World Medicine of New Time

New time (1640-1917)

First period Second period

(1640-1870) (1870-1917)
Main features of the history of modern times:
- the development of colonial expansion;
- creation of a colonial system;
- struggle for spheres of influence in the colonies.
Medicine of the 18th century as a science
strengthened its position. The experimental
nature of its development becomes
predominant. Particular attention is paid to
research in the field of human anatomy.

Anatomy departments construct special lecture

rooms in the form of amphitheater. Based on
the performed research, anatomy describes
previously unknown morphological structures.
 Girolamo Fabricius

Italian anatomist.
Wrote the first treatise on the
formation of the fetus in the
history of embryology (1600);
discoverer of venous valves;
built anatomical theater of the
University of Padua (1594).

Girolamo Fabricius
(1533-1619)
Anatomical theatre at Padua University
 William Harvey
He was studying at the University of Padua, which was then
considered as the best medical school. For a long time he worked
under the direction of Professor Fabricius.
In 1628 William Garvey discovered a
large blood circle, which laid the
foundation for scientific physiology.
•the founder of embryology as a
science;
•Experimentally denied the idea
of ​self-generation;
•published a work "The study of the
origin of animals;
•Summed up the idea that​an egg as a William Harvey
(1578-1657)
source of development for all animals.
 Renier de Graaf
Dutch anatomist and physiologist. His
research laid the foundation for embryology
- the science of the development of the
embryo from the moment of fertilization to
birth. He lived only 32 years, leaving the
descendants a great scientific heritage,
which consists of works on anatomy,
physiology, histology, embryology.
Main achievements:
•first studied seed channels and identified
them as "vessels that produce seed";
described the bubbles of women's glands
that he had discovered, which he mistakenly
took for eggs, where the name "ovary" came Renier de Graaf
from. (1641–1673)
Surgical instruments of Renier de Graaf
 Microscope
term "microscope" was proposed by a member of the Roman Academy ("Akudemia dei
lincei") by Giovanni Faber in 1625
Dutch astronomers brothers Hans and Zachary Jansen have created and improved
microscopic techniques.
The modern term "microscope" and the first application of the device are associated with
the name of the English naturalist Robert Hooke (1635-1703).
Main achievements of Hooke:
- constructed a microscope with a 30 times magnification;
- wrote the work "Micrography, or physiological description of the smallest bodies,
investigated with the help of magnifying glass", (1665);
- described the plant cells at the cut of the tube; - introduced the term "cell".

The most powerful microscope of his time in 1673 was created by the Dutch naturalist
Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723). The device with a 270-fold magnification allowed
to observe and scratch the simplest cells, sperm, bacteria, red blood cells, as well as their
movement in the capillaries (microcirculation of blood). These small living organisms,
discovered at a considerable increase, were described by him in the book "The Secrets of
Nature, discovered by Antony Leeuwenhoek" (1695).
First microscope Hooke microscope Microscope of
Leeuwenhoek
 Marcello Malpighi
Italian physician and biologist:
discovered capillaries (1661);
for the first time began to apply a
microscope; describing the shaped
blood elements (1665);
described the epidermis and the renal
bodies (1666), which were named
after him;
opened trachea - respiratory organs
of arthropods;
described the lymph nodes of the
spleen.
Marcello Malpighi
(1628–1694)
 Albrecht von Haller
Swiss researcher, doctor and poet. In the
monograph "Elements of physiology"
Galler tried to identify the essence of the
process of breathing in the lungs,
established the dependence of the strength
of heart contraction on the magnitude of the
stimulus and determined the properties of
muscle fibers - such as contractility,
elasticity, irritability. The Swiss physician
was the first physiologist to notice the
involuntary contraction of the heart under
the influence of the body's own strength. Albrecht von Haller
(1708–1777)
At Leiden University (the Netherlands) prof. Albinus (1697-1770)
enriched human anatomy with drawings, which were executed with
artistic perfection, created the first anatomical atlas.
 Frederik Ruysch

Professor at the University of

Amsterdam was an obstetric lecturer,
a forensic physician and professor of
botany. Perfectly possessed the
technique of preparation of
anatomical preparations and method
of injection of blood vessels by
painted and solid liquids.

