Unit -1

UNIT-1 I
Introduction: Concept & Overview of DBMS, Data Models-, Network, Hierarchical and Relational
Model, Levels of abstraction. Administrator, Database Users, Three Schema architecture of DBMS,
Application. Entity-Relationship Model: : Entities, Attributes and Entity Sets, Relation and
Relationships sets, Mapping Constraints, Keys, Entity-Relationship Diagram, Weak Entity Sets,
Extended E-R features.

What is database?
A database is a collection of related data. By data, we mean known facts that can be recorded and that
have implicit meaning. Ex. the names, telephone numbers and addresses of all the people you know. A
database can be of any size and of varying complexity. For example, the list of names and addresses
referred to earlier may consist of only a few hundred records, each with a simple structure. On the other
hand, the card catalog of a large library may contain half a million cards stored under different
categories—by primary author’s last name, by subject, by book title—with each category organized in
alphabetic order.
Databases are widely used. Here are some representative applications:
– Banking: all transactions
– Airlines: reservations, schedules
– Universities: registration, grades
– Sales: customers, products, purchases
– Manufacturing: production, inventory, orders, supply chain
– Human resources: employee records, salaries, tax deductions
• Databases touch all aspects of our lives
Foundation Data Concept
A hierarchy of several levels of data has been devised that differentiates between different groupings,
or elements, of data. Data are logically organized into:
 Character
It is the most basic logical data element. It consists of a single alphabetic, numeric, or other symbol.
 Field
It consists of a grouping of characters. A data field represents an attribute (a characteristic or
quality) of some entity (object, person, place, or event).
 Record:- The related fields of data are grouped to form a record. Thus, a record represents a
collection of attributes that describe an entity.
  File:- A group of related records is known as a data file, or table. Files are
frequently classified by the application for which they ar primarily used, such as a payroll file or an
inventory file, or the type of data they contain, such as a document file or a graphical image file. Files
are also classified by their permanence, for example, a master file versus a transaction file. A
transaction file would contain records of all transactions occurring during a period, whereas a master
file contains all the permanent records. A history file is an obsolete transaction or master file
retained for backup purposes or for long-term historical storage called archival storage.
 Database
It is an integrated collection of logically related records or objects. A database consolidates records
previously stored in separate files into a common pool of data records that provides data for many
applications. The data stored in a database is independent of the application programs using it and o the
‘type of secondary storage devices on which it is stored.

Database Systems versus File Systems

1. Redundancy can be reduced:- In traditional file system every user group maintains its own
files for handling its data-processing applications so most of the data is stored twice: once in
the files of each user group. This redundancy in storing the same data multiple times leads to
several problems. First, there is the need to perform a single logical update—such as entering
data on a new student—multiple times: once for each file where student data is recorded. This
leads to duplication of effort. Second, storage space is wasted when the same data is stored
repeatedly, and this problem may be serious for large databases.
2. Inconsistency can be avoided :- due to redundancy inconsistency may be introduced in the file
system because an update is applied to some of the files but not to others. Even if an update—
such as adding a new student—is applied to all the appropriate files, the data concerning the
student may still be inconsistent since the updates are applied independently by each user group.
For example, one user group may enter a student’s birthdate erroneously as JAN-19-1974,
whereas the other user groups may enter the correct value of JAN-29-1974.But in the Database
approach whole data is stored at one place so inconsistency is not avoided..
3. Sharing of data:-Database belongs to the entire organization and can be shared by all
authorized users.
4 Improved data integrity:-
Database integrity provides the validity and consistency of stored data. Integrity is usually
expressed in terms of constraints, which are consistency rules that the database is not permitted to
violate.
5. Improved security and authorization:-
Database approach provides a protection of the data from the unauthorized users. It may take the
term of user names and passwords to identify user type and their access right in the operation
including retrieval, insertion, updating and deletion.
6. Enforcement of standards:-
The integration of the database enforces the necessary standards including data formats, naming
conventions, documentation standards, update procedures and access rules.
7. Economy of scale:-
Cost savings can be obtained by combining all organization's operational data into one database
with applications to work on one source of data.
8. Increased concurrency:-
Database can manage concurrent data access effectively. It ensures no interference between users
that would not result any loss of information nor loss of integrity.
9. Improved backing and recovery services:-
Modern database management system provides facilities to minimize the amount of processing that
can be lost following a failure by using the transaction approach.
10. Program data independence can be provided:- The independence between the programs and
the data is known as program-data independence (or simply data independence). It is an important
characteristic of DBMS as it allows changing the structure of the database without making any
changes in the application programs that are using the database.
11. Data retrieval become efficient: - storing of all the data at one place in the database approach,
data accessing can be crossed departmental boundaries. So the data retrieval becomes efficient in
database approach rather than file system.
12. Transactional Problem can be removed:-it ensure that either the transaction is correctly
executed or completely aborted.
13. Providing Backup and Recovery :-
A DBMS must provide facilities for recovering from hardware or software failures. The backup
and recovery subsystem of the DBMS is responsible for recovery. For example, if the computer
system fails in the middle of a complex update program, the recovery subsystem is responsible for
making sure that the database is restored to the state it was in before the program started executing.
Alternatively, the recovery subsystem could ensure that the program is resumed from the point at
which it was interrupted so that its full effect is recorded in the database.
 14. Integrity & quality can be maintained:-. Database integrity provides the validity and
consistency of stored data. Integrity is usually expressed in terms of constraints, which are
consistency rules that the database is not permitted to violate For example, the balance of a bank
account may never fall below a prescribed amount (say, $25). Developers enforce these constraints
in the system by adding appropriate code in the various application programs.

