of a social welfare agency should clearly defined
• The programme should be based on actual needs.
• The agency should be soundly organised
• The agency should operate on the basis of sound personnel policies and good working
conditions
• The work of agency should be characterised by a basic desire to serve human beings
• All those who are connected with agency should develop attitudes and methods of work
which will build sound public relations
• It should operate on the basis of an annual budget
• It should maintain records in an accurate and comprehensive but simple manner
• Its clerical and maintenance services and facilities should be adequate and efficient in
opetration
• The agency should put itself to the test of a self appraisal at appropriate intervals to take
stock of success or failure

Administrative structure of social welfare programmes at the Central and

State level
 administrative
structure at state level

1.8 administrative structure at local level (district)

Social welfare programmes at central level

Social welfare has existed as an independent department or a part of some other

allied department in the past.The social welfare
departmentwas establihed in 1964 as department of social security and look after all the
matters of education,home affairs,health,labour
commerce and industry.In 1966 the department of social welfare is redesignated as the
department of social welfare and get an independent
status as the ministry of education and social welfare.The ministry was designated as the
ministry of social and women welfare in 1984.It was
on 25th september,1985 that the ministry of welfare was formed by transfering subject
relating to sheduled caste, sheduled tribes minority and other backward classes. work
relating to wakf was transferred to the ministry of welfare with effect from 6th
january 1986.The department of women and child development had been placed
under the new ministry of human resource department.

Activities of the ministry

• welfare of various sections of society
It deals with the welfare of various section of society like SCST, minorities,
handicapped, women an children, drug addicts, youth, aged matters of social
defence, social security and social welfare.
• Policy,planning and co-ordination of programme
 Ministry of welfare deals with the programmes of development of various section
requiring developmental inputs.
• Operation of central and centrally sponsored schemes
Central schemes improves the functional literacy for women, condensed courses of
education for adult women, socio economic
programme, hostel for working women, national institute for the blind, scholarship
research training, grands in aid for handicapped,
artificial limbs manufacturing corproration, national institute of public cooperation and
child development.
• Guidance and direction of the state
The ministry of welfare provides policy guidelines and direction to the states in
consonance with the national objectives of social welfare such as reducing
poverty,inequality and increasing self reliance.
• Association with planning commission
The ministry associated with the planning commission for discussions of its plans and
allocations of funds for their execution
as also for the states five year plan and annual plans,thus availing of an oppertunity to
review programmes implimented in the state .
• convening of conferences of state ministers/secreteries of social wefare
The ministry convenes annual conferences of state social welfare ministers and
secretaries incharge of social welfare to take stock of the ongoing welfare
programmes in different part of the country,to be acquinted with their problems and
needs with a view of reviewing, modifying and improving them so as to ensure
balanced development and improvement of the people all over the country.
• Constitution of committess,commissions/study teams
The ministry like other ministries constitutes from time to time committees, study
teams, working groups etc. including non officials from academic and technical fields
to assess current policies and programmes to study the emerging trends and to make
recomendations to enable it to make necessary adjustments, innovations for better
formulation of policies and more effective implimentation of programes. eg.national
commission on women.
• Assistance to voluntary organisation
Voluntary organisation have been playing a key role in the development of welfare
services in India.The ministry of welfare, therfore , in recognition of their vital
contribution,provides assistance to voluntary section engaged in providing
assisstance to the under privileged groups.The ministry also administers a scheme of
organisational assistance to voluntary organisations to promote
voluntary effort by providing grants in aids to those organisations engaged in the field
of welfare activities and set up a central office for coordination of its various
activities.
• Information and mass education activities
The ministry has set up an information and mass education cell to create awareness
about its various social welfare schemes and programmes,to mobilise public opinion
and encourage voluntary action against social evils like drinking,drug addiction,
beggarry etc.and to promote positive social attitudes towards the handicapped,aged
etc and to recoganise their role in the society.
• publications
 The ministry had started the publication of handbook on social welfare in 1974.It
covers a wide range of fields such as women
welfare, child welfare, plans and policies, social work education and training,social
welfare administration etc. It is considered as a
valuable reference in social work.
• Research and evaluation
The ministry sponsors research and evaluation studies provide useful information on
different dimensions of social problems to
facilitate effective planning,policy formulation and implimentation of programmes
for the weaker section of society.Information
thus collected is documented for wider use.
• Operation of bilateral agreements
The ministry operates bilateral agreements on gift consignments for relief assistance
entered into by the government of India
with the government of other countries.
• Participation in international conferences,seminars,and workshops
The ministry has organised international conferences seminars and workshop in
collaboration with international agencies for
the welfare of weaker sections and disabled.

Various social welfare programmes at central level

• Tribal welfare
Girls hostel for SCST,grand in aid for voluntary organisation,commission for SCST
• Minority commission
Provide service training for techers,commission for linguistic minorities and individuals.
• Backward class welfare
centrally sponsored schemes,post metric scholarship for SCST.coaching and allied
schemes for SCST,Implimentation and
protection of civil right act 1955.
• Handicapped welfare
National institute for the visually handicapped in Deradoon,National institute for
orthopedically handicapped in culcutta,scholarship to
the physically handicapped.
• social defence
Bilateral assisstance,welfare of the aged
• Family welfare
Maternal care and family planning.
Marriage counselling
• Women and child welfare
ICDS
• Activities associated with UNICEF
Women trainig centres

2.1 Social welfare administration at the state level

Activities of the department

 Child welfare scheme comprise
• Financial assistance to dependent
• Maintenance of orphan and destitute girl
• Foster care service scheme
• State after care home for boys
• Special nutrition programme
• Family and child welfare projects
• Integrated development service scheme

Women welfare programme consisit of

• Scheme for financial assistance for widows and destitute women
• Home for widows and destitute women
• State after care home
• State protective home
• welfare of the aged and infirms

Welfare of the handicapped

• Institute for the blind
• Sheltered workshop for the physically handicapped
• Welfare of the deaf and dumb
• The scheme for scholarships to the physically handicapped
• The scheme of supply of prosthetic aid
• Home for the mentally retarded children
• The scheme of financial assistance to the victims of chronic diseases

General welfare scheme include

• Grand in aid to voluntary welfare organisations working in the field of social welfare
• Relief organisation

2.1 Social welfare programmes at local level

Rural local authorities comprise the panchayat Raj institutes which were
intoduced for local governance in the rural area
of the country on the recommendation of Balwantrai Mehta committee.The three tier
system in the rural community consist of grama
panchayat,panchayat samiti and zilla panchayat.The urban local authorities consist of
municipal corporation,municipal committees,notified area
committee and town committee.
The local level programmes are organised under zilla panchayat,block panchayat
and grama panchayat.The welfare programmes
at local level are coordinated mainly by the grama panchayat.Each panchayat has its own
standing committeess for welfare measures
eg:standing committees fo sanitation,education culture etc.

Functions
• Making adequate provisions for construction and maintenance of drainage system
• Public latrine
• Water supply
• Removal of garbage
• Prevention of dangerous disease
• Provision of transport facility
• provision of medical relief
• Establishment of maternity and child welfare
• Naming and numbering of streets
• Maintenance of public path

WAKF administration
The term wakf denotes permanent endowments,dedication and donations of
movable or immovable properties for purposes
recoganized by the muslim law as religious or charitable.The wakf also render financial help
and support to the needy in socio economic,
cultural,educational,and such other fields and can therefor be considered as instruments of
social good as well.The wakf act was
established on 1954,provides a decentralised set up for the administration of wakf in the
country.

2.2 Central social welfare board

Govt.of India through a resolution, set up,CSWB in August 1953,to assist the
improvement and development of social
welfare activities.This is because:-
• Efforts of Voluntary organisation were isolated and un coordinated
• Lack of sustainability of service
• Paucity of rsources
It was concieved as an autonomous,flexible,versatile agency which could
meet the requirements of a dynamic situation
to solve the problems of the needy with out the constrain of governmental procedure.CSWB
is registered as a charitable company
under the Indian companies Act 1956 with effect from April 1 1969.

Objectives
• To study the needs and requirements of social welfare organisation from time to time
through surveys,research and evaluation.
• To evaluate the programmes and projects of aided agencies
• To coordinate the assistance extended to social welfare activities by various ministries in
the programmes entrusted to CSWB
• To promote the setting up of social welfare organisations on a volintary basis
• To render technical and financial aid to deserving institutions and organisations
• To promote social welfare activities intended for the general welfare of the
public(children,women etc)
• To organise or promote programmes of training in social work and to organise and work
on pilot projects
• To organise emergency relief in cases of calamity whenever it is necessary
• An institution to bring the neglected,handicapped and backward sections of the society in
to the national main stream.
• State Social Welfare Advisory Boards were set up with the task of implementing and
monitoring of different programmes
of CSWB
• An interference between the govt.and the voluntary sector for social development in the
country.
• Today it is the pioneering national level organisation in the field of development and
empowerment of women in the country
It has made a significant contribution in encouraging assissting and promoting the growth
of nearly 25000,VO's

Composition of the board

General Body is the policy making body,meets every year to pears budget,discuss annual
reports of executive committee.

Executive committee

organisational structure of CSWB

Divisions of CSWB

1) Industrial programme administrative division

• Deals with the socio econoic programmes of the CSWB to provide opportunities to needy
women and poor house wives to engage
themselves in production activities
• Grands are given to VO's to set up industrial units
• SSWABS invite application and forward them to CSWB
• This division examines,approve grants,release grants,and audits
• examine inspection report also

2) Welfare programme administrative division

a)general grant section

• sanctioning of grants to VO's,Mahila mandals,Welfare extension projects,working
womens hostel
• Examine applications recommended by SSWAB,issues grants and monitor its utilization
b)child welfare section.
• Nutrition programmes,holiday camps,creches,integrated pre schoolprojects
c)Condensed course section]
• condensed courses of education-2 year duration
• 1 year courses for failed candidates
• vocational trainig for women

3)Administrative division
• Administer personal functions(Recruitment,Transfer,Incentive,promotion rules)
• Service functions(mgmt of records,property and printing)
• Advisory functions(identify personal needs,proceedures etc.
• Reconstruction of SSWAB'S,their budget,aaual reports
• Administrative functions of publication
• Public relations work

Finance and accounts division

• Proper maintenance of accounts,making budgets,releasing funds
• supervise and control various financial transactions

Planning,monitoring and co ordination division

• Overall planning of social welfare programmes
• conducts research and surveys
• Evaluating efficieny of various programmes
• Examine the performance VO's
• Assessing needs of people and suggesting welfare programmes
• Assisting the coordination of welfare programmes
• Assissting the coordination of welfare programes of different agencies departments and
ministries

4 sections
• Infomation and monitoring section
• Stastical and evaluation
• Field counselling and inspection
• Coordination

Programmes of the board

1) Awareness generation programmes for rural and poor women

• Introduced in 1986-87
• Rs.10000/- as grant to VO's to organise awareness generation camps(8 days+2 days
follow up)
• It provide a platform for women to come together exchange experience,ideas etc
• Understanding of reality,tackling problems,fulfil their needs.
• Enables women to organise themselves and strenghthen their participation in decision
making in family and in society
• Enables women to deal with social issues including atrocities on women and children

2) Condensed courses for education for women

• Started in 1958
• To provide education to those women who for various social and economic reasons
dropped out of school and coild not persue their studies
espcially to young widows,women deserted bu their husbands and economically
backward women.
• Grants to Vo's to conduct 2 types of courses
a) 2 year duration course for preparing for matrix exam.
b) 1 year duration course for matric failed candidates

3) Vocational training for women-1975

• To train women in the trades which are maketable
• To upgrade their skills,to meet the changing demands
• To enable and empower women to access remuneration,employment
oppertunities,which will instill self confidence and enhance self esteem.
• From 1997 to 1998 onwards,funds are being provided under NORAD assisted scheme.on
training and emloyment of women.

4) Socio economic programmes

• To provide employment opportunity on full/part to the basics to destitute
women,widow,desetrted to suppliment their meagre family income.
• To exibit and sell their products through exibition cum meals

2 schemes
a) Agro based units-poutry,dairy etc
b) Production units
• VO's are encouraged to set up production units
• Grant is finalised on a case to case basis subject to a limit of 3 lakhs

5) Creche programmes -since 1975

• Provide day care services to children (0-5 years) of working women belonging to
economically backward section of casual,agriculture and
labour in remote area(available to sick women also).
• Recurring grant-Rs 18480/annum pwer creche units of 25 children.

6) Working womens hostel

• Provides maitenance grant to voluntary organisation for providing safe accomodation to
working women whose salary doesn't exceed
16,000 p.m,so that they are not exposed to undesirable and antisocial elements.
• Salary of matron and chowkidar
• Recreational facilities
• Difference of rent of hostel building
• Minimum Rs.40000 and maximum Rs.50000 per year based on category of city.
7) Family counselling centers

• To provide preventive and rehabilitative services to women services to women and

children who are victims of atrocities and maladjustments.
• Revised based on the evaluation of NIPCCD since 1992-93
• Grants-Maximum of 1 lakhs/centre/annum for existing FCCs
• salaries of 2 counsellors
• Recurring items(15,000)
• VO's are recurring to contribute 20% towards other recurring expenses

8) Short stay programme(1969)

• To provide temporary shelter to woen and girl:-
• Who are being forced i to prostitution
• who as a result of family tension/discod are made to leave their homes and
have no social protection from exploitation and are facing litigation o account of
marital disputes
• who has be sexually assaulted and facing the problem of re adjustment in the
family and society
•Who are victims of mental mal adjustment,emotional disturbances and social
ostracism
•who escape from their home due to family problems, mental/physical torture
and need shelter, psychiatric treatment and counseling for their rehabilitation.
9) Other orogrammes of the board
a)Border area project in 14 states
• To achieve emotional abd cultural integration of border population with the rest
• Multi purpose welfare centers-maternity care,mrdical aid,craft training etc
b)Welfare extension projects in 1958 through CD blocks
• To organise the welfare services in the rural and remote areas for the benefit of women
and children
c)Balwadi demonstration projects
• Balwadi organisation under the supervision of the state basis
• It consist of a balwadika and helper
d)Mahila mandal programmes(Modified form of welfare extension programmes)
• To provide social services to women,chidren, in rural area where such project did not exist
• Balwadier craft activities,socialeducation,maternity services
• Expenditure-75% by CSWB and 255 by VO's/state government
e)Durgabhai deshmukh Award
• Awards for womens development
f)State board administration
The establishment and administrative expenditure on state boards is met on 50:50 basis
g)Publicity and publication
Magazines:social welfare,samaj kalyan.
Module 2 Approaches to Organizational Management and Elements of Administration:

Basic elements in administration: Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Leading

(directing, coordinating), Controlling (Reporting & Budgeting)

Basic elements in administration

In social work administration the management process is the sum total of several
interrelated activities. These activities or elements are known as the
functions of administration. These tasks are contained in the concept of POSDCORB which
is developed by Luther Gullick.

4.6 Planning
Planning is the primary and crucial function of administration. It is the determination of how
to achieve an objective, deciding what is to be done and by whom to do it. Failing to plan is
planning to fail and every aspect of action must be planned. Planning is necessary for
providing effective services, constructing infrastructure, setting up an administrative
structure, organising conference, raising funds, appraisal of current condition, identification
of problems and needs of the society etc.
One must think how the sequence of future activities should be orgaised in logical and
ordered form to reduce the risk of failure. This mental process or preparation for action is
known as planning. Therefore it is the formulation of intended future action. Therefore
every organisation.whether it is governmental or voluntary, which has certain objectives,
need planning in order to realise that objectives.

Definition
• According to Millect "planning is the process of determining the objectives of
administrative effort and of devising the means calculated to achieve them".
• According to Seckler Hudson “Planning is the process of divising a basis for a course of
future action".
• According to M.E Harley "Planning is deciding to advance what is to done. It comprises the
selection of objectives, policies, procedures and programme from among alternatives".
According to the draft of first five year plan, “planning is essentially a way of organising and
utilizing resources to the maximum advantages iterms of defined social ends".
The two main attributes or constituents of the concept of planning are:
• A system of end to be pursued
• Knowledge of available resources and their optimum allocation.

Characteristics of planning
• Planning is closely associated with the goals and objectives of organization. A well defined
goals lead to efficient planning. Actually a plan starts with the setting of objectives and
then makes efforts to realise them by developing policies, procedures, strategies, etc, ie,
planning is the means and achievement of objective is the end.
• Planning is primarily concerned with looking in to the future
• Planning is a selective process. It involves selection of the best alternative to achieve the
objectives of the organization.
• It comprehensive and includes every cause of action in the organization
• It is interdependent and integrative process
• It is flexible as it is concerned with future conditions which are dynamics
• Planning is a continuous affair. It needs constant review and readjustment in the light of
achieved targets and future possibilities
• Planning is the first function of administration
• It is primarily a staff function
• It is a decision making process
• Planning is directed towards efficiency.
• Planning is pervasive
• It is an intellectual process

Planning methods
There are mainly three methods:-
1) Planning by trial and error
Here absolutely no actual planning is done and this method is based on personal experience
or intuitive judgments. Planner tries something out and sees what happens. It is used when
the past experiences do not correspond to the present condition.
Advantages
Simplicity, immediacacy, no study or research is needed.
Disadvantages
Risk of failure, expensive and time consuming.

2)Planning by limitations
In this method, one may look in to what others are doing and learn from their experience,
especially when the planners experience is inadequate.
Advantages
Minimum efforts, quick results, difficultties that others faced can be avoided.
Disadvantages
Risk of failure some since situations may be different in different cases.

3) Scientific planning
It is based on factorial data. Here we study the situation, collect facts, study different
aspects and find out ways to overcome the difficulties resolution to the problem is based on
facts and information.
Advantages
No risk of failure

The planning process/steps in planning

Planning is an intellectual process which sets in priorities and call for value
judgement.planning decides the course of action. To achieve the objectives, planning
involves a succession of steps.

1) Defining the problem and determining the objectives (pre planning)

The first step in planning is the awareness of problems to be related in the future. On the
basis of that, the specific objectives will be determined. Objectives must be
SMART.(Specific,Measurable,Attainable,
Realistic and time bound.)and should indicate the end result of planning activity.Ie
determine exactly what
is expected out of the planning of the programme.

2) Preliminary analysis/situational assessment

The next step is to explore all available and adequate information pertaining to the problem
and analyses it to find out the cause-effect relationship between the Various
factors.(ie,history of problem, how it came out and opinion of the affected people
etc).There for the problem can be substantiated by the facts.

3)Finding out the alternative causes of action

For every plan there are a number of alternatives and hence, all possible alternatives to
work out a plan for achieving the desired objectives should be found out for their evaluation

4) Testing alternative and choosing the appropriate one

The next is to evaluate all possible alternatives through actual operations. Each alternative
has its own advantages and disadvantages. After evaluating the alternatives, the best
solution, which is having minimum drawbacks, can be selected for action.