Frederik Ruysch
(1638-1731)
 Herman Boerhaave
From the professors of the University of Leiden, world-famous
fame won Herman Boerhaave (1668-1738). His famous "Doctor's
Guide" and aphorisms concerning the recognition and treatment of
illnesses were main manuals of clinical medicine in all medical schools
in Europe and America during the 18th and early 19th centuries. Many
medical historians called Boerhaave the new Ibn Sina.

Main achievements:
•put forward the postulate that "clinical medicine
is a type of medicine, which observes patients at
their bed";
•first introduced thermometry into medical
practice;
•"Pioneer" of instrumental survey methods;
• Wrote detailed records of disease history. Herman Boerhaave
(1668-1738)
Leiden University.
(1625).
 Giovanni Morgagni
For 60 years he has been recording all
the abnormalities he observed in the
body of deceased patients.
Summarizing the materials of 700
autopsies, J. Morgani in 1761 issued a
12-volume work "On the location and
causes of illness". His studies of J.
Morgani laid the foundation for
pathological anatomy, which became
an integral part of clinical medicine.
In addition, it was the first scientific
classification of diseases. The
founder of organopathology,
identified the organ as a localization
site of the morbid process. Giovanni Morgagni
(1682—1771)
 Thermometers
The German physicist Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit
(1686-1736) invented alcohol and mercury
thermometers.
Herman Boerhaave (1668-1738) adapted the
Fahrenheit thermometer to measure the temperature
of the patient's body.
René Antoine Reaumur (1683-1757) is a French
researcher. He found an alcohol thermometer with a
scale from 0 to 800 ° C, which corresponded to the
temperature of freezing of water. Boerhaave
thermometers
Anders Celsius (1701–1744) – Swedish astronomer.
He suggested a thermometer with a centigrade scale,
in which 0 C corresponded to the boiling point of
water, and 100 C - the point of melting of the ice.
 Martin Shein
Russian doctor (1712-1762) compiled the first russian atlas of the
anatomy "Dictionary, or an illustrated pointer to all parts of the
human body" in Latin (1744);
For the first time, he translated the abbreviated anatomy, the entire
anatomical brief in itself containing the "Lawrence Geyster" (1757)
into Russian, which became the first practical anatomical manual in
Russian lamguage;
laid the foundations of Russian scientific medical terminology,
which did not exist before it.
 Kaspar Wolff
German anatomist and physiologist.
He worked at the St. Petersburg
Academy of Sciences and initiated the
successes of Russian embryology;
developed and experimentally
substantiated the theory of epigenesis;
proved that the chicken egg does not
contain a preformed embryo; wrote
the work "On the formation of
intestines in chicken".

Kaspar Wollf
(1734–1794)
 Electrophysiology
Luigi Galvani (1737–1798) – Italian anatomist. He was
called a founder of experimental electrophysiology, he was
engaged in the study of bioelectric phenomena with
muscular contraction, combining them into the concept of
"animal electricity".
Du-Bois Reymond (1818–1896) – a German physiologist
and philosopher.
-The founder of neuro-muscular physiology;
-developed new methods of electrophysiological
experiment;
-discovered the laws of irritation;
-formulated the molecular theory of biopotentials.
 Percussion

Leopold von Auenbrugger (1722-1809) –

Viennese doctor of the end of the XVIII
century. He opened and developed a method of
percussion to determine the presence of fluid in
the chest.

Jean Nicolas Corvisart-Desmarets (1755-

1821) – a French physician, resurfaced the
method of percussion L. Auenbrugger. For
over 20 years, he has been studying percussion
sound.
Josef Skoda (1805-1881) is a Czech professor. Gave a scientific
explanation of the method of percussion, based on the laws of
physics. The scientific substantiation made it possible to
consolidate early practical conclusions. Since then, the
effectiveness of percussion has not been doubted, and the tools of
the therapists has been steadily replenished with new devices.
Pierre Adolph Piorry (1794-1879) is a French physician, student
of Corvisart. He suggested a method of percussion using a
plezimeter, which amplified the percussion sound, which allowed
the topographical percussion of the organs. In the history of
medicine is also known for introducing the terms "pyemia",
"septicemia", "uremia".

