The Science Journal of the Lander

College of Arts and Sciences

Volume 8 -
Number 1 Fall 2014

1-1-2014

Bioengineered Hearts
Rivky Loeb
Touro College

Follow this and additional works at: https://touroscholar.touro.edu/sjlcas

Part of the Cardiovascular System Commons, and the Molecular, Cellular, and Tissue Engineering
Commons

Recommended Citation
Loeb, R. (2014). Bioengineered Hearts. The Science Journal of the Lander College of Arts and Sciences,
8(1). Retrieved from https://touroscholar.touro.edu/sjlcas/vol8/iss1/13

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Lander College of Arts and Sciences at Touro Scholar.
It has been accepted for inclusion in The Science Journal of the Lander College of Arts and Sciences by an
authorized editor of Touro Scholar. For more information, please contact touro.scholar@touro.edu.
Bioengineered Hearts
By: Rivky Loeb
Rivky graduated in June 2014 with a B.S. in biology.

Abstract
Heart disease is one of the highest causes for fatality in the world. Although many such diseases can be treated by
a heart transplant, this in itself can cause countless problems. Aside from the high demand for donor hearts, there
is the risk of the patient’s immune system rejecting the transplanted heart. A bioengineered heart would reduce
the need for donor hearts, and thus save countless lives. Finding a suitable scaffold, obtaining appropriate cells, and
ensuring that the tissue will function properly are the main focuses in creating an artificial heart.While most of the
studies done have been concentrated on creating cardiac tissue rather than the full organ, with the integration of
these aspects scientists are getting closer to the goal of engineering a fully functioning artificial heart.

Introduction
Heart failure is one of the most prevalent causes of death in the getting rid of any concerns of rejection. There have been many
world. There are many different diseases affecting the heart. For studies done all in the hope of answering the question, is growing
many of them, the only answer is a heart transplant. Although this a new heart for a patient a foreseeable goal of the near future?
has saved countless lives, transplants remain an imperfect solution.
Firstly, the list of people requiring new hearts is a long one, but the When trying to solve such a complicated issue there are numer-
amount of donor hearts available is few. Once a patient is approved ous factors that must be taken into account, and many different
for a heart transplant, s/he is added to a waiting list, which is part angles that the problem can be studied through. With the case
of a national allocation system run by the Organ Procurement of the engineered heart, some of those factors include finding a
and Transplantation Network (OPTN). There are approximately suitable base, or scaffold for the organ, deciding what kind of cells
3,500 people on the list, and waiting times can range from about would be appropriate for actually building the organ, and matur-
six months to more than a year. ing the construct to develop some form of contractile and pump
function.
Even once a heart is found for the patient, and the transplant is
successful, the patient is still not out of danger. Although the heart Methods
itself is healthy, it may not function properly in the recipient, caus- The information in this paper was obtained by analysis of scien-
ing a number of complications. One such concern is Primary Graft tific articles and research papers. Various online databases and
Dysfunction, which is the most frequent cause of death in the first medical journals were used, accessed mostly via PubMed or the
30 days after a transplant (National Institutes of Health, 2012). Touro College database. Most of the information is based on ex-
periments done using rat cells since this is the most practical way
According to the OPTN, the one year survival rate for patients of obtaining the large quantity of cells needed. Although the data
in the U.S. aged 18-34 is almost 85%, with 75% 3 year survival is not completely applicable to human cardiac cells, researchers
rate, and 66% five year. The 1, 3 and 5 year survival rate for recipi- hope that these studies will provide insight into bioengineering of
ents age 35-50 is slightly higher, at 88%, 81% and 74% respectively human hearts.
(OPTN). Although these numbers are relatively high, one of the
main causes for heart transplant failure in the first year after the Discussion
transplant is due to the patient’s immune system rejecting the The first major issue in organ engineering is creating a scaffold
foreign organ. To prevent this, immunosuppressant drugs are ad- with enough elasticity, porosity, and strength to enable the cells
ministered; however, this can cause damage to other organs such to grow correctly, thus resulting in a functioning organ or tissue.
as the kidneys and liver. High cholesterol, diabetes and cancer are The makeup of the scaffold is vital to the process because native
also some risks of the anti-rejection drugs (Bhimji, 2011). The gap tissues contain different cell types, with each cell type having its
between the supply and demand for donor organs, as well as the own unique three-dimensional (3-D) extracellular matrix environ-
lifelong consequences for the patient, make the creation and im- ment, and mechanical properties. In addition, there are many other
plantation of a bioartificial heart a desirable alternative. While the structures that must be taken into account, such as blood vessels.
construction of a functional whole organ has not yet been accom- An ideal construct should display the functional and structural
plished, tissue engineering and regenerative medicine research properties of natural heart muscle, and therefore should be con-
have obtained promising results for heart regeneration. tractile, vascularized, and electrophysiologically stable. To recreate
such complexity in engineered tissues various approaches have
Bioengineers have been working on creating fully functioning or- been used.
gans that would eliminate the need for donors. This would solve
the issue of patients not receiving a heart in time, in addition to