5) Testing the selected solution and determining the secondary plan

The next step is testing of the selected solution ie, pilot test impossible cases. It will be
helpful to find out the difficulties and confirm the efficacy. After this the organization has to
formulate secondary plans to support this basic plan. Without the secondary plan, which is
proposed for the course of action, cannot be effectively operated.

6) Implementation and maintenance of the programme

The successful execution of the plan depends to a large extent on the whole hearted
cooperation of the employees and targeted population (beneficiaries). Therefore this
persons have to be involved in planning through communication, consultation and
participation, ie details of implimentation should be planned properly.

7)Providing for monitoring,evaluation and follow up

In order to see that plans are proceeding along rightlines.it is necessary to devise a system
for monitoring and evaluation of the plan. The uncertainty of future necessitates continous
evaluation.
In short the process of palnning can be expalined in 3 major steps:-
• Formulation of plan
• Execution of plan
• Evaluation of plan
Guidelines for planning
• Clearly state objectives
• Determine priority for each specific objectives
• Determine obstacles
• Think the way to eliminate obstacles
• Determine the need of staff
• Determine the facilities and other resources required
• Assign responsibility
• Establish time line
• Establish methods to measure progress
• Determine the administrative action to ensure that programmes is approved and set in
motion
• Be flexible,simple,comprehensive and balance
• Use all available resouces
• Must be free from biases

Principles of planning
There are some basic principles, which must be kept in mind in any planning process.
1) It is a continuous process
Planning is not an end, but it is a continuous process, because Pitfalls in a plan are corrected
and revised in the next, if the plan is not achieving the expected goals.
2) It should not come from top ie. It should be done at all levels.
3) It should ensure participation of all-Discussion with concerned department or group of
people will be helpful to make an effective plan.
4) Objectives of planning must be laid down-If objectives are not certain then the plans
made out for them are definitely out of the mark.
5) It should grow out of the need of the people-Adequate factual data may be made in basic
planning
6) Planning needs professional skills, leadership and thinking of lay persons.
7) Planning requires education of people for proper thinking.
8) The community needs and resources must be taken in to consideration while planning.
9) Planning requires effective methods of evaluation of results

Types of planning.
Based on the person/structures involved in planning is divided in to two.
• Decentralized planning/Participatory planning
Beneficiaries are involved in planning or planning is taken place at all levels.
• Centralized planning
Only top level officials are involved.
Another classification of planning gives three different types of planning
• Overall planning
• Limited planning
• Administrative planning

1) Overall planning/Socio-economic planning

• It deals with planning of natural resources, objectives and activities of society.
• It crushes individuals initiatives
• It seems to be imposition from above
• It strengthens bureaucracy and is not possible in a democratic country

2) Limited planning
• It does not centralize all socio economic activities at one focal point
• The stages/departments or organizations select objectives and regulate activities for a
limited extent
• It is democratic process of planning and implementation

3) Administrative planning
a) It is the planning of administrative programme
b) It is a central function and responsibility of top middle management
c) Major purpose is to give detailed shape to policy plan and make objectives clearer and
workable
d) It has four phases
1) policy planning-To develop broad outlines of action
eg: Five year plans
Legislature and executive are the responsible persons
2) Administrative planning
chief executive in construction with dept. heads make broad frame work of action
3)Programme planning
Middle management will prepare specific programmes, procedures, resources,
organizational structure etc.
4) Operational planning
Determination of means to carry out programmes

Advantages/Importance of planning
• It helps in coordination
• It tackles the increasing complexity in modern business/services
• It helps in exercising effective control
• It helps in proper utilization of the organizations resources and community resources
• It facilitate unity of action
• It helps in avoiding failures
• It focuses attention on organizations goals
• It improves adaptability
• It improves competitive strength
• It guides decision making
• It secures economy in operation

4.7 Organizing
Organizing is the process of defining and grouping the activities of the enterprises
establishing authority relationship among them. People and those who want to cooperate
will work together most effectively if they know the parts they are to play in any team
operation and the way their roles relate to one another. Designing and maintaining this
systems of role is basically the management function of organizing
Definition
According to J.M Gaus and L.D.White, "Organization is the arrangement of personal for
facilitating the accomplishment of some agreed purpose through the allocation of functions
and responsibilities,'
Usually the term organization is used in three different ways
• Act of designing the administrative structure
• Both designing and building the structure
• The structure itself
Characteristics or features of organization
• It is a group of people, small or large
• The group works under an executive leadership
• Organization is a tool of management and administration
• It leads to division of work and responsibilities
• It defines and fixes the duties and responsibilities of employees
• It establishes a relationship between the authority and responsibility and control the
efforts of the group
• Organization is a step towards the achievement of established goals
• organization is prior to any administrative action and no administrative action can be done
without organization
• It shows the hierarchy of positions
• It is the work of connecting inter related and inter dependent parts with specific function.
• The primary elements of organization are persons, combined efforts and common purpose
• It leads to maximum satisfaction and least friction

Principles of organization
1) Principle of objectives/consideration of objectives
Only these objectives should be taken up and accomplished for which there is real need in
the organization. Every function must be distinguished from each other based on objectives.
Importance must be given to organizational objectives rather than individual objectives.
2) Principle of specialization
It is for the effective utilization of skills. It means activities of an individual could be related
to one specific function ie, it must be confined to a single function because an individual
won’t be able to concentrate his energy and attention on a variety of functions.
Specialization leads to smooth functioning of various departments. According to this
principle a person should be assigned only those duties for which he has the necessary
knowledge, skills and expertice. Proficiency, attitude, training, capacity etc.
3) Principle of coordination
According to prof. Mooney coordination is the basic aim of organisation. Specilized
functions must be properly coordinated to avoid duplication and overlapping and one
function cannot be performed in isolation with other functions. Control over functions at
central is possible when function are correlated and properly linked.
4) Principle of authority and responsibility
Authority and responsibility are the two sides of same coin.
• Responsibility means accountability. It can be considered as the obligation of a
subordinate to do work given to him.
• Authority means the right and power to act.
• A definite chain of authority and responsibility is provided from the top to bottom, since
the top man cannot do everything himself.
• Organization includes delegation of power and authority which differ according to their
position in hierarchy.
• Line of responsibility should made clear to facilitate flow of communication and control.
• Authority and responsibility must go together to achieve organizational goals.
• Everyone must understand the limit of his authority and responsibility.
• Authority empower superior to make the subordinate to do the work i.e. to secure
cooperation
• Line of authority and responsibility should be clearly established to avoid overlapping or
emission of action
• Authority to command can be delegated but responsibility cannot.
• Withoutemi delegating authority, a person cannot be assigned the responsibility of a
job.ie authority should be appropriate.
• Authority is to make decisions, give instructions and guidelines, appoint person and to
control them.
5) Principle of span control
Span of control refers to the area of jurisdiction over which a person has control ie, the
number of subordinates that report to an executive or the number of subordinates that an
executive can supervise directly. An executive should not have more subordinates looking to
him for guidance than he can reasonably be expected to serve because he has limited time
and energy for his activity. The span of control is small in complex nature of work.
The span of control is small when,
• Executives are working in isolated area and doing different works
• An employee has to check each and every action of subordinates
• Departments require many policy, decisions and coordination.
The span of control is large when,
• The subordinates are trained and experienced
• Workers are doing same and specialized work at one table on every close to other
• Organization and its control system are efficient and here good communication
• Superiors are competent
• There is a high degree of centralized and well planned work.

Usually the span of control is determined based on the capacity of executive to guide and
work. The span of control can be widened by providing personal assistant to an executive.

The determinant factors of span of control are:-

• Nature of work in homogenous or heterogeneous
• Leadership quality of supervision and caliber and competence of subordinates.
• Age of an agency
• Location of the organised groups

6) The scalar principle-The hierarchy.

It is a rule or control of the higher over lower. Hierarchy is a guided organization of several
successive steps or levels, in which each one of the lower levels is immediately. Subordinate
to the next higher one and through it to the other higher steps right up to the top.
Basic features of scalar principle
• A person will have only one immediate superior from whom he will receive order.
• A person will not receive orders from a person of lower status
• The person who is given responsibility will have authority
• No intermediate level shall be skipped over in the dealings

Board of directors

1)-Chief executuve
2- ) Vice president
3)-Middle management personnel
4)-First line managers
5)-operating workers

Merits of hierarchy
• It is an instrument of integration and cohesion
• It fixes up responsibility at each level and roles at each post.
• It provides a channel of communication ie, upward and down ward.
• It leads to simplification of file movement procedure.
• It allows decentralization of decision making.
• It prevents organisation of business at top ie, matters of less importance can be given at
lower level.
Demerits
• It makes administrative decision making a dilatory process.
• It creates superior-subordinates relationship
• It leads to redtappism and inefficiency
• It creates too much rigidity in administration
• It leads to missing of human relationship.
• It kills the initiatives of lower employees/officers.

7) Principle of unity of command

Unity of command must be maintained in an organization ie, command should come from a
single source.
8) Principle of relationship of basic components of the organisation
Objectives-determines-types of work-decides-personal\physical facilities.
9) Principle of effective delegation
Instead of doing everything, the executive must pass down the authority to his
subordinates. It is necessary for the superior authority to delegate some of his process to
the subordinate ie, in a descending order. Every subordinate is accountable to his superior
in the line of authority. The nature of authority delegation could depend on span of control;
the more would be the extent of delegation.
Delegation of authority means the allocation of some power by a superior to his
subordinates for the purpose of getting the work done. Prof.Allen defines, "Delegation of
authority as the entrusting of responsibility and authority to another and creating
accountability for performance."
Types of delegation
• Centralization of authority
• Decentralization of authority
10) Principal of balancing
Proper balance should be there in the size of departments, between centralization and
decentralization, between principle of span of control and chain of command and among all
types of factors.
11) Principle of definition
• Define roles to be played by each individual in the organization
• Accurately describe area of operation, activities, status, and position to prevent confusion.
• Define the relationship between the functions performed by different individuals.
12) Principle of correspondence and communication
Proper correspondence and communication system must be there in an organization.
Correspondence means the process of action and reaction between the individuals ie,
exchange of ideas, thoughts and facts. Communication is a looking process and it includes
transmitting instructions and information within the organization and outside customers. It
helps to avoid fear, confusion, etc.
13) Separation of line and staff function
Line functions are those which contribute directly and vitally to the objective of
organization.
E.g. Production.
Staff functions are those that aid the line odor are auxiliary to line functions e.g.: accounting
14) Principle of simplicity
Organizational structure should be simple with minimum organizational goals.
15) Principle of flexibility
The organization should be flexible, should be adaptable to changing circumstances and
permits expansion and replacement without disruption of the basic design.

Results of good organization

• Establishes responsibility and prevent buck passing
• Provides easier communication
• Eliminates jurisdictional disputes
• Contribute to continuity and success
• Facilitate administration
• Permits optimum use of resources through specialization
• Facilitates training and managerial development
• Minimizes corruption, inefficiencies and confusion,
• Stimulates creativity
• Creates avenue of promotion and prevents duplication of work

4.8 Staffing

Staffing is an organization to provide effective and useful services to the society. The term
staffing refers to procuring or providing adequate man power to the organization. It can be
also called as personnel administration.

Staffing the process of filling all positions in an organization with the adequate and qualified
personnel.

It is filling and keeping filled positions in the organisation’s structure. It includes identifying
work force requirements, inventorying the people available and recruiting, selecting,
placing, promoting, appraising, planning the career of compensating and training or
otherwise developing both candidates and current job holders to accomplish their task
effectively and efficiently.

“Staffing is the field of management which has to do with planning, organizing, directing,
and controlling various operation functions of procuring, developing, maintaining and
utilizing a labour force. So that;

• Objectives of the company/organization are attained economically and effectively.

• Objectives of personnel are served to the highest possible degree.
• Objectives of the community are duly considered and served.

Importance of staffing

Proper staff is a very important tool of administration, and success of a programme depends
up on its effective implementation by the personnel. Hence to provide effective service,
agency requires qualified and trained staff with aptitude of social work.

Objectives of staffing/Personnel administration

• To achieve effective utilization of human resource.

• To establish and maintain adequate organizational structure and desirable working
relations
• To see the integration of individuals and groups in organization
• To generate maximum development of individual and groups by providing
opportunity for advancement
 • To recognize and satisfy individual needs and group goals by offering adequate and
equitable remuneration, economic and social security etc.
• To maintain high morale and better human relations inside an organization.

Ingredients of staffing

• Organizational planning and development ie, establishing organizational goals,

objectives, targets etc.
• Career development:-staffing includes career development. The processes that lead
to career development are recruitment, selection, placement, transfer, promotion,
training, refresher courses etc.
• Terms of employment:- salary, incentives, retirement, benefits, social security etc.
• Employee welfare:-Medical facility, loans, recreation, housing, education of children
etc.
• Personnel records:-Various files regarding employee’s performance, appraisal
(assessment), evaluation etc.
• Motivation and morale:-It comprises professional standards, conduct and discipline,
satisfaction of social, psychological and economic needs.
• Management of staff relation, professional associations and unions
• Personnel research and review.:- Planning and determining programme areas,
analysis etc

Characteristics of staffing

• It is concerned with employees :-Helping and directing employees in maximizing

their personnel contribution and satisfaction in employment.
• It covers all levels or personnel:-Both higher and lower level employees are covered
in staffing process
• Concern towards employee is to help him:-Individual objectives can be realized along
with organizational objectives.
• This process is to get the writing and cooperation of the people for the attainment of
desired goals

Functions and operations of staffing and personnel administration

Staffing function can be classified in to two

• Managerial function
• Operational functions
Managerial functions are objectives for each function and operational functions are
those operations which are required to achieve the objective.

.
4.9 Direction
Direction may be defined as a function of management which is related with instructing,
guiding and inspiring human factors in the organization to achieve the organizational
objectives.
The elements of direction function;
• Motivation
• leadership
• communication
Characteristics of direction are:-
• Direction initiates actions in the organization
• Direction is performed at all levels
• Direction is continuous and continue throughout the life of organization
• Direction follows a hierarchy from top-bottom approach
• Direction is dual process, sub-ordinates do their job and supervisors also do something
subordinates fail to do.
As direction initiate, integrate and maximize the individuals ‘effort, it is a crucial function of
management. Direction also provides stability and balance in an organization.
Techniques of direction
1) Consultative direction
The supervisor or superior has consultation with his subordinates before issuing a direction.
The consultation is made to find out the feasibility, enforceability and nature of problem. It
does not mean that the superior is not capable of acting independently. The cooperation of
subordinate is necessary for successful implementation of any direction
2) Free-reign direction
The subordinate is encouraged to solve the problem independently under this direction
technique. The superior assign the tasks generally. The subordinates should take initiate to
solve the problem.
3) Autocratic direction
This direction is just opposite to free rain direction technique. Here the supervisor
commands his subordinates and has close supervision. There is no way left to the
subordinates to show their initiatives.
Importance of direction
• Direction initiates action
• Direction coordinates the group efforts
• Direction ensures maximum individual contribution
• Direction provides stability and balance in the organization
• Direction helps to achieve the objectives of an organization
Organizational Management: Concept,

functional areas – Production, Finance, Marketing and Human Resources

Approaches to Organizational Management –

Bureaucratic,

Bureaucratic approach
An organization can be managed and maintained through bureaucratic system of
management. It involves a lengthy process of managing an organization or enterprise. This
approach is designed to accomplish a large scale administrative task by systematically
coordinating tasks of many individuals. This system is generally practiced in the government
sector organization or enterprise. Bureaucratic approach of a management will take a longer
time to decide a matter concerning function of activities of the enterprise as well as matters
relating to services of the employees. The bureaucratic system of management is
characterized by a high degree of reliance (dependence) on rules, regulations and
procedures to which both the managers and his/her subordinates. As a result the process of
management is reduced (concentrated)to a series of routine action. This system of
management results in less participation or initiative from the part of workers.
Advantages
• Rationality-According to act and law
• Precision (accuracy) in operations
• Speed
• Reduction of friction between people
• Steadiness
• Reliability
Disadvantage
•Red tappism
•Population participation is not enact
Basic Principles of bureaucracy
• Principle of objectives
• Principle specialization
• Principle coordination
• Principle authority
• Principle responsibility
• Principle continuity
• Span of control
Features
• Administrative class
• Hierarchy of administration
• Division of work
• Official rules
• Impersonal relationship
• Official record

Other aspects
1) It is otherwise a mechanistic approach
2) Decision is taking from top level
3) Speed, reliability, steadiness etc are the positive aspects
4) This system of management is practiced in government sector

Democratic,

Democratic approach (participatory approach)

It means consisting and sharing of opinions and decisions of employees, both workers and
non workers as social units for better work performance. Participation may be defined as
mental and emotional involvement of persons in group situations that encourage them to
contribute to group goals and share responsibilities for them. Leaders adapting the
participatory approach provide active involvement to their subordinates in the decision
making process. It implies that the subordinate should be provided with an opportunity to
participate in decisions made in their working settings, and which influence them directly or
indirectly.

The nature of participation

• Motivation to contribute
• Acceptance of responsibility
• Increased power and influence
• Influencing through information sharing
• joint decision making
• self control

Workers participation in management means giving scope for workers to influence the
managerial decision making process at different levels by various forms in the organisation.
The concept of workers participation indicates an attempt on the part of an employer to
build his employees in to a team which workers towards the realization of a common
objective

Objectives
• Increased productivity
• giving employees a better understanding of their roles
• satisfying the workers urge for self expression
• Achieving better relation and increased cooperation among them.
• Development of human personality
• Development of leadership qualities.
• Reduced mis understanding
• Industrial democracy
• Improved communication
• Increased commitment
• Less resistance to change

Features
• It concerned with decision making after consultation with the subordinates
• This system encourages the participation of members of organisation
• This system encourages the participation and workers function as social system
• A helpful attitude towards subordinates is adopted in democratic approach
• Good and congenial ( friendly) work culture and atmosphere is ensured with this approach

Human Relations Model

3 Human relation approach to management (NEO Classical theory)

Human relation approach was been a reaction to the classical approach management. In
classical theory much emphasis was not given to the human component in an organisation.
Classical writer like,Taylor,Fayol,etc although realized the importance of human
element,emphasised over the material and technological element.

According to Keith Davis, “Human relations approach is concerned with motivating people in
organisation to develop team work which effectively fulfills their objective and achieve
organisational objectives".

The essence of human relation model is:

1) Organisational situation should be viewed in social terms as well as economic and technical terms.
2) The social process of group behavior can be understood in terms of clinical method, analogue to the doct
diagnosis of human behavior.

First systematic analysis on human relation was made in Hawthorne experiments in Chicago. The experts of
Hawthorne plant had conducted experimental research to find factors influencing the producivity. Following
were the implications of the held experiments:-
1) Social factors in output
Since people are human beings their human characteristics are determines the output and efficiency of the
organisation. Non economic rewards may influence the human behaviour.
2) Group influence
The workers may form group other than the formed groups. These groups are the influential on the behavio
of the workers. So it is inevitable to deal with the problems of the group rather than the individual group.
3) Conflict
The formed group objective may some times differ from the informal special objectives,
conflict arises when individual develop maladjustment in the organisational work.
4) Leadership
Leadership is important for directing group behaviour. sometimes informal leaders will be
more effective in influencing the group. Even if there is a formal supervisor according to
human relation approach he/she should identify himself with the workers.
5) Supervision
Friendly approach to workers, attentive genuinely concerned supervision affects the
productivity favorably.
6) Communication
The rationality of a particular activity is conveyed through communication. A better
understanding between workers and management can be developed through proper
communication.