Disadvantages of database approach

In split of a large number of advantages can be found in the database approach, it is not without any
challenge. The following disadvantages can be found including:

Complexity
Database management system is an extremely complex piece of software. All parties must be familiar
with its functionality and take full advantage of it. Therefore, training for the administrators, designers
and users is required.
Size
The database management system consumes a substantial amount of main memory as well as a large
number amount of disk space in order to make it run efficiently.
Cost of DBMS
A multi-user database management system may be very expensive. Even after the installation, there is a
high recurrent annual maintenance cost on the software.
Cost of conversion
When moving from a file-base system to a database system, the company is required to have additional
expenses on hardware acquisition and training cost.
Performance
As the database approach is to cater for many applications rather than exclusively for a particular one,
some applications may not run as fast as before.
Higher impact of a failure
The database approach increases the vulnerability of the system due to the centralization. As all users
and applications reply on the database availability, the failure of any component can bring operations to
a halt and affect the services to the customer seriously.

Additional Implications of Using the Database Approach

Potential for enforcing standards: this is very crucial for the success of database applications in large
organizations Standards refer to data item names, display formats, screens, report structures, meta-data
(description of data) etc. The DBA can enforce standards in a centralized database environment more
easily than in an environment where each user group has control of its own files and software.
Reduced application development time: A prime selling feature of the database approach is that
developing a new application—such as the retrieval of certain data from the database for printing a new
report—takes very little time . Development time using a DBMS is estimated to be one-sixth to one-
fourth of that for a traditional file system.
Flexibility to change data structures: It may be necessary to change the structure of a database as
requirements change. For example, a new user group may emerge that needs information not currently
in the database. In response, it may be necessary to add a file to the database or to extend the data
elements in an existing file. Modern DBMSs allow certain types of changes to the structure of the
database without affecting the stored data and the existing application programs.
Availability of up-to-date information – A DBMS makes the database available to all users. As soon
as one user’s update is applied to the database, all other users can immediately see this update. This
availability of up-to-date information is essential for many transaction-processing applications, such as
banking databases airline, hotel, car reservations.
Economies of scale: by consolidating data and applications across departments wasteful overlap of
resources and personnel can be avoided. This enables the whole organization to invest in more
powerful processors, storage devices, or communication gear, rather than having each department
purchase its own (weaker) equipment. This reduces overall costs of operation and management.

DATABASE SYSTEM & ITS COMPONENTS

DATABASE SYSTEM
A database system is a computer based record keeping System whose overall purpose is to record and
maintain information that is relevant to the organization necessary for making decisions.With the
growth of the database, these systems are used in various applications of real world such as
• Banking System and ATM's machines.
• Stock Trading Systems.
• Flight Reservation Systems.
• Computerized Library Systems.
• Super Market Product Inventory System.
• Credit Card/Credit Limit Check System.
Database can range from those of a single user with a desktop computer to those on mainframe
computers with thousands of users.
 COMPONENTS OF DATABASE SYSTEM
A database system is composed of four components;
1) Data 2) Hardware 3) Software 4)Users.
which coordinate with each other to form an effective database system.
 1. Data - It is a very important component of the database system. Most of the organizations
generate, store and process 1arge amount of data. The data acts a bridge between the machine parts i.e.
hardware and software and the users which directly access it or access it through some application
programs.
Data may be of different types.
• User Data - It consists of a table(s) of data called Relation(s) where Column(s) are called fields of
attributes and rows are called Records for tables. A Relation must be structured properly.
• Metadata - A description of the structure of the database is known as Metadata. It basically means
"data about data". System Tables store the Metadata which includes.
 - Number of Tables and Table Names
 - Number of fields and field Names
 - Primary Key Fields
• Application Metadata - It stores the structure and format of Queries, reports and other applications
components. '