87
Rivky Loeb

Much of the research on cardiac tissue engineering that has been Additionally, the polymer is a hydrogel, which would enable blood
done was focused more on small sections of tissue than on the vessels to form in the organ. Coating surfaces in PNIPAAm served
whole heart. However, this can be an important start to full organ to induce capillary network formation.This is especially important
engineering, as the results of such studies can be incorporated for tissues to function properly (Tekin, et al., 2011).
into studies dedicated to heart engineering.
Recently, a group of scientists experimented with adding sin-
Scientists have approached the issue of scaffolds from many differ- gle-wall carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) to PNIPAAm to improve
ent angles. In one such approach, cells are seeded on a degradable the function of the base gel for use in myocardial repair. SWCNTs
scaffold on which they reorganize into engineered tissues. are sheets of graphene rolled into a seamless cylinder. They have
remarkable electrical properties, which may even exceed the best
A group of bioengineers set out to research different designs for metals or semiconductors known, as experiments have shown
scaffolds to determine which would be most conducive to cardiac (McEuen, et al., 2002). They theorized that the SWCNTs would
tissue growth. They were able to create two layer scaffolds, with improve the bioactivites and adhesion of the hydrogel to the cells.
fully interconnected pore networks, which aided in guiding the After the cells were applied to the gel, it was observed that as
pattern of cell growth. The material used was a synthetic elas- expected, cell adhesion and proliferation was about 1.71 times
tomer poly(glycerol sebacate), known as PGS. This polymer was greater in the PNIPAAm/SWCNT hydrogel than in the PNIPAAm.
chosen because of its ability to reproduce the mechanical stiff- The results indicated that the incorporation of SWCNTs greatly
ness and elasticity of the extracellular matrix. Additionally, PGS is enhanced the bioactivity of the PNIPAAm and aided in its func-
supportive of blood vessel formation, and cardiogenesis. Different tioning as a scaffold (Li, et al., 2014). Finding a suitable material for
scaffolds were created with different properties, such as pore size, the scaffold is one main step in the process of tissue engineering.
and thickness. Two layer scaffolds 200μm in total thickness, with
interconnected pores were found to be the most effective for al- Another option recently being explored for use as scaffolds, are
lowing heart cells to survive and form functional connections. PGS decellularized organs. As mentioned previously, even if donor or-
scaffolds provided a platform for patterned cell distribution while gans were not in short supply, the transplant recipient would still
maintaining the geometric and mechanical properties of normal be at risk of immune rejections and lifelong immunosuppression
heart muscle (Neal, et al., 2013). A similar study done at Duke treatment. To date, although numerous modern technologies have
University used the flexible material PDMS (polyDimethylsilox- been employed to fabricate new tissues, the creation of a func-
ane) to create molds with elliptical pores. Such pores enabled the tioning whole organ is still in progress. The use of decellularized
enhanced diffusion of oxygen and nutrients to the cells (Liau, et matrices would be a step in the right direction, as it would over-
al., 2011). come the need for the bioengineer to artificially recreate the con-
ditions for cell deposition. It would offer a microenvironment with
In addition to the design for the scaffold, researchers must deter- preserved natural geometry and vascular networks, which would
mine what kind of material should be used. One material, called enable cells to grow in the correct patterns (Moroni , Mirabella,
Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) or PNIPAAm, is a polymer recently 2014).
emerging as a possibility due to its favorable properties. PNIPAAm
has controllable features and switchable surface properties, making In one such study, hearts were decellularized with detergents,
it an ideal option for scaffold formation. For example, PNIPAAm which preserved the underlying ECM, providing acellular, per-
has a lower critical solution temperature (LCST) of 32oC. This is fusable vascular architecture, and intact chamber geometry. All
important because it will shrink and become hydrophobic at tem- cellular material which would induce an immune response, such
peratures above the LCST, and hydrophilic at temperatures below. as cardiac and smooth muscle cells, DNA, RNA and soluble pro-
Whereas hydrophobic surfaces are attractive for cell attachment, teins, were removed. This left behind only the collagen, laminins
detachment of cells and tissues from these templates requires and other structural proteins as a scaffold. Fiber orientation and
either an enzymatic reaction or physical scraping, both of which composition remained intact, as did the arterial and venous base-
can damage the cells.The use of PNIPAAm enabled controlled cell ment membranes. As shown in figure 1, the detergent SDS was
detachment by adjusting the temperature (Tekin, et al., 2011). successful in removing all cells, while the Triton detergent left cells
behind (Ott, et al., 2008).
Another advantage to using PNIPAAm is its dynamic properties.
Previously, micromolds were used to create microgels. However, The scaffold or decellularized organ now must be seeded with
these scaffolds had static structures, meaning the surface proper- cells.This leads to the next issue regarding tissue engineering: what
ties and patterns could not be changed after fabrication. PNIPAAm kind of cells should be used. Many researchers in the field use a
gel molds were able to be engineered to control 3-D organization mixture of two or more cell types, such as endothelial precur-
of the cells by mimicking the complex native tissue architecture. sor cells to line blood vessels, and muscle progenitors, which are