Characteristics of human relations model

• The focus of human relations is on human beings or people
• The ultimate goal of creating sound human relations is to help make workers more
productive, not just happier. Human relation is essentially concerned with motivating
people to achieve peak performance.
• Human relations seeks to build human cooperation towards organisational goals in an
effective manner ie, with minimum input in relation to outputs.
• Human relation strives to create a positive work environment in which people can
simultaneously fulfill their own goals as well as the goals of organisation. The goals of
productivity and employee satisfaction are inextricably interwoven.
Benefits of human relation to organization
• Increased cooperation of employees.
• Higher employee morale ( self- esteem)
• Higher productivity
• Low per unit cost of labour
• Greater loyalty (faithfulness) of employees.
• Harmony of the individual goal of the employees with the organizational goal.

Benefits of human relation to employees.

• Concern for people-As human beings
• Opportunity for self-expression and development
• Better social environment at work
• Effective leadership
• Better service conditions
• Positive work environment.

• Human relations model Founder- Elton Mayor

Human relations = Interaction of people in all ways of life
HR in HSO = Interaction of people employed in HSO

"It is an approach to the theory on management and of organisations that emphasises

individual workers need for satisfactory relationship with other members of his work group
and need to participate in decisions that affect his work". -Dereck French and heather
showard

"Human relation is an area of management practice in integrating people in to work

situation in a way that motivates them to work together productively, cooperatively, with
economic, psychological and social satisfaction" - Davis

Goals
• Greater productivity at work
• Greater human satisfaction with the organisation
Emphasis
• Importance of human and social factors
• Individual as well as group relationship
Criticism
No direct connection between morale and productivity

Characteristics of human relations

• An integral process by which the individuals attitude and work are integrated to effect a
willing cooperation on his part to achieve interest of organization.
• Members of the organization contributes their part to get individual and group
satisfaction
• The satisfaction desired may be economic social and psychological

, System Theory,

Social systems approach (System Theory)

The real pioneer of social systems approach is Vilfredo Pareto. His ideas were later
developed by Chester Bernard, who really popularized the concept. This approach perceives
an organization as a cultural system composed of people who work in cooperation.
A system is an" organized or complex whole an assemblage (assembly) or combination of
things of parts forming a complex unitary whole (complete)". The following are the main
features of system theory:-
•A system is basically combination of parts, sub systems. Each part may have various sub
parts. The sub system independently has the features of system.
•The parts and sub parts of a system are mutually related.
•A system is not merely the total of its part, but their arrangements is important
•A system has a boundary
•System transforms inputs in to outputs.

Other Features
• Organisation is viewed as a system of cultural relationships.
• Relationships exist among internal as well as external environment.
• Cooperation among group members is necessary in achieving organisational goal.
• Their should be a harmony between the objectives of the organisation and the groups
there in.
• System approach is an integrated approach to
management(Man,Material,economic,technology etc are given concern)
• System approach emphasis the need of realizing the societies interests
• System approach envisages organisation as an open system.

Systems approach
Means To bring together or to combine.
"A system is a set of interconnected and interrelated elements or component parts to
achieve certain objectives"

Characteristics of systems
• A system has a number of sub systems eg.Human body
• It has a number of parts and sub parts,mutually related,interdependent and are fitted in
places.
• Two types-1)Open(living system)environment and interaction prsent;2)Closed-Non living
system(absence of system-chaos-hamper progress)

System approaches can be summed up as:

• Organisation is a social system,having subsystems,which are integrated to unify it as a
whole
• It is an open system,which interacts with the environment and takes resources and
transforms them in to outputs(Manager converts disorganised services of men, money,
material in to useful goods and services)
•Computer based information system in big firms
•Brings integration of different systems

Basically an organisation is a system of:-

Input,Process,Output,Feedback,Environment

Steps in system approach

• Objectives must be first specified
• The subsystem or main decision areas are to be listed or msrked
• The decision area must be analysed
• Information need must be established
• Communication channels for the smooth flow of information must be designed
The decision areas are grouped to minimize the burden of communication

Theory X, Theory Y and Theory Z

Theory X and Theory Y

The proponent of two opposite theory is prof. Douglas Mac Gregar. The theory involves
assumptions (guess), generalizations and hypothesis (suggestion) related to human behavior
and human nature.("Human side of enterprise" book written by D.Maclery).The complexity
of factors influencing the human behavior causes the considerable change in the
assumptions regarding it.

Theory X
This is the traditional theory of human behavior. The assumptions are:-
• The average man is by nature indolent (lazy)-he work as little as possible
• He lacks ambition, dislikes responsibility, and prefers to be led.
• He is inherently self centered, indifferent (uninterested) to organizational goals.
• He is by nature resistant to change.
• He is gullible (easy to fool) not very bright.

Managerial actions for overcoming this:

• Management is responsible for organizing elements of productive enterprises. Money,
Material, equippment. people are in the interest of economic needs.
• With respect to people this is a process of directing their efforts, motivating them,
controlling their actions, modifying their behaviour to fit the needs of organization.
• Without this, man become passive and even resistant to organisational needs. They must
be persuaded(influenced), rewarded, punished, controlled their activities must be directed
Here the managers give importance to external help such as incentives, gifts etc for
attaining the organisational goals.

Theory Y
• The average human being does not inherently dislike work. Sometimes work may be a
source of satisfaction or source of punishment depending on the controllable condition.
• External control and the threat of punishment are not the only means for bringing about
efforts towards organisational objectives. Man will exercise self direction and self control
in the service of objectives to which he is committed.
• Commitment to objective is a function of the reward associated with their achievement.
• Under proper conditions, the average man learns to accept as well as seek responsibility.
Avoidance of responsibility, lack of ambition emphasis on security is generally
consequences of inherent human characteristics.
• The capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of imagination, ingenuity and creativity in
the solution of organizational problems is widely, not narrowly distributed in the
population.
• In modern industrial life only a part of intellectual potentiality of man is utilized.

This is a new approach to management. Here the attempt is directed to get maximum
output with minimum amount of control and direction. Generally conflict between
individual goals and organizational goals are not seen.

Module 3 Introduction to Voluntary Organization:

Voluntary Organization:

Voluntary organisation

voluntas-will of freedom

Definition
Voluntary organization properly speaking it’s an organization which whether its workers are
paid or unpaid is initiated and governed by its own members without external control.
-Lord Beveridge
According to David I. Sills “Voluntary organization is a group of persons organized on the
basis of voluntary membership without state control for the furtherance of some common
interests of its members.

Definition
It is a group organized for the pursuit of one interest or of several interest in common

Organizational Structure,

1 organizational structure of voluntary organisation

Organizational structure is primarily concerned with the association of task and delegation
of authority. organization emparases the duties of designating department and personals
that are to carry on the work, defined these functions and specifying the relation that are to
exist between department and individual .There for various steps in organizational
structure as follows.

1) To determine objectives
 This is the first step in building organisational structure. It will consist of designing as to
why the proposed organisation is to be set up and also nature of work. The objectives which
may be short term or long term must be stated in clear terms. This will help to determine
the time,stebility and basic characteristics of the organisation.

2) To enumerate activities
An industrial concern may be achieved in to following activities.
• production
• Financing
• Purchasing
• sales
• personals

3) To classify activities
According to these activities the work of an industrial concern may be enumerated to
classify activities. According to similiarities, common purposes and functios taking human
and material resources in to account activities will be classified. For each class of activities
there may be a department or sections or unit.

4) To fit the individual in to function

The next step will be fixed suitable and well qualified persons in to these activities. Each
individual in the group will be given a specific part of the job to do and will be made
responsible for the same.

5) To assign authority for activities

The delegation of authorities to take steps to complete the assigned part of job is the next
step in the organizational structure.

6) To propose an organizational manual

The organizational or business concern has to prepare an organizational manual in which all
type of activities staff members, position of manpower, activities as well as responsibilities
are to be clearly mentioned.

7) To prepare standard practice and instructions

The organization or the business establishment has to prepare a statement in which
standard practice instructions to be given to different
categories of staff members attached with different sections unit or department.

8) To revise the system on the basis of assessment of personal and funds

The last step in developing an organizational structure is to assess the capacities and
abilities of people available to man different, different positions in the organization together
with other resources. General body, executive, paid staff etc.

Functions and Principles.

In a democratic socialist and welfare society voluntary organisations are indispensable and
they perform a number of functions for the welfare of its members, development of the
country integration and solidarity of the society and nation.

• Man is by nature gregarious(sociable). liking to be with other people. The erge to act in
group is fundamental in him.
• A pluralistic society with a democratic system requires independent, voluntary and non
government association
• The enabling individual to learn the fundamentals of groups and political action through
participation ,the governing of the private
Organization Strengthening of the feeling of national solidarity and promotes
participation character of democracy.
• The state does not have the requisite financial resources and man power to met all the
needs of its citizens. It can their for have the
Responsibility of providing them minimum needs.
• Voluntary organisation also helps the state in the areas which it has a limited but for
which it has a limited sources and perform such functions in much better way as
compared to the state organization.
• Voluntary organisation can also enter new needs, work in new areas, to remove social
evils, and attended unmet needs.
Principles of voluntary organisations

• Objectives and functions of a social welfare agency should be clearly defined.

• Programme should be based up on actual needs
• It should be related to social welfare needs, patterns and resources of the community
• It should have a clear cut definition between policy making and executive
• Agency should operate on the basis of sound or personal policies and good working
conditions. person should be employed on the basis of qualification for the jobs
• The work of agency should characterised by a basic desire to serve human beings
• Agency should operate on the basis of an annual budget. It should have an adequate
account system. Account system should audited.
• Maintain records in an accurate manner
• There should be self appraisal (assessment) at appropriate timing.
• Maintenance services and facility should also be adequate in quality and efficient in
operation.

Role and type of voluntary organizations.

Role of voluntary organisation

• well being of the weaker section of the community
• welfare of the society
• disaster management
• rehabilitation
• Partnership in sexual health
• to provide welfare services to the needy, handicapped and destitutes
• It helps in avoiding overlapping and duplication of services
• translate in to reality the concept of democracy
• voluntary organisation ensure people participation in direct form
• planned development
• To identify resources; man and material
• To be the eyes and ears of the population in the village
• To activate the delivery system and make it effective at the village level to respond to the
felt needs of poorest of the poor
• to make communities as self reliant as possible
• To show how village support and in adequate resources could be used as well as how
human resources rural skills and local knowledge grossly utilized at present could be used
for their own development
• To demystify technology and bring it in a simple form to the rural poor.
• to train a cadre of grass root workers who believes in professionalizing voluntarism
• To mobilize and organize the poor and generate awareness to demand quality services
and impose a community system of accountability on the performance of village level
govt. mechanism.

3.5 Types of voluntary organizations

• Nonprofit organization
• Conventional organization

Non profit organisation

These are legal entity. It serve the socio economic needs of the weaker section. It works
on non profit and no lose basis. Its activities are
open to all citizens irrespective of religion, cast, creed, sex and raise office bearers should
not be elected members of any political parties.

Conventional organisation
It has its own constitution, elected office bears with defined division of responsibilities of
the office bearers

Organization - Types of organizations, characteristics of HSO

Characteristics of H.S.O
• Governance
• Directions
• Understanding services
• well connected with the community and service network
• planning
• Getting results for clients
• People
• Service data and knowledge
• Finances
• Risk management
• Compliance
• Process and systems
• Documenting
• Reviewing and evaluating

Characteristics of voluntary organisation

Normal Johnson defined characteristics of VO's as:

• Method of formation which is voluntary on the part of a group of people
• Method of government-which self governing organisation is to decide on its constitution,
its service, policy and its clients
• Method of financing-with some of its revenues from voluntary sources

Other important charactristics

• It is registered under the societies registration act 1880,The Indian trust act 1882,The co-
operative societies act 1904,The joint stock Companies act 1959
• It has a definite aims and objective and programmes for their fulfillment and achievement.
It has an administrative structure and executive
Committee
• It is an organization initiated and governed by its own members on a democratic principle
without any external control.
• It raises funds for its activities partially from the external, in the forms of grands in aid and
partially in the form of contribution or subscription from the members of local
communities or the beneficiaries of the programme

Procedures in registering an organization-Societies Registration Act, Trust Act and

Companies Act

Procedures for registering an NGO

a) Advantages of NGO
• It gives a legal rights to the organisation
• Tax exemption
• Benefit of land scaling
• Exemption of bid documentation

b) Forms of registration act

• Society registration act-1860
• Public trust under the Indian trust act-1882
• Non profit company under section 25 of compaies act -1950
• Foriegn contribution act-1986

c) Societies registration act - 1860

• Executive committee with 7 members minimum and maximum 15 members
• Services -aims programmes based on weaker section of society
• Bylaw
• Memorundum or articles of association(vision,mision,rules and regulations)
• Memorandum should be submitted to a registrar in collectorate
• .Minimum seven days to get sectioned. Then the district registrar gives one year working
• After getting registration rules and regulation will be known as bylaw
• After registration the clubs or organisation should be affiliated
• Each year finance should be audited

d) Public trust act-1882

• Minimum numbers is one. Like memorandum trust deals. It can be a will or agreement.
Properties of the trust should be specified when
applied to the registration.
• Name of the trustees, Name of the beneficiaries, Its principles, The property of the trust
and the objectives of the trust should be noted.
• The procedure for appointment and removal of trusties
• The write and duties of the beneficiaries is also specified.

e) Companies act -1956

Under section 25,we register the non profit companies, memorandum of the association
and the article of association must be drafted.

f) FCRA-Foriegn Contribution Regulatory Act

For the purpose regulating the foreign fund, ministery of foriegn affairs enforced these
act. The government of India enforced these act for the purpose of regulate the acceptance
and utilization of foriegn contribution.
• To whom its applicable are any citizen of India whether residing in India or outside India
• Any branches or associations or companies outside India or corporate body can register.
• Receivers of this benefits are society, trust or charitable company
• Organization by getting prior from central govt. It should be working for three years
• Audited statement and proof of activities, name of the bank and account number, details
of foreign collaboration are submitted to
receive the fund.
• Candidates for election, printers and publishers of news papers registered under the press
,judges and government servants and
political parties cant receive it.

Administrative skills; writing letters,

reports

A report is a form of systematic presentation of information relating to an

event, progress of action or some business activities. It may arise out of
factual data which are already available or through the primary data
collected through such methods as enquiry, investigation or experiment. The
report is prepared by a person who possesses the knowledge of the subject
referred to him.
 OBJECTIVES OR FUNCTIONS OF REPORTS

1. To communicate information upward or downward in the organization

2. To help the management to carry on with the managerial functions such as
organizing, staffing , directing and controlling effectively by supplying to the
management the factual information on various aspects of business.
3. A system of managerial reporting helps in obtaining the information needed for
measuring and appraising the performance of an executive.
4. Through the reports, it is possible to establish contacts with the outside world
5. Business conditions are not static but go on rigidly changing.
6. Reports deal with the various aspects of business firms
Kinds of Reports
Reports prepared can be grouped into two categories:
1. Routine reprts: these reports are prepare generally to collect and present
statistics relating to the various aspects of a business for the information of the
management.
2. Special Reports: these relate to some no-routine matter, such as special
investigation to be conducted on special occasions and not periodically. Form of
special reports will vary according to the nature of the subject matter the under
investigation. The report must cover 1. The reasons for the report. 2.
Investigations made 3. Findings, conclusion and recommendations
Principle to be observed while preparing reports
1. Principle of purpose
2. Principle of organization
3. Principle of brevity
4. Principle of clarity
5. Principle of scheduling
6. Principle of cost
7. Principle of cost
Steps in report writing
1. Ascertaining the purpose of report
2. Collection of necessary facts and figures
3. Analyzing the facts
4. Discussions
5. Preparing the report

and minutes,

MINUTES

The minutes of an organization constitute the official reord of all the business
transacted, activities undertaken, plans projected, resolutions passed etc.
Minutes should be written in the third person and should include:
1. The name of the organization, date, place and time of meeting and the
names of those present
2. Whether a regular or special meeting
3. Names of presiding officer and recording secretary and the minutes
should state whether those of the previous meeting were read and
approved or if reading was dispensed with, the reasons therefore,
4. All main motions, whether adopted or lost (a motion that was withdrawn
should not be recorded) and resolutions adopted should be entered in
full.
5. The names of the persons making the motions, but the name of the
seconded need not be recorded,
6. Points of order and appeal, whether sustained or lost
7. Summarized reports of committee, unless written reports are appended.
8. All appointments on committees whether elected or delegated etc.
9. The number of votes on each side, when a count has been ordered or
where the vote is ballot or roll call, and
10. The time of adjournment
Every business transacted should be given a heading in the minutes and
be serially numbered. Proceedings are described in brief before
resolution. Utmost importance should be given to the maintenance of
minutes book, since the minutes form the prima facie evidence of the
proceedings recorded therein. The minutes of each meeting should be
read out in the subsequent meeting. Minutes once made and signed by
the chairman cannot be altered or corrected. If any correction is needed,
it is advisable to pass another resolution. Minutes provide are invaluable
proof of the proceedings, especially in contingencies like being sued in a
court of law for any dispute.

Fund raising,

Human services are funded most frequently through appropriations,

allocations, grants, and contracts, fees(including third party payments), or
contributions, or a combination of two or more sources . the goal of
fundraising is to help to raise more money. Raising more money is a
systematic approach to developing a base of lifelong donors. This method of
securing operating funds for multiple years by inspiring people and building
relationships has been successfully implemented by nonprofit organizations
of any size, location , field and previous fundraising experience. Fund raising
actually aims at tapping the resources in a manner as to meet the needs and
objectives of the agency.
Objectives of fundraising

1. To conduct agencies programmes

2. To increase the amount of resources
3. To create reserve fund
4. To reduce dependency
5. To remove away from forign funded agencies. When local money is used,
involvement of people is more when money is collected from foreign
agencies
6. To create greater sustainability
7. To develop community link
8. To involve as many people as possible
9. To develop local pressures for the work that the agency is doing and for
the issues the agencies are addressing
10. To raise the profile of the organization
11. To build a successful organization that can face the future in confidence.
Sources of funds
1. Grant in aid
2. Central social welfare board
3. Voluntary contributions or donations
4. Sponsorships
5. Membership fees
6. Sales of products
7. Subscription.
8. Organizing special programmes
9. Contributions in kind
10. Coupons distributed in schools and colleges
11. Media campign

Strategies for fund raising

✓ Advertisement in mass media

✓ Mass campaigning, presentations etc to boost up the
sensibility of public
✓ Charity boxes at public places
✓ Meeting people who have contacts
✓ Using referrals of eminent personalities to get sponsorships.
✓ Contacting clubs and other organizations
✓ Distributing charity coupons in schools, colleges etc.
✓ Conducting seminars
✓ Production of greeting cards, handmade products for sale.
 ✓ Cinema, slideshow etc for publicity
✓ Tap social welfare funds of big cooperates and banks
✓ Approaching funding agencies
✓ Receiving grants in aid
✓ Using media to receive foreign contributions.