Piorry plezimeters
 Evolutionary theories
Jean Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829) is a
French researcher. He improved the first
theory about the evolution of the
development of wildlife, explaining
progress from the simplest to the higher
forms of the existence of a special "force"
that operates continuously in isolation
from the environment.

Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882) is

an English biologist. In his evolutionary
theory introduced another factor of
biological evolution - natural selection.
This idea has led to some interesting
hypotheses about the mechanism of
heredity.
 First vaccination
Edward Anthony Jenner (1749-1823) – English doctor, founder
of vaccination. Collected information about human disease of the
cowpoil to ensure the safety properties of cow's pox in relation to
the natural; has determined that the content of young immature
pustules of cowpox, prevents the disease of the natural vena cava
during inoculation; has determined that artificial infection with a
cowpoil is a harmless and humane way to prevent natural smallpox.

Cowpox: а - animal; б - у
human
Monument of Jenner in Bulon (France).
 Marie Xavier Bichat
French scientist-anathema.
-Founder of histology as a
science of tissue;
created the first classification of
body tissues;
-created the works "Treatise on
membranes and shells" (1800)
and "General anatomy in addition
to physiology and medicine"
(1801);
-made a basis for the science
tissue microstructure in a healthy
and sick body. Marie Xavier Bichat
(1771-1802)
 Rene Laennec
Rene Laennec (1781-1826) – a French
doctor, clinician, pathologist, teacher of a
medical school in Paris. The founder of a
auscultation, applied the stethoscope for the
first time.
During pathoanatomical intersection, he
identified specific formations with
tuberculosis and called them tubercules;
created the work "On mediocre auscultation
or recognition of pulmonary and heart
Rene Laennec
diseases, based mainly on this new method (1781-1826)
of research".
Sthetoscopes of ХІХ century
 Francois Magendie
Prominent French scientist,
contributed to the development of
physiological experiments. He
developed and improved the technique
of vivisection (on animals). His work
on the study of the nervous system is
well-known. In the history of
medicine, he is known as the founder
of sophisticated surgical techniques
and acute physiological experiments.

•proved the separate existence of sensitive

(hindquarters) and motor (the anterior
spinal cord of the spinal cord) nerve fibers;
showing in his experiment the
correspondence between the structure and Francois Magendie
the function. (1783–1855)
 Jan Evangelista Purkyne
Czech physiologist, anatomist.
• One of the founders of the theory of the
cellular structure of living organisms;
• founder of the Prague Histology School,
honorary member of many foreign
academies of sciences;
• first saw nerve cells in the grey matter of
the brain (1837);
• isolated large cells in the grey matter of
the cerebellum cortex, opened the fibers of
the conduction system of the heart.

Jan Evangelista Purkyne

(1787-1869)
 Karl Ernst von Baer
One of the founders of embryology, made a
basis of comparative embryology of
vertebrates.
• discovered the basic laws of vertebrate
embryogenesis and made important
theoretical generalizations;
• wrote the work "Development of
Animals" (1828, 1837 years) and showed
that the human embryo develops with
analogy to all vertebrates;
• was elected as academician of the St.
Petersburg Academy of Medical Sciences. Karl Ernst von Baer
(1792-1876)
Johann Peter Muller (1801-1858) is a German researcher.
Formulated main provisions of the doctrine of the spinal cord reflex
activity; created a scientific school of physiologists.