88
 Bioengineered Hearts

Figure 1:
Hearts decellularized using different detergents. Asterisks indicate intact vascular network.
Source: Ott HC, et al. 2008
similar to stem cells, to seed the walls of the chambers. These can growth. Additionally, by analyzing the density of the seeded cells,
be derived from induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells- adult cells they determined that the minimal cell seeding density necessary
genetically reprogrammed to an embryonic stem cell-like state, to maintain construct structural integrity was achieved by using
which can be coaxed by scientists to become any kind of cell. This 1.4x106 cells per scaffold. For interconnected tissue structure,
is useful because these can be taken from the patient, and used 8x106 cells per scaffold were required. From all the collected data,
to make immunologically matched tissues (Maher, 2013). A team the researchers concluded that structural and functional proper-
from the University of Pittsburgh recently used iPS cells generated ties of constructs were improved by seeding polymer scaffolds
from human skin cells to create precursor heart cells called MCPs. at high densities using rotating vessels. This study demonstrated
The cells were placed on a decellularized scaffold, and grew and that dissociated cells cultured on 3D scaffolds under favorable
developed into heart muscle.After 20 days, the tissue began show- conditions were capable of forming engineered constructs with
ing cardiac muscle function (Discovery News, 2013). features resembling those of native tissues (Carrier, et al., 1998).