SOCIAL WORKER AS A RESOURCE MOBILISER

RESOURCES – 3 M

 MAN

 MONEY

 MATERIAL

FUNDRAISING IS THE PROCESS OF SOLICITING AND GATHERING MONEY OR

OTHER GIFTS IN-KIND, BY REQUESTING DONATIONS FROM INDIVIDUALS,
BUSINESSES, CHARITABLE FOUNDATIONS, OR GOVERNMENTAL AGENCIES

 ALTHOUGH FUNDRAISING TYPICALLY REFERS TO EFFORTS TO GATHER FUNDS FOR

NOT-FOR-PROFIT ORGANIZATIONS, IT IS SOMETIMES USED TO REFER TO THE
IDENTIFICATION AND SOLICITATION OF INVESTORS OR OTHER SOURCES OF CAPITAL
FOR FOR-PROFIT ENTERPRISES.

WHY FUNDRAISING

 FOR A GENUINE CAUSE

 MORE RESOURCE IS NEEDED FOR DEVELOPMENT WORK

 FINANCIAL INDEPENDENCY & SMOOTH RUNNING OF ORGANIZATION

 CAPACITY BUILDING OF VARIOUS SECTIONS

 GREATER SUSTAINABILITY

 CREATION OF “FREE MONEY”

 REDUCE DEPENDENCY

 LOCAL PRESSURE

 BETTER PARTNERSHIP

 RAISING THE PROFILE OF THE ORGANIZATION

 PRINCIPLES

 PEOPLE GIVE TO PEOPLE

 ASK THE RIGHT AMOUNT

 MAKE IT EASY FOR THE DONOR

 THE 20:80 PRINCIPLE

 TELL THE TRUTH

 KNOW YOUR SUBJECT

 THE VOLUNTEER YOUR BEST

 PLAN

 TEST & TEST AGAIN

 SAY “THANK YOU” QUICKLY AND IN DIFFERENT WAYS

WHAT MAKES A GOOD FUND RAISER

 ACCESS YOUR STRENGTHS

 LEARN SKILLS YOU NEED TO ACQUIRE

 FIND WAYS OF COMPENSATING FOR YOUR WEAKNESS BY MOBILIZING OTHERS TO

HELP

KEY SKILLS

 COMMITMENT TO THE CAUSE

 ABILITY TO ASK

 ABILITY TO COMMUNICATE

 ABILITY TO INFLUENCE

 ABILITY TO RELATE

 PERSUASIVENESS

 CONFIDENCE

 DEALING WITH REJECTION

 PERSISTENCE

 TRUTHFULNESS

 PATIENCE

 CONTACTS & THE ABILITY MAKE CONTACTS

 IMAGINATION & CREDIBILITY

 ORGANIZATIONAL SKILLS

 ABILITY TO RECOGNIZE LIMITATIONS

SOURCES OF FUNDS

 INTERNATIONAL

 NATIONAL

 SELF GENERATED

SEVEN TYPES OF DONORS

 COMMUNITARIANS – 26% GIVERS

 DEVOUT – 21% GIVERS

 INVESTORS – 15 % GIVERS

 SOCIALITES – 11% GIVERS

 ALTRUISTS – 9% GIVERS

 REPAYERS – 10% GIVERS

 DYNASTS – 8% GIVERS

METHODS OF COMMUNICATION FOR FUNDRAISING

 VISITING CARDS

 LETTER HEADS

 MAKING PHONE CALLS

 WRITING LETTERS

 DISTRIBUTING BROCHURES,LEAFLETS& APPEALS

 PUTTING UP POSTERS , BANNERS

  BRINGING OUT A NEWSLETTER

conducting meetings, Public Relations and Networking

Module 4 Organisational Behaviour

Concept of Organizational Behaviour,

Organizational Behavior is field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups
and structure have on behavior within organization. It is the study and application of
knowledge about how people act within organizations. It is a human tool for human benefit.
It applies broadly to the behavior of people in all types of organizations, such as business,
government, schools and services organizations. It covers three determinants of behavior in
organizations: individuals, groups, and structure. OB is an applied field. It applies the
knowledge gained about individuals, and the effect of structure on behavior, in order to
make organizations work more effectively. OB covers the core topics of motivation,
leadership behavior and power, interpersonal communication, group structure and process,
learning, attitude development and perception, change process, conflict, job design and
work stress.

Before studying organizational behavior, it is desirable to know the meanings of

organization and management
Organization
Organization as a purposeful system with several subsystems where individuals and
activities are organized to achieve certain predetermined goals through division of labor and
coordination of activities. Division of labor refers to how the work is divided among the
employees and coordination refers to how all the various activities performed by the
individuals are integrated or brought together to accomplish the goals of the organization.
The term organizing is used to denote one aspect of the managerial activities when he or
she is preparing and scheduling the different tasks that need to be completed for the job to
be done.
1.2.2 Management
It refers to the functional process of accomplishing the goals of the organization through
the help of others. A manager is an individual who is given the responsibility for achieving
the goals assigned to him or her as part of the overall goals of the organization and who is
expected to get the job done. The terms o f top management, lower management are
frequently used to indicate the hierarchical levels of those who are engaged in the process
of getting the goals of the organization accomplished.

Organizational Culture,

OrganizatiOnal Culture
Organizational culture may be defined as the knowledge, ideology, values,
and rituals that individuals share. There is not a single organizational culture
within organizations, as unique sub-cultures may emerge within
 organizations according to demographics such as race, gender, sexual
orientation, organizational. Nevertheless, many organizational leaders are
concerned with creating overarching organizational cultures that emphasize
ethical high performance..
• Unethical practices are more likely to emerge in organizational cultures of
broken promises, where no one takes responsibility for actions and decisions,
and participation and dissent are minimized.
• High performing cultures tend to be characterized by a bias for action,
maintaining close relations to the customer, emphasizing autonomy and
entrepreneurship, achieving productivity through its
employees, fostering strong corporate values, focusing on what they do best,
adopting simple organizational forms, and having simultaneous loose-tight
properties (i.e., they are both centralized and decentralized).
• High performing cultures tend to preserve their core purpose over time
while simultaneously being open to change. To create this strong sense of
core identity and purpose, organizations explicitly
articulate their ideology to employees, indoctrinate their employees into the
company’s core ideology, select potential employees based on their fit with
the existing culture, and emphasize the special
qualities of the culture.
Assessing the kind of culture that an organization has created requires you to
focus on the communication that the organization uses in its messages and
the various artifacts it creates. To analyze an organizational culture, you may
want to focus on the following:
• The language that people use in their everyday conversation with other
employees as well as formal organizational documents and communications.
This may include exploring the way that people use technical terms, jargon,
slang, jokes, gossip, and metaphors.
• The stories that people tell about their experience. Stories offer a window
into the way that people make sense of their organizational experience.
• The way that physical work space is organized. For example, the simple arrangement of
office space can provide clues as to the way power and hierarchy is constructed in the
organization.
• Company rituals and ceremonies provide insight into what the company values.

Organizational culture is the values and behaviors that contribute to the unique social
and psychological environment of an organization. Organizational culture includes
an organization's expectations, experiences, philosophy, and values that hold it together,
and is expressed in its self-image, inner workings, interactions with the outside world, and
future expectations. It is based on shared attitudes, beliefs, customs, and written and
unwritten rules that have been developed over time and are considered valid.
Also called corporate culture, it's shown in
(1) the ways the organization conducts its business, treats its employees, customers, and
the wider community,
(2) the extent to which freedom is allowed in decision making, developing new ideas, and
personal expression,
(3) how power and information flow through its hierarchy, and
(4) how committed employees are towards collective objectives.
Organization development-process,
Organizing refers to the way in which work is arranged and allocated among members of
the organization so that the goals of the organization can be efficiently achieved.
Steps involved in Organizing Process:
i) Assign tasks and responsibilities associated with individual jobs.
ii) Dividing the total work load into activities that can logically and comfortably be
performed by one person or group of individuals.
iii) Combining the work of employees into units in a logical and efficient manner.
iv) Delegating appropriate authority and power to an individual to discharge his
duties.
v) Setting up a mechanism to coordinate the work of employees into a unified,
harmonious whole.
vi) Monitoring the effectiveness of the organization and making adjustments to
maintain or increase effectiveness.

approaches
Basic Approaches of Organisational Behaviour
i) An Interdisciplinary Approach: It is integrating many disciplines. It integrates
social sciences and other disciplines that can contribute to the Organizational Behaviour. It
draws from these disciplines any ideas that will improve the relationships between people
and organization. Its interdisciplinary nature is similar to that of medicine, which applies
physical, biological and social science into a workable medical practice. Organizations must
have people, and people working toward goals must have organizations, so it is desirable to
treat the two as a working unit.
ii) Scientific Management Approach: The fundamental concern of the scientific management
school was to increase the efficiency of the worker basically through
good job design and appropriate training of the workers. Taylor is the father of the
scientific management movement and he developed many ides to increase organizational
efficiency. Taylor showed that through proper job design, worker selection, employee
training and incentives, productivity can be increased.
iii) A Human Resources (Supportive) Approach: It is developmental approach concerned
with the growth and development of people toward higher levels of competency creativity
and fulfillment, because people are the central resource in any organizations and any
society. It helps people grow in self-control and responsibility and then it tries to create a
climate in which all employees may contribute to the limits of their improved abilities
iv) A Contingency Approach: Traditional management relies on one basic principle – there is
one best way of managing things and these things can be applied across the board in all the
instances. Each situation much be analyzed carefully to determine the significant variables
that exist in order to establish the kinds of practices that will be more effective. Contingency
theorist argues that the external environment and several aspects of the internal
environment govern the structure of the organization and the process of management.
Effective management will vary in different situations depending on the individual and
groups in the organization, the nature of jobs, technology, the type of environment facing
the organization and its structure. For example, if the employees are highly matured and
willing to take more responsibility, the managers can follow delegating style and give full
freedom to their employees. If the employees are not so matured and avoid taking any
responsibility, the managers must follow directing style. Depends upon the situation, that is,
employees level of maturity, managers will adopt different style of leadership to ensure
more successful results.
v) A Systems Approach: This implies that organization consists of many inter related and
inter dependent elements affecting one another in order to achieve the overall results.
Conceptually a system implies that there are a multitude of variables in organization and
that each of them affects all the others in complex relationships.
and strategies

Organizational strategy is concerned with envisioning a future for your family business,
creating value in the eyes of your customers, and building and sustaining a strong position in
the marketplace.

Organization Development Interventions

Organization Development (OD) interventions techniques are the methods created by OD

professionals and others. Single organization or consultant cannot use all the interventions.
They use these interventions depending upon the need or requirement. The most important
interventions are,

1. Surveyfeedback
2. Process Consultation
3. sensitivity Training
4. The Managerial grid
5. Goal setting and Planning
6. Team Building and management by objectives
7. Job enrichment, changes in organizational structure and participative management and
Quality circles, ISO, TQM

Survey feedback: The intervention provides data and information to the

managers.Information on Attitudes of employees about wage level, and structure, hours of
work, working conditions and relations are collected and the results are supplied to the top
executive teams. They analyse the data, find out the problem, evaluate the results and
develop the means to correct the problems identified.
Process Consultation : The process consultant meets the members of the department and
work teams observes thie interaction, problem identification skills, solving procedures et.
He feeds back the team eith the information collected through observations, coaches and
counsels individuals & groups in moulding their behavior.

Goal setting and planning : Each division in an organization sets the goals or formulates the
plans for profitability. These goals are sent to the top management which in turn sends
them back to the divisions after modification . A set of organization goals thus emerge there
after.

Managerial grid: This identifies a range of management behavior based on the different
ways that how production/service oriented and employee oriented states interact with each
other. Managerial grid is also called as instrumental laboratory training as it is a structured
version of laboratory training. It consists of individual and group exercises with a view to
developing awareness of individual managerial style interpersonal competence and group
effeciveness. Thus grid training is related to the leadership styles. The managerial grid
focuses on the observations of behaviour in exercises specifically related to work.
Participants in this training are encouraged and helped to appraise their own managerial
style.

Evaluation of motivational theories and basic understanding of their

application in the work context
 Leadership; meaning, definition and importance of leadership,

Introduction

Leadership refers to the influence wielded by one on others. Leadership is crucial for
organizational effectiveness. Leadership is differs from management. In a givensituation,
same individual acts as a leaders as well as manager.

The Meaning of Leadership

What is leadership? It is a process by which one person influences the thoughts, attitudes,
and behaviors of others. Leaders set a direction for the rest of us; they help us see what lies
ahead; they help us visualize what we might achieve; they encourage us and inspire us.
Without leadership a group of human beings quickly degenerates into argument and
conflict, because we see things in different ways and lean toward different solutions.
Leadership helps to point us in the same direction and harness our efforts jointly.
Leadership is the ability to get other people to do something significant that they might not
otherwise do. It’s energizing people toward a goal. Without followers, however, a leader
isn’t a leader, although followers may only come after a long wait. For example, during the
1930s Winston Churchill urged his fellow Englishmen to face the coming threat from Hitler’s
Germany. But most Englishmen preferred to believe that Hitler could be appeased—so that
a war could be avoided. They were engaged in wishful thinking about the future and denial
that the future would be dangerous. They resented Churchill for insisting that they must
face the danger. They rejected his leadership. He had very few followers. But finally reality
intruded—Germany went too far and war began. At this point Churchill was acclaimed for
his foresight, and became prime minister of the United Kingdom during the Second World
War. During this period almost all Englishmen accepted his leadership willingly. True
leadership is sometimes hard to distinguish from false leadership, which is merely a form of
pretending. Winston Churchill was a real and great leader. But there are also people who
wish to appear to be leaders, but aren’t actually. They say that they are leading others; they
posture as if they are setting direction and inspiring others. Yet often they are merely
pretending. There’s an old saying that the way to become a leader is to find a parade and
run to the front of it. We refer to a person “leading” a parade, but walking at the front isn’t
really leadership unless the person in front is actually choosing the direction! If the person
isn’t choosing the direction, then being at the front of the line is merely a way to pretend to
be a leader.

Definitions

1. Leadership is the ability to evaluate and or forecast a long term plan or policy and
influence the followers towards the achievement of the said strategy.
AdeoyeMayowa: A Leadership Manager in Nigeria (2009)

2. "Leadership is a process of giving purpose (meaningful direction) to collective effort,

and causing willing effort to be expended to achieve purpose.”
Jacobs &Jaques (1990, p.281)

3. "Leadership is a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to

achieve a common goal."
Northouse (2004, p 3)

4. "Leadership is defined as the process of influencing the activities of an organized

group toward goal achievement.”
Rauch &Behling (1984, p.46)
 5. "Leadership is the art of influencing others to their maximum performance to
accomplish any task, objective or project.”
Cohen, W.A. ‘The Art of a Leader’ Englewood Cliffs,NJ: Prentice Hall (1990, p. 9)

6. “Leadership is the process of influencing the activities of an individual or a group in

efforts toward goal achievement in a given situation.”
Hersey, P. & Blanchard, K. ‘Management of Organizational Behavior’. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall (1988 p. 86)

Importance of leadership
Leadership is an important function of management which helps to maximize efficiency and
to achieve organizational goals. The following points justify the importance of leadership in
a concern.

1. Initiates action- Leader is a person who starts the work by communicating the
policies and plans to the subordinates from where the work actually starts.
2. Motivation- A leader proves to be playing an incentive role in the concern’s working.
He motivates the employees with economic and non-economic rewards and thereby
gets the work from the subordinates.
3. Providing guidance- A leader has to not only supervise but also play a guiding role for
the subordinates. Guidance here means instructing the subordinates the way they
have to perform their work effectively and efficiently.
4. Creating confidence- Confidence is an important factor which can be achieved
through expressing the work efforts to the subordinates, explaining them clearly
their role and giving them guidelines to achieve the goals effectively. It is also
important to hear the employees with regards to their complaints and problems.
5. Building morale- Morale denotes willing co-operation of the employees towards
their work and getting them into confidence and winning their trust. A leader can be
a morale booster by achieving full co-operation so that they perform with best of
their abilities as they work to achieve goals.
6. Builds work environment- Management is getting things done from people. An
efficient work environment helps in sound and stable growth. Therefore, human
relations should be kept into mind by a leader. He should have personal contacts
with employees and should listen to their problems and solve them. He should treat
employees on humanitarian terms.
 7. Co-ordination- Co-ordination can be achieved through reconciling personal interests
with organizational goals. This synchronization can be achieved through proper and
effective co-ordination which should be primary motive of a leader

Theories of leadership

1. Trait theory
The trait theory approach was the first significant move away from the Great Man theory. It
rose out of the study of the leadership characteristics or traits which differentiate leaders
from others. Essentially it aimed to develop the list of key characteristics or traits which
could be used to define successful leaders. Despite lengthy and numerous amounts of
academic research, no one set of traits has ever been agreed upon and the research has
been rather inconclusive (Bohlen, 2003; Mullins, 1999). Stodgill’s listing of key leadership
traits and skills (Stodgill, 1974), often seen as the foundation of this research line, still holds
true today. Many of these traits still emerge in current leadership writings and can still be
found in the majority of the recruitment criteria used today. However traits are difficult to
agree upon and researchers on leadership often ended up with long lists which contained a
high degree of subjectivity (Mullins, 1999). Leadership theorists were forced to look
elsewhere, directed in a way by Stodgill himself who suggested that trait study should be
integrated with situational demands (House, Aditya, 1997)

2. Behavioural leadership theory

Behavioural leadership theories developed out of dissatisfaction with the trait approach and
moved away from trait theory in that they considered that leaders are made and not born.
These theories put forward the idea that leadership can be defined into certain behaviours
which can be learned and developed (Bandura, 1982; Skinner, 1967). The behavioural
theorists were the first to clearly put forward a case for the fact that leadership can be
learnt and that it did not rely on any inherent talent. This theoretical approach became the
springboard for the numerous studies, which we continue to see today, about what leaders
actually do (Kotter, 1990). Out of this research came the identification of two broad
classifications of leadership behaviours – task and person oriented behaviours (House,
Aditya, 1997). The assumption of this theory, that there were universally accepted and
effective leadership behaviours, has caused its acceptability to decline due to the lack of
consideration given to context.