Alexey Matyevich Filomafitsky (1807-1849) is a professor at

Moscow University, a successor to Müller's ideas. In 1836,
Filomafitsky wrote the first in the Russian Empire national
textbook on physiology "Physiology, issued for the guidance of its
listeners”. Together with M. Pirogov developed the method of
intravenous anesthesia and created devices for blood transfusion, a
mask for etheric anesthesia; founder of the Moscow Physiological
School; laid the foundations of the materialist trend in Russian
physiology.
 Carl von Rokitansky
Professor at the University of Vienna. He
issued the "Fundamentals of Pathological
Anatomy" (1842-1846), was a founder of
the Department of Pathological Anatomy. It
was believed that the main cause of the
disease was a violation of the composition
of the liquids (juices) of the organism - a
frenzy, and pathological changes in organs
and tissues considered as a sign of a general
disease. Developed a humoral trend in
pathology.
Main contribution of Rokitansky was that
he made pathological anatomy as the basis
of pathology and scientific medicine in
Carl von Rokitansky
general. (1804–1878)
 Mykola Pirogov
Pirogov has a prominent place among surgeons of this era, one of
the founders of pathological anatomy. His activity was associated
with the highest blooming of practical anatomy. Together with the
physiologist O. Filomofitsky, he gave a scientific substantiation of
the use of ether narcosis.
During the summer of 1847 M. Pirogov tested the ethereal
anesthesia on the battlefield. He also developed the foundations of
military field surgery, suggested the use of plaster bandages.
Pirogov used anatomical research on frozen corpses, calling it "ice
anatomy". He established a new medical discipline - topographic
anatomy.
Pirogov first proposed to involve women in the care of the
wounded; substantiated and practiced sorting the wounded into 4
groups; for the first time in the world created a department for
gangrenous patients; For the first time in the clinic opened an
operating room.
Mykola Pirogov (1810–1881)
 Louis Pasteur
Outstanding French scientist chemist and
microbiologist. With his discoveries connected the
beginning of the experimental period in the
development of microbiology. He is the founder of
Scientific Microbiology and Immunology.
-He found the causes of alcohol, oily and lactic acid
fermentation;
-Created a vaccine against rabies, anthrax;
-proposed pasteurization for the thermal treatment of
thermolabs.
Louis Pasteur
(1822—1895)
Rudolf Virchow – a German
pathologist, studied morphological
changes in cells with various
diseases. Formulated a postulate that
the entire pathology is the pathology
of the cell. He believed that
"abnormal activity" of cells is a
source of diseases, and on this basis,
he substantiated the theory of cellular
pathology and created the
terminology and classification of the
main pathological states. He
founded the scientific journal
"Archive of Pathological Anatomy,
Physiology and Clinical Medicine".
Developed the solidarity direction of
pathology. Rudolf Virchow
(1821-1902)
Therapist of the second half of the
19th century. He described the
clinical picture of several diseases,
including first discovered infectious
nature of catarrhal jaundice (1866),
now Botkin's disease. Contributed
to the organization of women's
medical courses (1872).
He initiated the creation of an
epidemiological society (1865).
Created a new direction in therapy -
experimental, opened the first
laboratory of experimental medicine
in Russia.
Sergiy Botkin
(1832—1889)
 Mykhaylo Rudnyev

Russian pathologist, one of the

founders of pathological anatomy. His
important chemical and microscopic
studies on amyloid substance were
published in Virchow's Archives in
1865. For the first time in the world he
conducted a microscopic study of the
surgical material and biopsies; was at
the origins of the onset of experimental
oncology.
Mykhaylo Rudnyev,
(1837-1878)
 Ivan Sechenov

Sechenov is considered to be the father of

Russian physiology. Opened the
phenomenon of central braking (Sechenov
Braking). He wrote the work "Reflexes of
the brain" (1863), in which he developed
the idea of ​the reflex character of mental
activity, studied human movements in the
process of labor, initiated the physiology of
labor processes in Russia, discovered
carbhemoglobin, formulated (1889) the law
of solubility of gases in salt solutions (
Sechenov's law).

Ivan Sechenov
(1829-1905)
 Ivan Pavlov
Outstanding Russian physiologist. He developed a surgical
method of a chronic fistulous experiment, conducted a systematic
observation of the activities of the digestive glands, improved the
method of isolated gastric cancer suggested by Haidenhain,
conducted a classic experiment on "false feeding", published
"Lectures on the work of the major digestive glands" (1897), which
described the mechanisms conditional and unconditioned reflex
regulation of the glands. For these works on the physiology of
etching, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology and
Medicine (1904). He created the doctrine of conditioned reflexes
and higher nervous activity. Has developed a methodology for
studying the effect of drugs on the body. In younger years, he
discovered a nerve enhancer of the heart, substantiated the
principles of nervousness.
Ivan Pavlov
(1849-1936)
 Anesthesia
William Morton (1819-1868) is an American dentist and surgeon.
For the first time, he conducted a successful public surgery under
anesthesia. He is considered to be the pioneer of general anesthesia.