Alternatively, as in a different study, heart cells were isolated from Other favorable properties for cell growth were determined in
neonatal rats and digested in a trypsin solution until dissociated another study. Various factors were tested for their role in engi-
into a single cell suspension. Other steps were done to isolate the neered heart tissue. High collagen content in the mixture yielded
cells, and at the end of this method 63% cardiomyocytes, 33% car- tissue with higher stiffness, but less contractile force development.
diac fibroblasts, 3-4% smooth muscle cells and 2-3% endothelial Decreasing the collagen content yielded tissue with soft matrix
cells were collected to be used to seed the scaffold (Neal, et at., structure, but improved contractile properties.Additionally, the in-
2013).Tissues constructed from these heart cell mixtures showed clusion of horse serum was found to be beneficial for engineered
advanced structure, determining that creation of optimal cardiac heart tissue development (Zimmermann, et al., 2004).
tissue constructs depends on a mix of non-monocytes and cardiac
monocytes (Zimmermann, et al., 2004). Once the scaffold is prepared and the cells cultured and seeded,
the next step is to observe and determine whether the cells will
A group of scientists using similar neonatal cells performed ex- behave as cardiac muscle cells.This includes being able to contract,
periments to determine the effect of different factors on the and electrically conduct signals. While full engineered heart trans-
growth of the cells in cultures and on the scaffold. For example, plants have not been perfected, scientists have been successful on
by analyzing the gas and CO2 levels in different vessels, they were smaller scales. Biomedical engineers at Duke University were able
able to determine what environment would be best for the cell to grow a three dimensional human heart muscle that acted like

89
Rivky Loeb

natural tissue, in that it conducted electricity at about the same References

speed as natural heart cells, and contracted appropriately (Duke Bhimji S. Heart transplant. Medline Plus. http://www.nlm.nih.gov/
University, 2013). Using pluripotent embryonic stem cells perme- medlineplus/ency/article/003003.htm. Updated May 4, 2011.
ated with fibroblasts, cardiac tissue was created with the capabil-
ities of generating fast, uniform action potential propagation with Carrier RL, Papadaki M, Rupnick M, Schoen FJ, Bursac N, Langer
velocities ranging from 17.8cm/s to 24.1 cm/s, and contractile R, Freed LE,Vunjak-Novakovic G. Cardiac Tissue Engineering:
force of 2mN (Liau, et al., 2011). Cell Seeding, Cultivation Parameters, and Tissue Construct
Characterization. Biotechnology and Bioengineering. Nov 1998;
With the decellularization method, the recellularized hearts were 64(5): 580-589.
placed in bioreactors that mimicked the sensation of beating. A
combination of electrical signals was used to help synchronize the Discovery News. Stem Cells Grow Beating Heart. Aug 2013.
cardiocytes seeded on the scaffold, along with physical beating http://news.discovery.com/tech/biotechnology/stem-cells-grow-
motions induced by a pump. After eight to ten days in the biore- beating-heart-130814.htm
actor the hearts were able to beat by themselves. However, when
the team implanted the engineered hearts into rats, none of the Duke University. Biomedical engineers grow 3D human heart
hearts were able to perform the blood-pumping function at the muscle that acts just like natural tissue. News Medical. http://
degree that is required of the heart (Maher, 2013). www.news-medical.net/news/20130507/Biomedical-engineers-
grow-3D-human-heart-muscle-that-acts-just-like-natural-tissue.
In a study done in Tokyo, layered cell sheets coated with PNIPAAm aspx. May 7, 2013.
were created and implanted into the hearts of rats. At first the
beating of engineered tissue, at 96bpm, was relatively slow in com- Health Resources and Services Administration. Organ
parison to host hearts, 332bpm; after four weeks it had gotten Procurement and Transplantation Network. http://optn.trans-
stronger, though not as fast as the host tissue. A positive factor plant.hrsa.gov/latestData/viewDataReports.asp.
was that neovascularization occurred in the tissue, which aided it
in functioning properly (Shimizu, et al., 2002). Li X, Zhou J, Liu Z, Chen J, Lu S, Sun H, Li J, Lin Q,Yang B, Duan
C, Xing M, Wang C. A PNIPAAm-based thermosensitive hydrogel
In a different experiment, engineered heart tissue was created and containing SWCNTs for stem cell transplantation in myocardial
implanted onto an infarcted area in rat hearts. When evaluated repair. Bio Materials. July 2014; 35(22): 5679-5688.
later, the engineered tissue showed electrical impulses in synch
with the native tissue. It was also evident that the implanted tis- Liau B, Christoforou N, Leong KW, Bursac N. Pluripotent stem
sue had prevented further dilation and induced wall thickening of cell-derived cardiac tissue patch with advanced structure and
infarcted myocardial segments. The epicardial activation of hearts function. Biomaterials. Dec 2011; 32(35): 9180-9187.
with the tissue graft was normal, indicating undelayed coupling of
the grafted tissue to the host tissue. The tissue was also able to Maher B. Tissue engineering: How to build a heart. Nature
propagate electrical potentials (Zimmermann, et al., 2006). This International Journal of Science. July 2013; 499(7456): 20-22.
shows that tissue created in vitro can possibly function as natural
cardiac tissue in vivo. McEuen PL, Fuhrer M, Park H. Single-Walled Carbon Nanotube
Electronics. IEEE Transactions on Nanotechnology; 2002
Conclusion
Although a completely functioning heart has not yet been engi- Moroni F, Mirabella T. Decellularized matrices for cardiovascular
neered, scientists are headed in the right direction. Using scaffolds tissue engineering. Am J Stem Cells. Mar 2014; 3(1): 1-20
made of different materials and with different designs, they have
been able to stimulate cell growth in the right patterns for tissue National Institutes of Health. What are the risks of a Heart
construction. Under the right conditions, the constructs behaved Transplant. National Heart Lung and Blood Institute. http://www.
in a manner similar to native cardiac tissue. Such engineered tis- nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/ht/risks.html. January 3,
sues have even been shown to function almost as well as natural 2012.
tissue in vivo. With the integration of these different aspects, and
advances in bioengineering, scientists are getting closer to the goal Neal RA, Jean A, Park H, Wu PB, Hsiao J, Engelmayr GC Jr, Langer
of creating a fully functioning artificial heart. R, Freed LE. Three-dimensional elastomeric scaffolds designed
with cardiac-mimetic structural and mechanical features. Tissue
Eng Part A. Mar 2013; 19(5-6): 793-807.