3. Situational or contingency theory

The situational or contingency theories focused on the need to look at context and claimed
that effective leadership is contingent on the situation (Callan, 2003). The idea that different
leadership behaviours or skills are needed in different contexts today seems rather common
sense but Fiedler’s work in the 1960’s broke new ground. Fielder put forward that there is
no one best way to lead, and that the choice of leadership skill set, behaviour and style
would be impingent on the situation (Fiedler, 1969). Essentially it considers that
performance is contingent on the interaction of the style of leader and favourability of the
situation for the leader (Mitchell et al 1970). Fielder defined three key aspects – leader-
member relations, task structure and power – which would condition leadership choice of
skill and style (Fielder, 1969). This theory believes that the “type of leadership behaviour
which will be most effective is contingent on the favourableness of the task situation”
(Sadler, 2003:77). A particular form of contingency theory, known as situational, focused on
the point that leadership style is a function of the situation (Hersey, Blancard, 1988).

Conclusion
Leadership is important to commit a group of people towards specific goals and to make use
their potentials to realize the goals. Leadership has the ultimate aim of raising the level of
human conduct and the ethical aspirations of people.

Communication in Organization

Communication (from Latin commūnicāre, meaning "to share" ) is the activity of

conveying information through the exchange of thoughts, messages, or information, as by
speech, visuals, signals, writing, or behavior. It is the meaningful exchange of information
between two or more living creatures.

One definition of communication is “any act by which one person gives to or receives from
another person information about that person's needs, desires, perceptions, knowledge, or
affective states. Communication may be intentional or unintentional, may involve
conventional or unconventional signals, may take linguistic or non-linguistic forms, and may
occur through spoken or other modes.”
A process by which activities of a society are collected and coordinated to reach the goals of
both individuals and the collective group. It is a subfield
of general communications studies and is often a component to effective management in
a workplace environment.

Communicating and Organizing — There are two main approaches to defining the
relationship between

communicating and organizing:

1. the container approach assumes that organizations exist independently of

communication and

serve as containers that influence communication behavior. For example, organizational

structures,

such as hierarchical, are assumed to exist independently and influence the content and
directional

flow of communication.

2. the social constructionist approach assumes that communication creates the form and
shape

of organizations. For example, when organizational members consistently funnel their

information through one person, they create a centralized network structure
where one person maintains a

high degree of power because s/he is at the hub and controls the flow of information.
When people change the content and form of their communication such as
transmitting their information to a larger array of people, they create new
organizational structures, such as decentralized networks.

Defining Organizational Communication

How one defines organizational communication depends on one’s view of the

relationship between communicating and organizing. According to the container
approach, organizational communication can be defined

as the transmission of a message through a channel to a receiver. In the social

constructionist approach, organizational communication can be defined as the way
language is used to create different kinds of social structures, such as relationships,
teams, and networks. The former definition emphasizes the constraints that are placed
on communication given pre-existing organizational structures and the latter definition
highlights the creative potential of communication to construct new possibilities for
organizing.
 However, organizational communication may be viewed more profitably as balancing
creativity and constraint, as it is never entirely either constrained or creative. The
definition of organizational communication as balancing creativity and constraint
focuses on how individuals use communication to work out the tension between
working within the constraints of pre-existing organizational structures and promoting
change and creativity.

1 Axley, S. (1984). Managerial and organizational communication in terms of

the conduit metaphor.

• Effective leadership communication connects with the hearts and minds of

followers.

At some level, effective leadership communication connects with the

important values, attitudes,

and commitments of followers and is viewed as addressing significant issues

and facilitating task

accomplishment.

• Effective leadership communication manages competing goals and

tensions. Effective leadership communication balances the needs to create strong
interpersonal relationships and accomplish tasks, maintain a balance between
order and chaos within the organization, and use rewards and punishments to
motivate followers.

Rather than take an either-or position, effective leaders try to create a

“both-and” position where oppositions are integrated constructively.

• Effective leadership communication is context dependent. Every context is

unique, and effective leadership communication is appropriate to the special
combination of people, time, place, and topic.

Module 5 Human Resource Management

Introduction and Importance-

The concept of HRM emerged in the mid-1980s against the background of

the works of famous writers on management, like Pascale and Athos (1981)
and Peters and Waterman (1982), who produced lists of the attributes that
they claimed characterized successful companies

HRM concept was made by the Machigan school (Fomborn et al., 1984). They
explained the human resources cycle that consists of four generic process of
function.
 There are:

1. Selection –Matching available human resources to jobs

2. Appraisal –Performance management

3. Rewards –It must reward short as well as long-term achievements.

4. Development –Developing high quality employees.

They suggest that the HR function should be linked to the line organization
by providing the business with good databases, by ensuring that senior
manager give HR issues as much importance as they give to other functions.

Arm strong (1999) The overall purpose of HRM is to ensure that the
organization is able to achieve success through people. HRM has been
defined as a strategic and coherent approach to the management of an
organization’s most valued assets –the people working there who individually
and collectively contribute to the achievement of its goals.

Importance of human resources management:

Human resources are assuming increasing significance in modern

organisation. Majority of problems in organizational setting are human and
social rather than physical, technical or economic. The failure to manage
human resources causes immense loss to the nation, enterprise and
individual. Hence sound human resources management is a principal
functional area of management.

(1) There are different functional areas of management like production

management, marketing management, financial management, material
management; all these are to be performed by human resources. Hence all
managers have to manage the human resources of their respective
departments to get effective result through and with the people. Though
there is a separate personnel/human resources development manager to
manage the human resources of the entire organisation.

(2) Proper human resources management enables an organisation to

maintain a balance between jobs available and job seekers according to
qualifications and needs and to provide suitable and most productive
employment.

(3) It helps employees to know their strengths and weaknesses and thus
enables them to improve their performance and that of the organisation.
 (4) It helps an organisation to know where opportunities are available for
fuller utilization of the known potentials of the employees. 11

(5) It helps in generating valid data about employees for personnel functions
like training, development, placement, promotion etc.

(6) Sound human resources management can enable an organisation to

understand the nature, potentialities and limitations of its human resources,
to development them to actualize their full potentials, to utilize them to the
optimal ability of the unit, to maintain their quality and to amalgamate them
with other resources, which can lead to effective utilization of human
resources.

(7) Sound human resources management enables an organisation to create

right attitude among the employees through effective motivation, to utilize
effectively the available human resources and thereby to secure willing
cooperation of the employees for achieving goals of the organisation and
fulfilling their own, social and other psychological needs of recognition, love,
affection, belongingness, esteem and self-actualization.

(8) It helps human resources of an organisation to sharpen capabilities

required to perform various function associated as individuals and to
discover and exploit their inner potential for their own and organizational
development purposes and to develop an organizational climate in which
supervisor-subordinate relationships, team work and collaboration among
sub units are strong and support to the professional wellbeing’s, motivation
and pride of employees.

From above discussion it can be said that human resources management

provides direction to the management of the organisation to meet both the
objectives

of the organisation and the needs of the employees. It has been proved as
one of the best method for achieving people effectiveness

Concepts of Personnel Management and HRM

The term ‘human resource management’ was being used by Peter Drucker and others
in North America as early as the 1950s without any special meaning, and usually simply as
another label for ‘personnel management’ or ‘personnel administration’. By the 1980s,
however, HRM had come to mean a ‘radically different philosophy and approach to the
management of people at work’ (Storey, 1989; pp4–5) with an emphasis on performance,
workers’ commitment, and rewards based on individual or team contribution, differing
 significantly in all of these from the corresponding aspects of traditional personnel
management. One of the main characteristics of HRM is the devolution of many aspects of
‘people management’ from specialists directly to line managers. HRM itself has been called
‘the discovery of personnel management by chief executives’. So line managers over the
past ten years or so have frequently been confronted with HRM decisions and activities in
their day-to-day business in a way that was not the case previously.

This process has been accelerated by a more recent development which adds to the
burden of the line manager while increasing the effectiveness of the organisation as a
whole. Outsourcing of large areas of the traditional personnel management
department’s routine functions has happened on a massive scale in the last decade.
Outsourcing of non-core functions, allowing the organisation to concentrate on its core
competencies, has been one of the single most important organisational factors in both
business and the public sector in recent times.

It is extremely unlikely that this will be set in reverse in the foreseeable future. In the
case of HR services the ‘dis-integrating’ effects of outsourcing have been amplified by
such related developments as ‘e-HR’, in which the use of new technologies allows the
provision of ‘self-service’ HR to employees and managers, and ‘HR business partnering’,
in which large organisations disperse ‘HR partners’ to constituent businesses (Caldwell
and Storey, 2007)

– Strategic HRM

Strategic HRM defines the organization’s intentions and plans on how

its business goals should be achieved through people. It is based on three propositions: first,
that human capital is a major source of competitive advantage; second, that it is people who
implement the strategic plan; and, third, that a systematic approach should be adopted to
defining where the organization wants to go and how it should get there.

Strategic HRM is a process that involves the use of overarching approaches to the
development of HR strategies, which are integrated vertically with the business strategy and
horizontally with one another.

These strategies define intentions and plans related to overall organizational considerations,
such as organizational effectiveness, and to more specific aspects of people management,
such as resourcing, learning and development, reward and employee relations.

THE MEANING OF STRATEGIC HRM

Strategic HRM focuses on actions that differentiate the firm from its competitors (Purcell,
1999). It is suggested by Hendry and Pettigrew (1986) that it has four meanings:

- the use of planning;

- a coherent approach to the design and management of personnel
- systems based on an employment policy and workforce strategy and
- often underpinned by a ‘philosophy’;
- matching HRM activities and policies to some explicit business strategy;
- seeing the people of the organization as a ‘strategic resource’ for the
- achievement of ‘competitive advantage’.

Strategic HRM addresses broad organizational issues relating to changes in structure and
culture, organizational effectiveness and performance, matching resources to future
requirements, the development of distinctive capabilities, knowledge management, and the
management of change. It is concerned with both human capital requirements and the
development of process capabilities, that is, the ability to get things done effectively.
Overall, it deals with any major people issues that affect or are affected by the strategic
plans of the organization. As Boxall (1996) remarks: ‘The critical concerns of HRM, such as
choice of executive leadership and formation of positive patterns of labour relations, are
strategic in any firm.’
 - role of a HR Manager

A human resources manager oversees all aspects of workforce development and

management for her employer, ensuring the company is appropriately staffed. While
responsibilities vary on a day-to-day basis, she regularly serves as a primary point person for
all issues related to employee activity

Recruiting and Interviewing

The human resources manager works with executive management to ensure the most
appropriately qualified employees are positioned in the most appropriate roles. When hiring
needs arise, she develops a job description, advertises for the position and screens and
interviews applicants. She also performs background checks, contacts references and invites
other executives to be part of the interview process to ensure a good fit with a new
employee.

Hiring and Firing

When a new employee is hired, the human resources manager draws up the necessary
contractual paperwork and asks the employee to fill out pertinent tax documentation forms.
When an employee quits or is fired, the manager conducts an exit interview, issues a final
paycheck and makes arrangements to file final tax paperwork on the employee's behalf. She
takes possession of the employee's keys, codes and access passes prior to finalizing the
termination of employment.

Orientation and Training

Unless the company has a training manager on staff, the human resources manager is
responsible for conducting new employee orientation. This involves going through an
employee manual, explaining corporate policy and procedure and introducing the new
employee to fellow staffers. She also issues office equipment, keys and identification and
computer passwords.

Conflict Mediation
In the event a dispute arises between colleagues, employees and managers, the human
resources manager serves as mediator. She may counsel each party individually, or
together, and develop a compromise solution that is acceptable to everyone involved. If
there are allegations of misconduct, she recommends disciplinary action, and documents all
interactions in employee files.

Salary and Benefits

The human resources manager is involved in salary negotiations. She also oversees company
benefits, helping employees select appropriate options and explaining coverage terms. If
the organization has a retirement plan, a health savings account or a profit sharing program,
the human resources manager coordinates efforts with the accounting and finance division
to ensure employees are appropriately compensated.

Executive Liaison
The executive division of a company relies on the human resources manager to keep tabs on
changes to employment law and to assist in long-term strategic staffing plans. She consults
with upper management about staffing needs, is involved in retaining consultants and
independent contractors, and represents the employer in recruiting venues.

Human Resources Planning – Objectives - HRP Process –

According to E. W. Vetter, Human resource planning is “a process by which an

organization should move from its current manpower position to its desired manpower
position. Through planning, management strikes to have the right number and right kinds
of people, at the right places, at the right time, doing things which result in both the
organization and the individual receiving maximum long-run benefit.”

According to Bruce P. Coleman, Manpower Planning is defined as, “the process of

determining manpower requirement in order to carry out the integrated plan of the
organization.”

Planning is very important to our everyday activities. Several definitions have been given by
different writers what planning is all about and its importance to achieving our objectives. It
is amazing that this important part of HR is mostly ignored in HR in most organizations
because those at the top do not know the value of HR planning. Organizations that do not
plan for the future have less opportunities to survive the competition ahead. This article will
discuss the importance of HR planning; the six steps of HR planning that is : Forecasting;
inventory, audit, HR Resource Plan; Actioning of Plan; Monitoring and Control.
Definition of HR Planning
Quoting Mondy et (1996) they define it as a systematic analysis of HR needs in order to
ensure that correct number of employees with the necessary skills are available when they
are required.
When we prepare our planning programme, Practitioners should bear in mind that their
staff members have their objective they need to achieve. This is the reason why employees
seek employment. Neglecting these needs would result in poor motivation that may lead to
unnecessary poor performance and even Industrial actions.
Importance of Planning

Planning is not as easy as one might think because it requires a concerted effort to come out
with a programme that would easy your work. Commencing is complicated, but once you
start and finish it you have a smile because everything moves smoothly.
Planning is a process that have to be commenced form somewhere and completed for a
purpose. It involves gathering information that would enable managers and supervisors
make sound decisions. The information obtained is also utilized to make better actions for
achieving the objectives of the Organization. There are many factors that you have to look
into when deciding for an HR Planning programme.
HR Planning involves gathering of information, making objectives, and making decisions to
enable the organization achieve its objectives. Surprisingly, this aspect of HR is one of the
most neglected in the HR field. When HR Planning is applied properly in the field of HR
Management, it would assist to address the following questions:

1. How many staff does the Organization have?

2. What type of employees as far as skills and abilities does the Company have?
3. How should the Organization best utilize the available resources?
4. How can the Company keep its employees?

HR planning makes the organization move and succeed in the 21st Century that we are in.
Human Resources Practitioners who prepare the HR Planning programme would assist the
Organization to manage its staff strategically. The programme assist to direct the actions of
HR department.
The programme does not assist the Organization only, but it will also facilitate the career
planning of the employees and assist them to achieve the objectives as well. This augment
motivation and the Organization would become a good place to work. HR Planning forms an
important part of Management information system.
HR have an enormous task keeping pace with the all the changes and ensuring that the right
people are available to the Organization at the right time. It is changes to the composition of
the workforce that force managers to pay attention to HR planning. The changes in
composition of workforce not only influence the appointment of staff, but also the methods
of selection, training, compensation and motivation. It becomes very critical when
Organizations merge, plants are relocated, and activities are scaled down due to financial
problems.
Steps in HR Planning

Forecasting HR Planning requires that we gather data on the Organizational goals objectives.
One should understand where the Organization wants to go and how it wants to get to that
point. The needs of the employees are derived from the corporate objectives of the
Organization. They stern from shorter and medium term objectives and their conversion
into action budgets (eg) establishing a new branch in New Dehli by January 2006 and staff it
with a Branch Manager (6,000 USD, Secretary 1,550 USD, and two clerical staff 800 USD per
month. Therefore, the HR Plan should have a mechanism to express planned Company
strategies into planned results and budgets so that these can be converted in terms of
numbers and skills required
Inventory
After knowing what human resources are required in the Organization, the next step is to
take stock of the current employees in the Organization. The HR inventory should not only
relate to data concerning numbers, ages, and locations, but also an analysis of individuals
and skills. Skills inventory provides valid information on professional and technical skills and
other qualifications provided in the firm. It reveals what skills are immediately available
when compared to the forecasted HR requirements.
Audit
We do not live in a static World and our HR resources can transform dramatically. HR
inventory calls for collection of data, the HR audit requires systematic examination and
analysis of this data. The Audit looks at what had occured in the past and at present in terms
of labor turn over, age and sex groupings, training costs and absence. Based on this
information, one can then be able to predict what will happen to HR in the future in the
Organization.
HR Resource Plan
Here we look at career Planning and HR plans. People are the greatest asserts in any
Organization. The Organization is at liberty to develop its staff at full pace in the way ideally
suited to their individual capacities. The main reason is that the Organization’s objectives
should be aligned as near as possible, or matched, in order to give optimum scope for the
developing potential of its employees. Therefore, career planning may also be referred to as
HR Planning or succession planning.
The questions that should concern us are
 a) Are we making use of the available talent we have in the Organization, and have
we an enough provision for the future?
b) Are employees satisfied with our care of their growth in terms of advancing their
career?
Actioning of Plan

There are three fundamentals necessary for this first step.

1) Know where you are going.

2) There must be acceptance and backing from top management for the planning.

3) There must be knowledge of the available resources (i.e) financial, physical and
human (Management and technical).

Once in action, the HR Plans become Corporate plans. Having been made and concurred
with top management, the plans become a part of the company’s long-range plan. Failure to
achieve the HR Plans due to cost, or lack of knowledge, may be serious constraints on the
long-range plan. Below is an illustration of how HR Plan is linked to corporate Plan.
Monitoring and Control.

This is the last stage of HR planning in the Organization. Once the programme has been
accepted and implementation launched, it has to be controlled. HR department has to make
a follow up to see what is happening in terms of the available resources. The idea is to
make sure that we make use of all the available talents that are at our disposal failure of
which we continue to struggle to get to the top.
Objectives of Human Resource Planning

1. To recruit and maintain the HR of requisite quantity and quality.

2. To predict the employee turnover and make the arrangements for minimizing
turnover and filing up of consequent vacancies.
3. To meet the requirements of the programmes of expansion, diversification etc.
4. To anticipate the impact of technology on work, existing employees and future
human resource requirements.
5. To progress the knowledge, skill, standards, ability and discipline etc.
6. To appraise the surplus or shortage of human resources and take actions
accordingly.
7. To maintain pleasant industrial relations by maintaining optimum level and structure
of human resource.
8. To minimize imbalances caused due to non-availability of human resources of right
kind, right number in right time and right place.
9. To make the best use of its human resources; and
 10. To estimate the cost of human resources.

Manpower Estimation –

Manpower is the total supply of personnel available or engaged for a specific job or task.
Total labor force of a nation, including both men and women. If there are more people than
available jobs, it is called manpower surplus; if available people are fewer than jobs, it is
called manpower deficit.

The manpower estimate consists of a listing of the number of direct labor man-days
required to complete the various activities of a specific project. These estimates may
show only the man-days for each activity, or they may be in sufficient detail to list the
number of man-days for each rating in each activity—Builder (BU), Construction
Electrician(CE), Equipment Operator (EO), Steelworker (SW),and Utilities man (UT). Man-
day estimates are used in determining the number of personnel and the ratings required
on a deployment.

Job analysis

Job Analysis
Job analysis-Duties involved and skills required in jobs
Definition:-
"Job analysis is the process of studying and collecting information relating to the operations
and responsibilities of specific job.The immediate products are job description and job
specifications"

• Systematic exploration of activities with in a job.