John Collins Warren (1778-1856) is an American surgeon. On

October 16, 1846, in the presence of a large medical collection,
according to the method of the doctor Morton, an ether to remove
the tumor of the neck was used for the first time.

James Simpson (1811-1870) - English obstetrician, gynecologist

and surgeon. In 1847 he first used chloroform as an analgesic in
obstetric practice, and also offered his own model of obstetric
forceps.
Massachusetts General Hospital, built with the active participation of
John Collins Warren
 Antiseptics and aseptics
Ignaz Semmelweis (1818-1865) is a Hungarian obstetrician, professor,
one of the founders of asepsis. Has started to use bleach solution in the
obstetrician to disinfect hands of the medical staff and tools.

Joseph Lister (1827-1912) is an English surgeon and scientist. The

solution of carbolic acid was sprayed to hands, tools, dressing and
suture material, an operating field; Carbolic acid was sprayed in air
before and during operations; After the operation, the wound was
sealed with an airtight bandage impregnated with a solution of carbolic
acid. F
ounder of antiseptic (1867); the first to formulate the thesis: "Nothing
should touch the wound, without being disinfected"; introduced
chemical methods to combat wound infection; gave a scientific
explanation of the surgical infection and for the first time developed a
set of measures to combat it.
Steam atomizer designed by Lister
The development of the medical and biological direction of
the New Age was determined by fundamental discoveries in
science and technology, among which the most important are:
- The theory of cellular structure of plants and animals (T.
Schwann and M. Schleiden, 1838-1839);
- The law of conservation of energy and the determination
of the mechanical equivalent of heat (J. R. Mayer, 1841; J P.
Joule, 1843; G. L. F. von Helmholtz, 1847);
- Evolutionary doctrine of Charles Darwin, explained the
basic natural processes in the work "Origin of species through
natural selection, or" Preservation of selected breeds in the
struggle for life "(1859).
 Max von Pettenkofer
German physician-hygienist, founder of
experimental hygiene.
-He has developed objective methods of
hygienic assessment of air, soil and water;
-he was engaged in hygiene of water supply;
-established hygienic norms and diets;
-proved the importance of drainage and
hygienic measures for the removal of
impurities and the improvement of human
settlements.