90
 Bioengineered Hearts

Ott HC, Matthiesen TS, Goh SK, Black LD, Kren SM, Netoff TI,
Taylor DA. Perfusion-decellularized matrix: using nature’s plat-
form to engineer a bioartificial heart. Nature Medicine. Jan 2008;
14: (213-221).

Shimizu T,Yamato M, Isoi Y, Akutsu T, Setomaru T, Abe K, Kikuchi

A, Umezu M, Okano T. Fabrication of Pulsatile Cardiac Tissue
Grafts Using a Novel 3-Dimensional Cell Sheet Manipulation
Technique and Temperature-Responsive Cell Culture Surfaces.
Circulation Research. Jan 2002; 90:e40-e48

Tekin H, Sanchez JG, Tsinman T, Langer R, Khademhosseini

A. Thermoresponsive Platforms for Tissue Engineering and
Regenerative Medicine. AIChE J. Dec 2011; 57(12): 3249-3258.

Zimmermann WH, MeInychenko I, Eschenhagen T. Engineered

heart tissue for regeneration of diseased hearts. Biomaterials.
April 2004; 25(9): 1639-1647.

Zimmermann WH, Melnychenko I, Wasmeier G, Didie M, Naito

H, Nixdorff U, Hess A, Budinsky L, Brune K, Michaelis B, Dhein S,
Schwoerer A, Ehmke H, Eschenhagen T. Engineered heart tissue
grafts improve systolic and diastolic function in infarcted rat
hearts. Nature Medicine. April 2006; 12(4): 452-458.

91