• Defining duties, responsibilities and accountability of a job.

Steps in job analysis

• Collecting and recording job information
• Checking the job information for accuracy
• Writing job description based on the information
• Using the information to determine the skills, abilities and knowledge that are required in
a job.
Updating the information from time to time

Purpose of Job Analysis

The purpose of the job analysis is job specification and job description for:-

❖ Human resource planning

 ❖ Recruitment and selection
❖ Training and development
❖ Remuneration
❖ Job evaluation
❖ Performance appraisal
❖ Personnel information
❖ Safety and health

Job Design

• The logical sequence of job analysis.

• Job design is the conscious efforts to organize tasks, duties and responsibilities in to
a unit of work to achieve certain objectives
• Definition- Job design integrate work content(tasks, functions, relationships), the
rewards ( extrinsic and intrinsic) and qualification required ( skill, knowledge, abilities)
or each job in way that meets the needs of employees and the organization.

Steps in Job Design

• The specification of individual tasks

• The specification of methods of performing each task
• Combination of tasks in to specific jobs to be assigned to individuals
a successful job design should balancing the requirement of organization and job
holder.

-job Description

Job description
It is a statement containing item such as
Supervision given or received
• Job title - Job summary
• Location - Duties
• Machines, tools and equipments - Materials and forms used
• working conditions- Hazards

Importance of Job Description

• the way tasks and responsibility grouped effects productivity and cost.
• Job which are not satisfying or are too demanding are difficult to fill
• Boring jobs may leads to higher turn over.
• Good job description leads to higher motivation and job satisfaction.
-Job Specification –

Job specification
A statement on the human qualifications necessary to do the job, which contains items such
as
• Education
• Experience
• Training
• Initiative
• Physical efforts
• Communication skills
• Unusual sensory demands
• Judgment
• Physical skills
• Responsibilities
• Emotional characteristics

Recruitment-Sources of Recruitment –

According to Edwin B. Flippo, “Recruitment is the process of searching the candidates

for employment and stimulating them to apply for jobs in the organisation”.
Recruitment is the activity that links the employers and the job seekers. A few
definitions of recruitment are:

A process of finding and attracting capable applicants for employment. The process
begins when new recruits are sought and ends when their applications are submitted.
The result is a pool of applications from which new employees are selected.

It is the process to discover sources of manpower to meet the requirement of staffing

schedule and to employ effective measures for attracting that manpower in adequate
numbers to facilitate effective selection of an efficient working force.
Recruitment is a continuous process whereby the firm attempts to develop a pool of
qualified applicants for the future human resources needs even though specific vacancies do
not exist. Usually, the recruitment process starts when a manger initiates an employee
requisition for a specific vacancy or an anticipated vacancy.

RECRUITMENT NEEDS ARE OF THREE TYPES

PLANNED
i.e. the needs arising from changes in organization and retirement policy.

ANTICIPATED
Anticipated needs are those movements in personnel, which an organization can predict by
studying trends in internal and external environment.
 UNEXPECTED
Resignation, deaths, accidents, illness give rise to unexpected needs.

SOURCES OF RECRUITMENT

Internal Sources Of Recruitment

1. TRANSFERS
The employees are transferred from one
department to another according to their
efficiency and experience.

2. PROMOTIONS
The employees are promoted from one
department to another with more benefits and
greater responsibility based on efficiency and
experience.

3. Others are Upgrading and Demotion of present employees according to their

performance.

4. Retired and Retrenched employees may also be recruited once again in case of
shortage of qualified personnel or increase in load of work. Recruitment such people
save time and costs of the organisations as the people are already aware of the
organisational culture and the policies and procedures.
 5. The dependents and relatives of Deceased employees and Disabled employeesare
also done by many companies so that the members of the family do not become
dependent on the mercy of others.

External Sources of Recruitment

1. Campus Recruitment: These candidates are directly recruited by the Co; from their
college/educational institution. They are inexperienced as far as work experience is
concerned.

2. Private Employment Agencies/Consultants: Public employment agencies or

consultants like ABC Consultants inIndia perform recruitment functions on behalf of a client
company by charging fees. Line managers are relieved from recruitment functions and can
concentrate on operational activities.

3. Public Employment Exchanges: The Government set up Public Employment

Exchanges in the country to provide information about vacancies to the candidates and to
help the organization in finding out suitable candidates. As per the Employment Exchange
act 1959, makes it obligatory for public sector and private sector enterprises inIndia to fill
certain types of vacancies through public employment exchanges.

4. Professional Organizations: Professional organizations or associations maintain

complete bio-data of their members and provide the same to various organizations on
requisition. They act as an exchange between their members and recruiting firm.

5. Data Banks: The management can collect the bio-data of the candidates from
different sources like Employment Exchange, Educational Training Institutes, candidates etc
and feed them in the computer. It will become another source and the co can get the
particulars as and when required.

6. Casual Applicants: Depending on the image of the organization its prompt response
participation of the organization in the local activities, level of unemployment, candidates
apply casually for jobs through mail or handover the application in the Personnel dept. This
would be a suitable source for temporary and lower level jobs.
7. Similar Organizations: Generally experienced candidates are available in
organizations producing similar products or are engaged in similar business. The
Management can get potential candidates from this source.

8. Trade Unions: Generally unemployed or underemployed persons or employees

seeking change in employment put a word to the trade union leaders with a view to getting
suitable employment due to latter rapport with the management.

9. Walk In: The busy organization and rapid changing companies do not find time to
perform various functions of recruitment. Therefore they advise the potential candidates to
attend for an interview directly and without a prior application on a specified date, time and
at a specified place.

10. Consult In: the busy and dynamic companies encourage the potential job seekers to
approach them personally and consult them regarding the jobs. The companies select the
suitable candidates and advise the company regarding the filling up of the positions.
Headhunters are also called search consultants.

11. Body Shopping: Professional organizations and the hi-tech training develop the pool
of human resource for the possible employment. The prospective employers contact these
organizations to recruit the candidates. Otherwise the organizations themselves approach
the prospective employers to place their human resources. These professional and training
institutions are called body shoppers and these activities are known as body shopping. The
body shopping is used mostly for computer professionals. Body shopping is also known as
employee leasing activity.

12. Mergers and Acquisitions: Business alliances like acquisitions, mergers and take over
help in getting human resources. In addition the companies do also alliances in sharing their
human resource on adhoc basis.

13. recruitment: The technological revolution in telecommunications helped the

organizations to use internet as a source of recruitment. Organizations advertise the job
vacancies through the worldwide wed (www). The job seekers send their applications
through e-mail using the Internet.
 14. Outsourcing: Some organizations recently started developing human resource pool
by employing the candidates for them. These organizations do not utilize the human
resources; instead they supply HRs to various companies based on their needs on temporary
or ad-hoc basis.

Selection Process-Placement and Induction - Retention of Employees.

Steps in the selection procedure in an organization.

Selection is a process of selecting the right candidate for the right job. It is about collecting
information about the candidate’s qualifications, experience, physical and mental ability,
nature and behaviour, knowledge, aptitude etc for judging whether a given applicant is
suitable or not for the job. The selection process is discussed below:

1. Job Analysis: Job analysis is the basis for selecting the right candidate. Every organisation
should finalise the job analysis. Job description, job specification and employee
specifications before proceeding to the next step of selection.

2. Human Resource Plan: Every company plans for the required number of and kind of
employees for a future date. This is the basis for recruitment function.

3. Recruitment: Recruitment refers to the process of searching for prospective employees

and stimulating them to apply for jobs in an organisation. It is the basis for the remaining
techniques of the selection and the latter varies depending upon the former. It develops
the applicants’ pool.

4. Application Form: Application form is also known as application blank. The technique of
application blank is traditional and widely accepted for securing information from the
prospective candidates. It can also be used as a device to screen the candidates at the
preliminary level. Many companies formulate their own style of application forms
depending upon the requirements of information based on the size of the company, nature
of business activities, type and level of the job etc. Information is generally required on the
following items in the application forms : (i) Personal background information, (ii)
Educational attainments, (iii) Work experiences, (iv) Salary, (v) Personal details and (vi)
References.
1. Written Examination: The organization have to conduct written examination for the
qualified candidates after they are screened on the basis of the application blanks so as to
measure the candidate’s ability in arithmetical calculations, to know the candidates attitude
towards the job, to measure the candidates aptitude, reasoning, knowledge in various
disciplines, general knowledge and English language.

2. Preliminary Interview: The preliminary interview is to solicit necessary information

from the prospective applicants and to assess the applicant’s suitability to the job. The
information provided by the candidate may be related to the job or personal specifications
regarding education, experience, salary expected aptitude towards the job, age physical
appearance and other physical requirements etc. Thus preliminary interview is useful as a
process of eliminating the undesirable candidates. If a candidate satisfies the job
requirement regarding most of the arrears he may be selected for further process.
Preliminary interviews are short and known as stand-up interviews or sizing up of the
applicants or screening interview. This interview is also useful to provide the basis
information about the company to the candidate.

3. Business Games: Business games are widely used as a selection technique for
selecting management trainees, executive trainees and managerial personnel at junior,
middle and top management positions. Business games help to evaluate the applicants in
the areas of decision making, identifying the potentialities, handling the situations, problem-
solving skills, human relations skills etc. Participants are placed in a hypothetical work
situation and are required to play the role situations in the game.

4. Group Discussions: The technique of group discussion is used in order to secure

further information regarding the suitability of the candidate for the job. Group discussion
is a method where groups of the successful applicants are brought around a conference
table and are asked to discuss either a case study or a subject matter. The candidates in the
group are required to analyze, discuss, find alternative solutions and select the sound
solution. A selection panel then observes the candidates in the areas of initiating the
discussion, explaining the problem, soliciting unrevealing information based on the given
information and using common sense, keenly observing the discussion of others, clarifying
controversial issues, influencing others, speaking effectively, concealing and mediating
arguments among the participants and summarizing or concluding aptly. The selection
panel, based on its observations, judges the candidate’s skills and ability and ranks them
according to their merit

PLACEMENT AND INDUCTION

placement

Ans. Placement is a process of assigning a specific job to each of the selected candidates. It
involves assigning a specific rank and responsibility to an individual. It implies matching the
requirements of a job with the qualifications of the candidate.

the significance of placement

The significances of placement are as follows: -

* It improves employee morale.

* It helps in reducing employee turnover.
* It helps in reducing absenteeism.
* It helps in reducing accident rates.
* It avoids misfit between the candidate and the job.
* It helps the candidate to work as per the predetermined objectives of the organization.

induction
Once an employee is selected and placed on an appropriate job, the process of familiarizing
him with the job and the organization is known as induction.

Induction is the process of receiving and welcoming an employee when he first joins the
company and giving him basic information he needs to settle down quickly and happily and
stars work.
objectives of induction
Induction is designed to achieve following objectives: -
* To help the new comer to overcome his shyness and overcome his shyness nervousness in
meeting new people in a new environment.
* To give new comer necessary information such as location of a café, rest period etc.
* To build new employee confidence in the organization.
* It helps in reducing labor turnover and absenteeism.
* It reduces confusion and develops healthy relations in the organization.
* To ensure that the new comer do not form false impression and negative attitude towards
the organization.
* To develop among the new comer a sense of belonging and loyalty to the organization.

The advantages of formal induction

The advantages of formal induction are: -
* Induction helps to build up a two-way channel of communication between management
and workers.
* Proper induction facilitates informal relation and team work among employee.
* Effective induction helps to integrate the new employee into the organization and to
develop a sense of belonging.

* Induction helps to develop good relation.

* A formal induction programme proves that the company is taking interest in getting him
off to good start.
* Proper induction reduces employee grievances, absenteeism and labor turnover.
* Induction is helpful in supplying information concerning the organization, the job and
employee welfare facilities.

The contents of induction programme

A formal induction programme should provide following information: -

* Brief history and operations of the company.
* The company’s organization structure.
* Policies and procedure of the company.
* Products and services of the company.
* Location of department and employee facilities.
* Safety measures.
* Grievances procedures.
* Benefits and services of employee.
* Standing orders and disciplinary procedures.
* Opportunities for training, promotions, transfer etc.
* Suggestion schemes.
* Rules and regulations.

Employee retention
Employee retention refers to the ability of an organization to retain its employees.
Employee retention can be represented by a simple statistic (for example, a retention rate
of 80% usually indicates that an organization kept 80% of its employees in a given period).
However, many consider employee retention as relating to the efforts by which employers
attempt to retain employees in their workforce. In this sense, retention becomes the
strategies rather than the outcome.

A distinction should be drawn between low performing employees and top performers, and
efforts to retain employees should be targeted at valuable, contributing employees.
Employee turnover is a symptom of a deeper issue that has not been resolved. These
deeper issues may include low employee morale, absence of a clear career path, lack of
recognition, poor employee-manager relationships or many other issues . A lack of
satisfaction and commitment to the organization can also cause an employee to withdraw
and begin looking for other opportunities. Pay does not always play as large a role in
inducing turnover as is typically believed.

Employee Retention is the ability of an organization to retain its employees (especially the
best ones). For example an ER rate of 89% means that 89% of employees were kept in a
period (year).
Usually, an organization will aim to reduce its employee turnover and all associated costs.
By various ways of employee motivation, employers can increase their retention rate:
- Salary, benefits, perks
- Contests and incentives
- Motivational conversations, good communication
- Promoting from within
- Fostering employee and management development
- Participative leadership
- Employee ownership
- Compelling corporate purpose, mission statement

Performance Evaluation & Rewards,

Performance Evaluation is a constructive process to acknowledge the

performance of a non-probationary career employee. An employee's
evaluation shall be sufficiently specific to inform and guide the employee in
the performance of her/his duties. Performance evaluation is not in and of
itself a disciplinary procedure.

EVALUATION OF EMPLOYEES

1. The performance of each employee shall be evaluated at least annually, in

accordance with a process established by the University. Nothing in this
Article shall prohibit the written evaluation of any employee more frequently
than once annually.
 2. The performance of non-probationary career employees shall be evaluated
in writing at least annually on a schedule and in a manner in accordance with
the campus/hospital/Laboratory determined performance evaluation
procedure(s). At the time of evaluation, the employee shall be given a copy of
the evaluation and shall have the opportunity to provide written comments
regarding the evaluation or add relevant materials which may supplement or
enhance the evaluation. The comments or additional relevant materials, if
any, shall be attached to the employee's evaluation and placed in the
employee's personnel file.

3. In the event a non-probationary career employee does not receive the

written evaluation, the employee's performance for the year period shall be
deemed to have been satisfactory for the purposes of salary increase.

4. The annual period within which written performance evaluations of non

probationary career employees are to be provided shall be determined by
the University on a campus by campus basis.

5. Except in the case of minor or non-substantive changes, the University will

give at least forty-five (45) calendar days notice prior to implementing a new
performance form or written performance standard and will provide a copy
of the proposed form or written standard to UPTE.

Employees are motivated by both intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. To be

effective, the reward system must recognize both sources of motivation. All
reward systems are based on the assumptions of attracting, retaining and
motivating people. Financial rewards are an important component of the
reward system, but there are other factors that motivate employees and
influence the level of performance. In fact, several studies have found that
among employees surveyed, money was not the most important motivator,
and in some instances managers have found money to have a demotivating
or negative effect on employees.

Strategies for rewarding employees’ performance and contributions include both non-
financial and financial mechanisms.Some of the primary ones are discussed below. The list is
not exhaustive, and individual units/departments may identify additional mechanisms that
are appropriate for and support their culture and goals.

▪ Praise/recognition from supervisors - Praise and recognition from

supervisors is consistently found to be among the most important
 motivators. Employees want to be recognized and feel their contributions are
noticed and valued. It is important that supervisors recognize the value and
importance of sincerely thanking employees verbally and/or in writing for their
specific contributions.

▪ Challenging work assignments - Challenging/new work

assignments are another mechanism available to supervisors to
reward good performance. Such assignments can provide
employees opportunities to develop new skills, expand their
knowledge, and/or increase their visibility within the organization.
They also send an important message that employees’
contributions are recognized and valued. In considering such
assignments, supervisors should consult employees about the
types of assignments that would be most valued, and they should also assess
whether workloads will need to be redistributed to ensure employees have
adequate time to devote to new tasks.

▪ Professional growth and development opportunities-

Supervisors may provide employees opportunities to
participate in educational programs or other activities that will
expand their skills/knowledge (Job Related Training: HOOP
2.44 (Internal) and 2.45 (External)). Employees benefit by
developing new skills, and the institution benefits from the
additional expertise individuals bring to the job. Nelson notes a recent survey found
that 87% of responding workers viewed special training as a positive incentive, and it
appeared most meaningful to employees with postgraduate
education.

▪ Paid Leave - Supervisors may award employees up to 32

hours of paid leave annually in recognition of meritorious
performance (Administrative Leave: HOOP 2.39C).

▪ Progression through the salary range - Employees may receive

salary increases to recognize the attainment of new and/or the
enhancement of existing skills/competencies or for assuming
increased responsibilities within the scope of the current
 position. The salary increase represents a progression through the salary range
approved for the position ( Salary Administration: HOOP 5.09 ).

Merit increases - UT-Houston policy (Salary Administration: HOOP

3.04 (Administrative and Professional) and Salary Administration: HOOP
5.09 (Classified) ) allows supervisors to give employees an annual merit
increase to recognize consistently meritorious performance or
successful completion of a project that had a significant impact on a
department or the university. The reward may be in any amount up to
5% of the employee's current base salary, subject to the availability of
funds. Budgetary information regarding fiscal year merit increases are issued annually as
part of the budget process as soon as the institution's fiscal position can be determined. To
be eligible for a merit increase, employees must have been employed for at least six
continuous months and at least six months must have elapsed since the employee's last
salary increase, promotion, salary increase due to progression in the salary range, demotion
or transfer from another department.

▪ Lump Sum Merit

A lump sum merit is a one-time award, not added to base pay,
that can be awarded to an individual for meritorious job
performance. Meritorious job performance is defined as either
consistently high level of job performance over a sustained
period of time; or successful completion of an assigned project
that had a significant positive impact on the department or the
university.
▪ An employee cannot be guaranteed in advance a
payment of a lump sum merit for achieving
performance targets.
▪ A lump sum merit award is not considered
compensation for purposes of the overtime calculation
for FLSA non-exempt employees.
▪ A lump sum merit award is considered compensation
for purposes of inclusion and contributions for
Teachers Retirement System (TRS) or Optional
Retirement Program (ORP) per HB1545, Section 51.962
as amended.
▪ Lump sum merit awards are included in the Tax
Sheltered Annuity (TSA) calculation.
▪ A lump sum merit may be paid from any fund source.
Payment from a grant fund will be up to each individual
granting agency.
 ▪ An important part of base pay management is the
maintenance/monitoring of an employee's base pay
salary and progression through the salary range. HR
strongly encourages managers to award the regular
merit increase as an additive to base pay if the
employee's current pay is below salary range midpoint
and the permanent funding is available.
▪ See Section I. Criteria for Merit Awards in the
Procedures Section of this policy for further criteria
that apply to the award of a Lump Sum Merit.