Max von Pettenkofer

(1818–1901)
 Olexander Kovalevskyi

Russian biologist and embryologist, one of

the founders of evolutionary embryology
and physiology.
• Academician of the St. Petersburg
Academy of Sciences;
• proved the connection between
vertebrates and invertebrates;
• developed a unified theory of the
development of germplasm for all
representatives of the animal world (1874).
O. Kovalevskyi
(1840-1901)
 Viktor Pashutin
A student of Sechenov, one of the founders of
pathophysiology. Described some
pathological processes, in particular
metabolic disorders and heat transfer, fasting,
oxygen deficiency.
-Introduced the term "pathological
physiology" and became the founder of this
science;
-founder of the first pathophysiological
school in the Russian Empire;
-introduced into the general pathology the
principle of nervousness;
-carried out fundamental research on gas V. Pashutin
exchange and activity of endocrine glands, (1845–1901)
etching.
 Mykola Vvedenskyi
Russian physiologist. Studied the patterns of
tissue response to various stimuli. In 1887 he
defended his thesis "On the relationship between
stimulation and excitation in the tetanus". The
Greek word "tetanus" literally refers to the usual
numbness, or cramp. In physiology, the state of
prolonged contraction, the maximum muscle
tension, occurs when nerve impulses arrive at it
with such a frequency that relaxation between
contractions does not occur.
With the help of a telephone machine he listened M. Vvedenskyi
to the rhythmic excitement in the nerve (1884); (1852–1922)
created the doctrine of parabiosis.
 Robert Koch
German bacteriologist. He determined the conditions necessary for
provement of the etiological role of microorganisms and the
occurrence of infectious diseases; one of the founders of
bacteriology, received tuberculin; developed a dense nutrient
medium for the cultivation of pure bacterial cultures (1877) and
formulated the criteria for the relationship between pathogens and
infectious diseases; established the etiology of anthrax (1876),
discovered pathogens of tuberculosis (1882) and cholera (1883),
investigated plague, malaria, trachoma, tropical dysentery and rotary
typhus.
According to Koch, for recognition of a pathogen of a certain disease
it is necessary: ​to find out the given microbe in all cases of this
disease; isolate it from the body of the patient in a pure culture;
cause the same disease in the test animal, infecting it with a pure
culture of this microbe.
Robert Koch
(1843-1910)
Robert Koch is culturing bacteria and fungi
 Dmytro Ivanovskyi
Russian plant physiologist and
microbiologist, founder of virology. -
studied the diseases of tobacco;
discovered (1892) a pathogen of mosaic
disease;
-discovered diseased cells of pathogens of
nonbacterial and nonprotozoal diseases in
plants;
-suggested the term "virus".

D. Ivanovskyi
(1864-1920)
 Georgy Gabrychevskyi

Russian scientist, microbiologist, founder

of a scientific school, one of the
organizers of the production of
bacteriological drugs in Russia.
-the founder of the Moscow scientific
school of bacteriologists;
-founder of the first course of
microbiology at the Moscow University
(1892);
-The organizer of the production of anti-
diphtheria serum in Moscow.
G.Gabrychevskyi
(1860-1907)
 Giovanni Battista Grassi

Italian entomologist, zoologist and

parasitologist.
-showed that only mosquitoes of the
Anopheles genus are carriers of
malarial plasmodia;
-Experimentally infected man's by
malaria through a mosquito bite.

Giovanni Battista Grassi

(1854-1925)
 Wilhelm Conrad Rontgen

German physicist. In 1895 he registered the discovery

of X-rays, which were named after him. In 1901, X-
ray was the first in the history of physics, the Nobel
Prize winner.
Several years before the X-ray experiment was
performed by another professor at the University of
PragueIvan Pulyuy (1845-1918), a native , Ukrainian
from Ternopil region. He received the first pictures of
a man's hand, but did not register the discovery.
Wilhelm Rontgen
(1845-1923)
First X-ray picture (1895)
 Nikolay Sklifosovsky

Well known Russian surgeon.

-the founder of cavity surgery in the
Russian Empire;
-developed new methods of osteoplasty -
bone joints - "Russian castle";
-contributed to the development of
military field surgery.

Nikolay Sklifosovsky
(1836-1904)
Medico-surgical academy in Saint Petersburg 19 century,
where Sklifosovsky was working
 Ilya Metchnikoff
Russian and French biologist (microbiologist, cytologist,
embryologist, immunologist, physiologist and pathologist).
For a long time worked with Louis Pasteur.
In 1908, together with Ehrlich, he became the Nobel Prize
winner in the field of physiology and medicine. He opened
the first Pasteur station in the Russian Empire
(manufactured anti-rabies - from the Latin rabies vaccine).
-The founder of gerontology, to which he gave this name;
-discovered the phenomenon of phagocytosis, made basis
for the cellular theory of immunity and created a large
scientific school of Russian microbiologists, immunologists
and pathologists;
-formulated evolutionary-adaptive theory of inflammatory
reaction;
-discovered a new class of antibodies - a cytotoxin and laid Ilya Metchnikoff
the foundations of the theory of autoimmune processes. (1845–1916)
 Paul Erlich

German physician, immunologist,

bacteriologist, chemist, founder of
chemotherapy.
-Formulated the theory of humoral immunity;
-discovered two types of immunity: passive
and active;
-created the doctrine of immunity.

Paul Erlich
(1854-1915)
Practical class in anatomy, XIX century
 '

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