Promotions and lateral moves - Promotions and lateral moves may be long term
rewards that recognize employees’ professional growth, expertise, and capacity to
contribute to the institution in new roles. Promotions are typically associated with
an increase in salary, and the increase may be any amount up to 5% of an
employee’s current salary. For employees with base salaries under $25,000, the
increase may be any amount up to $1,250. The new salary also must be within the
salary range approved for the position, and employees are subject to a 90-day
probationary period following a promotion/lateral move to a new department
(Salary Administration: HOOP 5.09).

▪ Administrative salary supplements - Employees who assume new/additional

responsibilities on an interim basis may receive administrative salary supplements
that are paid in addition to the base salary. The supplement is discontinued when
the employee is no longer responsible for the additional responsibilities.

▪ Informal rewards - When warranted, supervisors may choose to give employees

informal rewards for specific accomplishments/contributions. State law and
institutional policy (Award: HOOP 2.07) allow expenditures of up to $50 of state
funds and $100 of non-state funds per employee for informal non-cash rewards that
demonstrate the supervisor’s/institution’s appreciation. Supervisors can be creative
in identifying informal rewards that will be appreciated by the particular individual
being recognized, but, in selecting and purchasing rewards, supervisors must be
sensitive to the institution’s responsibility to be good stewards of public funds.

Training and Development

The training is a continuous process could be improved by various methods.
Awareness as to the need training for personnel for the field of social welfare
in India is only of very recent origin.

Training is: (a) an action process, (b) by which capabilities of personnel can be
improved (c) to meet the social welfare organizational needs in terms of their
knowledge, skills, and attitudes required in performing organizational tasks
and functions, (d) within relatively short period of the time.

Training is well articulated effort to promote competence in the public by

imparting professional knowledge, by broadening of vision and existing
functional responsibilities. It also enable the employees to equip themselves
for senior administrative positions in future.

-Objectives

The objective of the training is to provide an individual with knowledge of the

environment of ecology under which he is to function: the knowledge of
administrative management to acieve optimum performance and cultivation
of necessary attitudes.

1. Environmental or ecological understanding: an employee must

understand the legal framework under which he is to operate. He must
be provide with the basic knowledge of social sciences to understand the
intricacies of social environment. With the knowledge of social sciences
he can react with the environment favourably.
2. Improving administrative capability: there is a great need to enhance the
administrative capability of public services so that they can achieve the
objectives of the government in the shortest possible time.
Administrative capability is an important means of converting or
processing programme inputs into outputs such as goods and services
3. Cultivating genuine attitudes: administration in manned by and meat for
human beings. Administration is an art of conducting human affairs.
Training must also aim to cultivate a new attitude and behavior in human
personality. In the public services, this is more important than the other
two objectives. Marshall suggess the development of the following
integredients to promote right and rational attitudes. (i)development of
rational thinking (ii)development of objective thinking (iii)development of
social understanding (iv)development of practical abilities (vi)
vevelopment and placement of memory in actions

and Needs –
Training is an educational process. People can learn new information, re-learn and reinforce
existing knowledge and skills, and most importantly have time to think and consider what
new options can help them improve their effectiveness at work. Effective trainings convey
relevant and useful information that inform participants and develop skills and behaviors
that can be transferred back to the workplace.

The goal of training is to create an impact that lasts beyond the end time of the training
itself. The focus is on creating specific action steps and commitments that focus people’s
attention on incorporating their new skills and ideas back at work.

Training can be offered as skill development for individuals and groups. In general, trainings
involve presentation and learning of content as a means for enhancing skill development
and improving workplace behaviors.

Organizational Development is a process that “strives to build the capacity to achieve and
sustain a new desired state that benefits the organization or community and the world
around them.” (from the Organizational Development Network website) OD work implies
creating and sustaining change.

An OD perspective examines the current environment, the present state, and helps people
on a team, in a department and as part of an institution identify effective strategies for
improving performance. In some situations, there may not be anything “wrong” at the
present time; the group or manager may simply be seeking ways to continue to develop and
enhance existing relationships and performance. In other situations, there may be an
identifiable issue or problem that needs to be addressed; the OD process aims to find ideas
and solutions that can effectively return the group to a state of high performance.

These two processes, Training and Organizational Development, are often closely
connected. Training can be used as a proactive means for developing skills and expertise to
prevent problems from arising and can also be an effective tool in addressing any skills or
performance gaps among staff. Organizational Development can be used to create solutions
to workplace issues, before they become a concern or after they become identifiable
problem

Training Process-

Training Process Or Steps Involved For Conducting Training

A training is not a one sort affair; rather it is a step-by-step process that will completed only
after successful completion of given sequential activities.

1. Identifying Training Needs

Training need is a difference between standard performance and actual
performance.Hence, it tries to bridge the gap between standard performance and actual
performance. The gap clearly underlines the need for training of employees. Hence, under
this phase, the gap is identified in order to assess the training needs.

2. Establish Specific Objectives

After the identification of training needs, the must crucial task is to determine the objectives
of training. Hence, the primary purpose of training should focus to bridge the gap between
standard performance and actual performance. This can be done through setting training
objectives. Thus, basic objective of training is to bring proper match between man and the
job.

3. Select Appropriate Methods

Training methods are desired means of attaining training objectives. After the
determination of training needs and specification of objectives, an appropriate training
method is to be identified and selected to achieve the stated objectives. There are number
of training methods available but their suitability is judged as per the need of organizational
training needs.

4. Implement Programs
After the selection of an appropriate method, the actual functioning takes place. Under this
step, the prepared plans and programs are implemented to get the desired output. Under it,
employees are trained to develop for better performance of organizational activities.

5. Evaluate Program
It consists of an evaluation of various aspects of training in order to know whether the
training program was effective. In other words, it refers to the training utility in terms of
effect of training on employes' performance.

6. Feedback
Finally, a feedback mechanism is created in order to identify the weak areas in the training
program and improve the same in future. For this purpose, information relating to class
room, food, lodging etc. are obtained from participants. The obtained information, then,
tabulated, evaluated, and analyzed in order to mark weak areas of training programs and for
future improvements.
 Methods of Training-Tools and Aids –

Explain methods of Training & Development.

Ans. Training & development methods for managerial personnel can be divided into two
groups as follows :
(I) ON THE JOB METHODS :
1. Job Rotation :
Job rotation involves the transfer of trainees from one job to another and sometimes
from one branch to another. Job assignment under a rotation system may last for a period
of 3 months to 2 years. The trainee is given full duties and responsibilities of the rotated
position. It is more suitable for lower level executives.
Advantages :
• Job rotation promotes creative thinking and enables for executive development.
• It provides a rich experience to the candidate in a variety of matters.
• It does away with the monotony of routine duties.
• It creates a second line of competent executives to meet the problems of transfers,
turnover, etc.
• It identifies the most suitable position for an executive. The position in which the trainee
performs better is generally offered to him.
2. Planned Progression :
It is similar to job rotation, except that every movement from one job to another involves
higher pay, position and duties. In job rotation, every movement involves more or less same
pay and position. Planned progression is more likely to occur at higher managerial levels,
whereas, job rotation occurs mainly at lower level positions.

3. Coaching & Counselling :

Coaching : In coaching, the superior plays an active role in training the
subordinate. The superior may assign challenging task to the subordinate for the purpose of
training. The superior may assist and advice the subordinate to complete the assigned task.
In this case, the superior acts as a coach in training the subordinate.
Counselling : In this case, the superior plays a passive role in training the
subordinate. The superior may assign challenging task to the subordinate for the purpose of
training. The superior may provide advice to the subordinate in the completion of task, if so
required. In this case, the superior acts as a guide rather than a coach n training the
subordinate.
4. Understudy Position : The trainee is given an understudy position. The trainee handles
some important aspects of his superior’s job. The trainee, at a future date, is likely to
assume the duties and responsibilities of the position currently held by his immediate
superior.
 The understudy technique ensures a company that a fully qualified person will be available
to take over a present manager’s position whenever he leaves the position through
promotion, transfer, retirement or resignation.

The understudy person is generally asked to do the following :

• He may be asked to investigate and make written recommendations about problems an
projects related to a unit or department.
• He may also supervise a small group of employees to experience leadership qualities.
• He may be called to attend executive meetings either with or in place of the superiors.
• He may be called to assume superior’s position in his absence.
5. Junior Boards : In western countries, junior boards are formed. It permit promising
young middle-level managers to experience problems and responsibilities faced by top-level
executives in their company. About 10 to 12 executives from diverse functions within the
organisation serve on the board for a term of say 6 months or more.
The board is allowed to study any problem faced by the organisation, in respect of
personnel policies, organizational design, interdepartmental conflicts, etc, and to make
recommendations to the senior board of directors.

(II) OFF THE JOB METHODS

1. Classroom Methods : Classroom methods for training managerial personnel include
lectures, discussion, role playing, and case study.
Advantages :
• Training can be given to a large group of trainees at a time, especially in the case of lecture
method.
• Both theoretical and practical aspects are emphasized.
• Training can be done in a short period of time.
• It is economical.
• Senior and qualified expert can train the executives. At times, an outside expert is invited to
give a lecture or for debate.
• It generates interaction among different executives belonging to various departments, and
ranks.
2. Simulation: A simulated learning situation in an imitation of reality. It is a technique
wherein the trainee is trained in an environment that closely reflects and represents actual
work place. It tries to duplicate actual conditions encountered on a job. Simulation is a very
expensive training technique, but it is useful or even necessary, where actual on-the-job
practice could result in a serious injury, a costly error, or the destruction of valuable
company materials or resources.
3. Business or Management Games : Business games are classroom simulation exercises
in which teams of individuals compete against each other to achieve given objectives.
 For instance, teams may be asked to make decisions concerning pricing, production
volumes, research expenditures, advertising and sales promotion plans, channels of
distribution etc. Team actions and decisions are fed into a computer that has been
programmed according to a particular model of the market. Business game participants
learn by analyzing problems and by making trial-and-error decisions.
4. Committees and Conferences :
Committee : A committee can be a method of training. The junior members of the
committee can learn from the discussions and interaction with the senior members of the
committee. The senior members also can learn from the opinions and views expressed by
the junior members.
Conferences : In the case of conferences, group discussion and meetings are held to
discuss various issues and to provide solutions to various problems. The chairperson leads
the discussion and then the participants attempt to provide solutions. The conference acts
as a group interaction and exchange of views and ideas. It reshapes thinking of attitudes of
the participants.
5. Readings, Television and Video Instructions : Planned reading of relevant and current
management literature is one of the best methods of management development. It is
essentially a self-development programme. A manager may be aided by training
department, which often provides a list of valuable books. The manager can discuss the
relevant articles with the senior manger and get necessary clarifications.
6. Seminar and Workshops : Management employees can be trained with the help of
seminars and workshops. In seminars, trainees present their papers on work related
developments. The paper presentations are reviewed by experts. The experts may give their
insights on the topic presented y the trainee. In workshops there is a good interaction
between the trainer and the trainees. The trainer may present his views on certain
developments and then initiate interactive discussion. The trainees can get insights due to
the views expressed by the trainer and other trainees.

Evaluation of training Programs.

The reason for evaluating is to determine the effectiveness of a training

program. When the evaluation is done, we can hope that the results are
positive and gratifying, both for those responsible for the program and for
upper-level managers who will make decisions based on their evaluation of
the program. Therefore, much thought and planning need to be given to the
program itself to make sure that it is effective. Later chapters discuss the
reasons for evaluating and supply descriptions, guidelines, and techniques for
evaluating at the four levels. This chapter is devoted to suggestions for
planning and implementing the program to ensure its effectiveness. More
details can be found in my book Developing Managers and Team Leaders
(Woburn,

MA: Butterworth Heinemann, 2001).

Each of the following factors should be carefully considered when planning

and implementing an effective training program:

1. Determining needs

2. Setting objectives

3. Determining subject content

4. Selecting participants

5. Determining the best schedule

6. Selecting appropriate facilities

7. Selecting appropriate instructors

8. Selecting and preparing audiovisual aids

9. Coordinating the program

10. Evaluating the program

Determining Needs

If programs are going to be effective, they must meet the needs of

participants. There are many ways to determine these needs. Here are some
of the more common:

1. Ask the participants.

2. Ask the bosses of the participants.

3. Ask others who are familiar with the job and how it is being

performed, including subordinates, peers, and customers.

4. Test the participants.

5. Analyze performance appraisal forms.

Setting Objectives
Once the needs have been determined, it is necessary to set objectives.
Objectives should be set for three different aspects of the program and in the
following order:

1. What results are we trying to accomplish? These results can be stated in

such terms as production, quality, turnover, absenteeism, morale, sales,
profits, and return on investment

2. What behaviors are needed to accomplish these desired

results?

3. What knowledge, skills, and attitudes are necessary to achieve

the desired behaviors?

Determining Subject Content

Needs and objectives are prime factors when determining subject content.
Trainers should ask themselves the question, What topicsshould be
presented to meet the needs and accomplish the objectives?

The answers to this question establish the topics to be covered. Some

modifications may be necessary depending on the qualifications of the
trainers who will present the program and on the training budget.

Selecting Participants

When selecting participants for a program, four decisions need to

be made:

1. Who can benefit from the training?

2. What programs are required by law or by government edict?

3. Should the training be voluntary or compulsory?

4. Should the participants be segregated by level in the organization, or

should two or more levels be included in the

same class?

Determining the Best Schedule

The best schedule takes three things into consideration: the trainees,their
bosses, and the best conditions for learning. Many times, training
professionals consider only their own preferences and schedules. An
important scheduling decision is whether to offer the program on a
concentrated basis—for example, as a solid week of training—or to spread it
out over weeks or months. My own preference is to spread it out as an
ongoing program. One good schedule is to offer a threehour session once a
month.Three hours leave you time for participation as well as for the use of
videotapes and other aids.

Selecting Appropriate Facilities

The selection of facilities is another important decision. Facilitiesshould be

both comfortable and convenient. Negative factors to be avoided include
rooms that are too small, uncomfortable furniture, noise or other
distractions, inconvenience, long distances to the training room, and
uncomfortable temperature, either too hot or too cold.

A related consideration has to do with refreshments and breaks. I conducted

a training program on managing change for a large Minneapolis company

Selecting Appropriate Instructors

The selection of instructors is critical to the success of a program.

Their qualifications should include a knowledge of the subject being taught, a

desire to teach, the ability to communicate, and skill at getting people to
participate.They should also be “learner oriented”— have a strong desire to
meet learner needs

Selecting and Preparing Audiovisual Aids

An audiovisual aid has two purposes: to help the leader maintaininterest and
to communicate. Some aids, hopefully only a few minuteslong, are designed
to attract interest and entertain.This is fine providing they develop a positive
climate for learning.When renting or purchasing videotapes and packaged
programs, take care first to be sure that the benefits for the program
outweigh the cost.

Coordinating the Program

Sometimes the instructor coordinates as well as teaches. In other situations a

coordinator does not do the teaching. For those who coordinate and do not
teach, there are two opposite approaches.

Evaluating the Program

Details on evaluation are provided in the rest of the book.As stated at the
beginning of this chapter, to ensure the effective-Concepts, Principles,
 Guidelines, and Techniquesness of a training program, time and emphasis
should be put on the planning and implementation of the program.These are
critical if we are to be sure that, when the evaluation is done, the results are
positive. Consideration of the concepts, principles, and techniques described
in this chapter can help to ensure an effective program.

Module 6 Marketing of Social Services

Social Marketing

Social marketing began as a formal discipline in 1971, with the publication of “Social
Marketing: An Approach to planned social change” in the Jounral of Marketing, has been
used extensively in international health programmes, especially for contraceptives and oral
dehydration therapy (ORT) and is being used with more frequency in the United States for
such diverse topics as drug abuse, heart disease and organ donation. Like commercial
marketing, the primary focus is on the consumer on learning what people want and need
rather than trying to persuade them to buy what we happen to be producing.

Definition

Koller and Andreasen define social marketing as “differing from other areas of
maketing only with respect to the objectives of the marketer and his or her organization.
Social marketing seeks to influence social behaviors not to benefit the marketer, but to
benefit the target audience and the general society”.

Social marketing can be defined as the planning and implementation of the

programmes designed to bring about social change using concepts from commercial
marketing.

and marketing mix,

Elements of Marketing Mix

The planning process takes the consumer focus into account by addressing the
elements of the “Marketing Mix”. This refers to decisions about a) the conception of a
product (b) price (c) distribution (Place), and (d) promotion. These are often called the
“Four Ps” of marketing. Social marketing also adds a few more “Ps”.

a) Product: The social marketing “product” is not necessarily a physical offering. A

continuum of products exists, ranging from tangible, physical product (e.g.
condoms), to services (e.g. medical exams), practices, (e.g. breast feeding, ORT
 or eating a heart healthy diet) and finally, more intangible ideas (eg
environmental protection).
b) Price: Price refers to what the consumer must do in order to obtain the social
marketing product. This cost may be monetary, o it may instead require the
consumer to give up intangibles, such as time or effort, or to risk embarrassment
and disapproval. If the product is priced too low, or provided free of charge, the
consumer may perceive it as being low in quality. On the other hand if the price
is too high, some will not be able to afford it. Social marketers must balance
these considerations.
c) Place: “Place” describes the way that the product reaches the consumer. For a
tangible product this refers to the distribution system. For an intangible product,
place refers to decisions about the channels through which consumers are
reached with information or training.
d) Promotion: Promotion consists of the integrated use of advertising public
relations, promotions, media advocacy, personal selling and entertainment
vehicles.

Additional Social Marketing “Ps”

Public: Social marketers often have many different audience that their programme has to
address in order to be successful. “Public” refers to both the external and internal groups
involved in the programme.

Partnership: Social and health issues are often so complex that one agency can’t make a
dent by itself. One needs to be team up with other organizations in the community to really
be effective.

Policy: Often policy change is needed, and media advocacy programmes can be effective
complement to a social market programme.

Purse strings: Most organizations that develop social marketing programmes operate
through funds provided by sources such as foundations, governmental grants or donation.

Strengths in Social Marketing

The key to success to Hindustan Latex Family Planning Promotion Trust (HLFPPT) social
marketing programmes have been its strength in coordinated rural distribution and
communication.

Communication
 To increase demand and create brand awareness, the social marketing project have an
extensive promotional strategy that includes various strategies or generic promotion, brand
promotion and consumer promotions. A mix of media like stalls in melas (fairs) and haats
(weekly markets), video cans, radio, press, wall and shop paintings and hoardings have been
extensively used for creating a direct impact among the audience. To facilitate ease in
purchase as well as to boost top of the mind recall, product message are prominently
displayed at retail outlets through posters, stickers etc. Innovative means like printing
promotional messages for oral pills on bidi packets ensure recall amongst rural women.

Different Social Marketing Services

• Adult basic education programs

• Programs for women, Infants and children
• Health clinics
• Family operated day cares/Anganwadies
• Hospitals
• Nursing homes
• Religions charitable organizations
• Department by social services
• Families in crisis programs, family court
• Probation intake, correctional facilities, Religions
• Group, public housing, Domestic violence shelters,
• Co-operative extension offices, community centers.
• Public libraries, family service agencies, unions
• Drug abuse and alcoholics rehabilitation facilities
• Office of vocational rehabilitation, kudumbasree
Conclusion

Social marketing theory and practice has been progressed in several countries especially
in the field of health and family welfare. This techniques has used extensively in
international health programmes, especially for contraceptives and oral dehydration
therapy. While, social marketing initially developed from a desire to capitalize on
commercial marketing techniques it has in the last decade matured in to a much more
integrative and inclusive discipline that draw on the full range of social sciences and social
policy approaches as well as marketing.

Cause Related Marketing (CRM),

 Cause Related Marketing is a commercial activity by which businesses and
charities (or causes) form a partnership with each other to market an image,
product or service for mutual benefit. It is a marketing tool used to help
address the social issues of the day, through providing resources and funding,
whilst at the same time addressing important business objectives. Examples
of Cause Related Marketing in the UK include a partnership by Cadbury
Limited and Save the Children which raised funds for Save the Children and
focused community programmes to the benefit of Cadbury's corporate
image. Another good example from the retailing industry is Tesco's 'Free
Computers for Schools' which is based on parents and friends of schools
collecting vouchers in proportion to the amount of money they spend in
Tesco stores. When Cause Related Marketing works well, everyone wins - the
company, the cause and the consumer. In business terms, this is known as a
win/win/win situation.

Cause Related Marketing (CRM) Definition – “When a company with a

product, image or service to market, builds a relationship or partnership with
a cause or not for profit organization for mutual benefit” Source: Business in
the Community, UK.

Cause-related marketing is a partnership between a for-profit and a nonprofit where each

has something to offer the other, and both realize a benefit. When you select a potential
partner that has a natural affinity with your nonprofit, the result can be added revenue,
increased media exposure, public relations, or all three—for both partners.

To be successful you have to think creatively. In fact, think less about cause-marketing and
more about Partnering—becoming the partner of your corporate collaborator—and you will
have more success.

Relevance of social services in developing economy;

The service sector is an important component of any country‟s economy. It

makes a direct and significant contribution to GDP and job creation, and
provides crucial inputs for the rest of the economy, thus having a significant
effect on the overall investment climate, which is an essential determinant of
growth and development. Some service sectors such as the health,
education, water and sanitation sectors, are also directly relevant to
achieving social development objectives.
 The service sector accounts for a significant proportion of GDP in most
countries, including low income countries, where it frequently generates over
50% of GDP. The process of development usually coincides with a growing
role of services in the economy (alongside a reduced role for agriculture).
Thus services constitute an increasing percentage of GDP in nearly all
developing countries. Services contributed 47% of growth in Sub-Saharan
Africa over the period 2000-2005, while industry contributed 37% and
agriculture only 16%. Recent growth in Africa is due to services as much as
natural resources or textiles (even in countries benefiting from trade
preferences in these products). The question is nor whether to move into
services, but how and at what speed to move into services.

Many services are key inputs to all or most other business e.g. infrastructure
services such as energy, telecommunications and transportation; financial
services which facilitate transactions and provide access to finance for
investment; health and education services which contribute to a healthy,
well-trained workforce; and legal and accountancy services which are part of
the institutional framework required to underpin a healthy market economy.
These service sectors are thus a key part of the investment climate, and can
have a much wider impact on overall business performance and the level of
investment, and hence growth and productivity in the economy.

applications of marketing in social services such as health

Social marketing uses commercial marketing strategies to change individual

and organizational behavior and policies. It has been effective on a
population level across a wide range of public health and health care
domains.

There is limited evidence of the effectiveness of social marketing in changing

health care consumer behavior through its impact on patient-provider
interaction or provider behavior

Social marketing began as a discipline in the 1970s, when Philip Kotler and
Gerald Zaltman argued that the same marketing strategies that have been so
successful in selling products and services to consumers could also be used to
promote socially beneficial ideas, attitudes, and behaviors.

Kotlerand Andrease , describe social marketing as ‘‘differing from other areas

of marketing only with respect to the objectives of the marketer and his or
her organization. Social marketing seeks to influence socialbehaviors not to
benefit the marketer, but to benefitthe target audience and the general
society.’’

In the context of health, social marketing attempts to increase healthy

behaviors in a population by using proven marketing techniques used to
promotecommercial products. Andreasen refers to health behaviors in
defining social marketing as ‘‘the application of proven concepts and
techniques drawn from the commercial sector to promote changes in diverse
socially important behaviors such as drug use, smoking, sexual behavior. . ..
This marketing approach has an immense potential to affect major social
problems if we can only learn how to harness its power.’’ By ‘‘proven
techniques,’’ Andreasen was referring to lessons drawn from behavioral
theory,

There is limited evidence of the effectiveness of social marketing in changing

health care consumer behavior through its impact on patient-provider
interaction or provider behavior. Social marketers need to identify
translatable strategies (e.g., competition analysis, branding, and tailored
messages) that can be applied to health care provider and consumer
behavior. Three case studies from social marketing illustrate potential
strategies to change provider and consumer behavior. Countermarketing is a
rapidly growing social marketing strategy that has been effective in tobacco
control and may be effective in countering pharmaceutical marketing using
specific message strategies. Informed decision making is a useful strategy
when there is medical uncertainty, such as in prostate cancer screening and
treatment. Pharmaceutical industry marketing practices offer valuable
lessons for developing competing messages to reach providers and
consumers.

Social marketing is an effective population-based behavior change strategy

that can be applied in individual clinical settings and as a complement to
reinforce messages communicated on a population level. There is a need for
more research on message strategies that work in health care and
population-level effectiveness studies. Key words: social marketing;
countermarketing; informed decision making; health care consumers; health
care provider. (Med Decis Making 2008;28:781–792) Received 27 February
2007 from RTI International, Washington, DC. Financial support for this study
was provided by a grant from Research Triangle Institute. The funding
agreement ensured the authors’ independence in designing the study,
interpreting the data, writing, and publishing the report. The following
authors are employed by the sponsor: Dr. W. Douglas Evans and Dr. Lauren A.
McCormack. Revision accepted for publication 26 February 2008.
Applications in Health Care

There are a number of opportunities for social marketing to be used to

change health care consumer behavior. Researchers such as those funded
through Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) evidence-based
practice centers seek to synthesize, generate, and translate knowledge about
health care provider and consumer behavior. Although this work is typically
aimed at informing health care providers and consumers, rather than using
persuasive social marketing strategies to change their behavior, this research
substantially overlaps the target populations for many social marketing
efforts, including older adults, pregnant women and young children, and
people with disabilities. Thus, there may be opportunities to use social
marketing strategies with these populations on health care topics. In the
remainder of this article, we explore various methodologies, specific cases,
and opportunities to translate social marketing evidence and principles for
use in health care behavior change.

and family welfare,

What is social marketing? The social marketing of contraceptives was

conceived by Peter King and his colleagues at Calcutta's Indian Institute of
Management in 1964. Since then, social marketing has been embraced by
governments, donors and NGOs to deliver health programmes, especially
family planning.

Using commercial marketing techniques, social marketing makes a product

available and affordable while linking it to a communications campaign
geared toward behavioral change. It seeks to influence social behaviors not
to benefit the marketer, but to benefit the target audience and the general
society.

Globally, social marketing FP programmes have grown fast, expanding from

23 million participating couples in 2000 to 59 million in 2011. Today, 34% of
all couples in the developing world (excluding China) who use contraceptives
are getting them through social marketing.How does social marketing work?
In contraceptive social marketing, donor agencies usually provide
contraceptive commodities to a social marketing agency or a
nongovernmental organization (NGO).

These social marketing agencies and NGOs use already-existing commercial

and noncommercial distribution networks and retail shops to make the
subsidized commodities available to the target population.
 Social marketing uses the “four Ps” of marketing—product, price, place, and
promotion—as a framework for reducing barriers and promoting factors that
facilitate behavior change:

Product: To be viable, a produce should address a genuine problem and

offer a good solution for that problem. In case of contraceptives, socially
marketed methods offer easy, affordable approaches to preventing
unplanned pregnancy. All social marketers create brand names for subsidized
contraceptive commodities, which often appeal to consumers more than
generic alternatives.

Price: In setting the price, particularly for a physical product, such as

contraceptives, there are many issues to consider. If the product is priced too
low, or provided free of charge, the consumer may perceive it as being low in
quality. On the other hand, if the price is too high, some will not be able to
afford it. Perceptions of costs and benefits can be determined through
research, and used in positioning the product.

Place: Place usually describes the way that the product reaches the
consumer. For contraceptives, this refers to the distribution system—
including the warehouse, pharmacies, shops and kiosks where it is sold, or
places where it is given out for free.

Promotion: Promotional activities (e.g., radio, television, internet,

billboards, public events, interpersonal communication) targeting the
intended customers/ beneficiaries are essential to creating demand for the
products and, therefore, facilitating the social marketing strategy’s success.

adult literacy programme,

This may seem like a simple question to answer -- adults being able to read and write, right?
- but in fact educators have been puzzling and arguing over it for at least a hundred years. It
encompasses reading and writing, of course, but at what level? A hundred years ago, people
were considered literate if they could write their names, a qualification that would certainly
be woefully inadequate today. And what about math? To be literate, do you have to be able
to at least add, subtract, multiply, and divide, so you can balance your checkbook and figure
your gas mileage? Do you need a certain amount of general knowledge in order to be
literate? A lot of educators who use the term "cultural literacy" think so. How about people
who can't speak or read or write English: are they literate, if they can read and write in their
own language? And do you have an obligation to help learners understand how to use their
literacy?
COMPONENTS OF ADULT LITERACY
As you can see, adult literacy can be looked at in a number of different ways. In planning an
adult literacy program, you have to consider all of them, and decide what your community
needs and what you have the resources to do. The areas that are generally referred to when
adult literacy is discussed are:

• Reading: "Functional literacy" is often defined as the ability to read at a particular

grade level.
• Writing: Written literacy might best be considered to be an individual's capacity to
write what she needs to in clear and reasonably accurate language.
• Math: "Numeracy" or "mathematical literacy" usually refers to the ability to perform
the basic mathematical operations - addition, subtraction, multiplication, division,
and whatever else - normally needed in everyday life.
• English as a Second or Other Language (ESOL): The teaching of English speaking,
listening, reading, and writing skills to those for whom it is not the native language.
• Cultural literacy: Familiarity with the background knowledge that is everywhere in
American culture. This can include everything from the great classics of western
literature to knowing the names of Elvis Presley hits from the '50's.

Social marketing is an exchange process in which the provider offers

programs or products of value to the client so that the client's quality of life is
changed and moved towards a more positive, self-sufficient direction. In the
case of adultliteracy services, the provider or educator offers such things of
value as classes, diplomas, time and help to the client or learner in exchange
for the learner's time and commitment, which are the learner's valuables.

This process assumes that each party — the provider and the prospective
student— is capable of communication and delivery. Another assumption is
that each party is free to accept or reject the potential exchange. Always
remember, however, that acceptance or rejection of adult literacy services
may well be a function of the extent to which the provider is sensitive to the
fears and denial ofthe potential learner.

We can also define social marketing as the design, implementation and

control of programs seeking to increase the acceptability of a social idea or
practice in a target group. If successful, the marketing usually encourages
people to do something that will be beneficial to others in addition to
benefitting themselves.

Public Relations

Public relations is the projection of an image. An effective public

relationsprogram on adult illiteracy requires a thorough understanding of the
message, of the desired population, and of the most efficient means of
conveying that message to the desired population (i.e., adults who need
adult literacy services).
 Advertising Advertising brings the adult literacy service to each potential
adult literacy student via the mass media and "pre-sells" it through the
advertisement. Outreach Outreach is the process of contacting and recruiting
adult literacy students, including organizing various community agencies and
service providers.

Promotion Promotion is the communication of the existence, quality, and

nature of programs which address the needs, wants, and beliefs of identified
market segments to the potential students.

TargetAudience

Target audience is the population of adults who require adult literacy

services. Once this group has been identified, the agency channels all of its
energies, efforts, and dollars to reach this population.

Market Segmentation

Market segmentation is the division of the target audience (see definition

above) into subsets of homogeneous adults who require literacy services,
where any one subset may conceivably be selected as a target audience to be
reached.

environment protection,

Social marketing is also of increasing interest to those in the field of consumer behavior.
Pioneering research and writing in social marketing has been carried out by leading ACR
members including Jerry Zaltman (Kotler and Zaltman 1971), Michael Rothschild (1979),
Paul Bloom (Bloom and Novelli 1981) and Alan Andreasen (1984). Recent efforts have
included the work of Ronald Hill (1991, 1992), Susan Middlestadt (1993), Martin Fishbein
(Fishbein et al 1993), Richard Pollay (Pollay 1990), and Gary Ford and Debra Ringold (Ford et
al 1990). In a recent review, Malafarina and Loken cited 76 articles describing empirical
research in social marketing appearing in the marketing literature since 1980 (Malafarina
and Loken 1993). And, Andreasen, in his Association for Consumer Research Presidential
Address in 1992, urged even more active involvement arguing that:

"involvement in social marketing is not just good for the soul. it can provide rich intellectual
challenges to ACR members of widely varying interests. It can lead to new ways of thinking
and teaching about the field. It can lead to new ideas and new publications. The insights we
can derive will stretch our basic discipline of consumer behavior in ways that will benefit all
of our target audiences. And it will increase our real-world relevance . . . " (Andreasen 1993,
p. 4).
The present paper seeks to extend the application of social marketing to a new, but very
critical environmental issue. As the Malafarina and Loken (1993) review made clear, social
marketing research on environmental issues has focused almost exclusively on energy
conservation and recycling (20 out of 23 articles) and typically has studied only individual
householders. The study reported here is different in two important ways. First, it focuses
on tree preservation behavior as a means of achieving multiple environmental goals, better
air quality, soil conservation, and energy conservation. Second, it focuses on businesspeople
as the primary target market rather than householder

social forestry,

—the use of commercial marketing techniques to effect positive social

change—is a promising means by which to develop more effective and
efficient outreach, policies, and services for family forest owners. A
hierarchical, multivariate analysis based on landowners’ attitudes reveals
four groups of owners to whom programs can be tailored: woodland retreat,
working the land, supplemental income, and ready to sell. A prime prospect
analysis segmenting landowners according to their level of engagement and
interest in land management can be used to improve the efficiency of
program implementation. Landowners showing low levels of engagement but
high levels of interest are of special interest because they are likely to be
receptive to a social marketing message and therefore should be a priority
target for any such efforts. Using the demographic profile of the average
family forest owner, newspapers and television were identified as important
means for mass communication

An approach is needed that not only reaches family forest owners, but also
positively influences their attitudes and behaviors toward stewardship of
their lands. Social marketing is a tool that can be used to accomplish this. In
contrast to commercial marketing that is aimed at selling products, social
marketing is aimed at “selling” ideas—i.e., changing people’s attitudes and
behaviors (Kotler et al. 2002). The term was coined in the 1970s as marketers
for the health care industry were grappling with how to sell a healthy lifestyle
and encourage people to not smoke and to practice safe sex. Although it was
not called social marketing, the US Forest Service’s Smokey Bear campaign is
a preeminent example of a successful social marketing campaign
(sidebar).Commercial marketing is concerned with the four P’s: product,
price, place, and promotion. Social marketing has four additional P’s to
consider: publics, partnerships, policy, and purse strings (Weinreich 1999).

The product is the behavior that we are advocating, e.g., legacy planning or
other activities that help meet an overall objective, such as keeping forests as
 forests. The cost, both financial and otherwise, to the owner is the price.
Place is the location where the information about the desired behavior is
available, e.g., the grange or the midtown bistro. The behavior is promoted
using salient messages and by selecting effective communication channels.
Publics are the primary and secondary audiences we are trying to reach, e.g.,
landowners, their heirs, and local zoning boards. Because of thecomplexity of
social marketing campaigns, partnerships are needed to instigate, promote,
and maintain them. Public policies may need to be changed or created; and
because there is no single constituency that will solely gain from the success
of the campaign, the funding, or purse strings, likely will come from multiple
sources. The general stages of a social marketing campaign are research,
implementation, and evaluation. The research phase characterizes the
population of interest, segments them into logical groupings, assesses the
difficulty of reaching specific segments, and then develops and tests
messages. Implementation takes the lessons learned from the research and
applies them to the issue of interest. To assess the effectiveness of the
campaign and fine-tune it, periodic evaluations need to be conducted. These
evaluations will need to assess intermediate objectives (e.g., number of
owners enrolled in a specific program) and long-term objectives (e.g.,
reduction in forest loss due to initiatives).

Butler and Leatherberry (2004) defined family forests as “lands that are at
least 1 acre in size, 10 percent stocked, and owned by individuals, married
couples, family estates and trusts, or other groups of individuals who are not
incorporated or otherwise associated as a legal entity.”

Organizing for marketing social services; beneficiary research

Beneficiary a receiver of a benefit; a person who gains from a situation; a person who
inherits the property of a dead person, as by a will; a person who receives money from an
insurance company.

A person who gains or is to gain something from a situation, an offer of money, or of things
is a beneficiary. A number of students who receive scholarships and fellowships are
beneficiaries of them. That is, they benefit from them. Beneficiaries of tax cuts are those
who benefit from the tax cuts. Beneficiaries of a will are those who get the property of a
dead person, as provided for in the will. People who receive insurance payments on
maturity of the policies are the beneficiaries of the policies.

• The orphanages and the old age homes are the chief beneficiaries of a large portion
of the dead millionaire's property because his will states that a third of his property
should go to them.
 • Beneficiaries of the funds provided for research by the company has to sign a bond
that after the completion of research, they will serve the company for a minimum of
a year.

and measurement of their perceptions and attitudes;

Beneficiary assessment (BA) involves systematic consultation with project beneficiaries and
other stakeholders to help them identify and design development activities, signal any
potential constraints to their participation, and obtain feedback on reactions to an
intervention during implementation. BA is an investigation of the perceptions of a
systematic sample of beneficiaries and other stakeholders to ensure that their concerns are
heard and incorporated into project and policy formulation. The general purposes of a BA
are to (a) undertake systematic listening, which 'gives voice' to poor and other hard-to-
reach beneficiaries, highlighting constraints to beneficiary participation, and (b) obtain
feedback on interventions.

BA is a qualitative method of investigation and evaluation that relies primarily on three data
collection techniques:

• In-depth conversational interviewing around key themes or topics

• Focus group discussions
• Direct observation and participant observation (in which the investigatorlives in the
community for a short time).

The BA approach is not meant to supplant quantitative surveys and other traditional
methods for data gathering; rather it complements these methods with reliable and
useful information on the sociocultural context and perceptions of a client
population that will inform Task Managers and policy makers. BAs are approaches in
which the participatory process can begin with systematic and continuous tracking of
client attitudes from identification through preparation to implementation of a
project.

socio-economic-cultural influences on beneficiary system.

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