Fig. 1.1 Data Base System

2. Hardware - The hardware consists of the secondary storage devices such as magnetic disks (hard
disk, zip disk, floppy disks), optical disks (CD-ROM), magnetic tapes etc. on which data is stored
together with the Input/Output devices (mouse, keyboard, printers), processors, main memory etc.
which are used for storing and retrieving the data in a fast and efficient manner. Since database can
range from those of a single user with a desktop computer to those on mainframe computers with
thousand of users, therefore proper care should be taken for choosing appropriate hardware devices for
a required database.
3. Software - The Software part consists of DBMS which acts as a bridge between the user and the
database or in other words, software that interacts with the users, application programs, and database
and files system of a particular storage media (hard disk, magnetic tapes etc.) to insert, update, delete
and retrieve data. For performing these operations such as insertion, deletion and updation we can
either use the Query Languages like SQL, QUEL, Gupta SQL or application softwares such as Visual
3asic, Developer etc.
4. Users - Users are those persons who need the information from the database to carry out their
primary business responsibilities i.e. Personnel, Staff, Clerical, Managers, Executives etc. On the basis
of the job and requirements made by them they are provided access to the database totally or partially.

The various types of users which can access the database are:-
• Database Administrators (DBA)
• Database Designers
• End Users
• Application Programmers
DATABASE USERS
Users may be divided into those who actually use and control the content (called “Actors on the
Scene”) and those who enable the database to be developed and the DBMS software to be designed and
implemented (called “Workers Behind the Scene”).
Actors on the scene
 Database Designers: responsible to define the content, the structure, the constraints, and functions or
transactions against the database. They must communicate with the end-users and understand their
needs
 End-users: End users are those persons who interact with the application directly. They are responsible
to insert, delete and update data in the database. They get information from the system as and when
required.
There are several categories of end users:
(1)Casual end users occasionally access the database, but they may need different information each
time. They use a sophisticated database query language to specify their requests and are typically
middle- or high-level managers or other occasional browsers.
(2) Naive or parametric end users make up a sizable portion of database end users. Their main job
function revolves around constantly querying and updating the database, using standard types of
queries and updates-called canned transactions-that have been carefully programmed and tested. The
tasks that such users perform are varied:
I )Bank tellers check account balances and post withdrawals and deposits.
ii) Reservation clerks fur airlines, hotels, and car rental companies check availability for a given request
and make reservations.
iii)Clerks at receiving stations for courier mail enter package identifications via bar codes and
descriptive information through buttons to update a central database of received and in-transit
packages.
(3) Sophisticated end users :-include engineers, scientists, business analysts, and others who
thoroughly familiarize themselves with the facilities of the DBMS so as to implement their applications
to meet their complex requirements.
(4) Stand-alone users :- maintain personal databases by using ready-made program packages that
provide easy-to-use menu-based or graphics-based interfaces. An example is the user of a tax package
that stores a variety of personal financial data for tax purposes.
Application programmers: Application programmer is the person who is responsible for
implementing the required functionality of database for the end user. Application programmer works
according to the specification provided by the system analyst. These programmer must have knowleage
of programming languages such as c,c++,java or SQL etc.since application programs are written in
these languages.

Workers behind the scene

Persons whose job involves design, development, operation, and maintenance of the DBMS software
and system environment
1)DBMS designers and implementers: DBMS system designers and implementer s are persons who
design and implement the DBMS modules and interfaces as a software package. A DBMS is a complex
software system that consists of many components, including components for implementing the
catalog, query language, interface processors, data access, concurrency control, recovery, and security.
The DBMS must interface with other system software, such as the operating system and compilers for
various programming languages.
2)Tool developers: Design and implement tools that facilitate the use of the
DBMS software. Tools include design tools, performance tools, special
interfaces,etc. Tools are optional packages that are often purchased separately. They include packages
for database design, performance monitoring, natural language or graphical interfaces, prototyping,
simulation, and test data generation.
3)Operators and maintenance personnel: (the system administration personnel) are responsible for
the actual running and maintenance of the hardware and software environment for the database system..

THREE LEVEL (SCHEMA) ARCHITECTURE OF DBMS

There are many different framework have been suggested for the DBMS over the last several year. The
generalized architecture of a database system is called ANSI/SPARC (American National Standards
Institute/Standards Planning and Requirements Committee) model.
In 1972, a final report about database is submitted by ANSI (American National Standard Institute)
and SPARC (Standard Planning And Requirement Committee). According to this approach, three
levels of a database system was suggested and they are:
• External view (Individual user view)
• Conceptual View (Global or community user view)
• Internal level (physical or storage view).
For the system to be usable, it must retrieve data efficiently. This concern has led to the design of
complex data structures for the representation of data in the database. Since many database systems
users are not computer trained, developers hide the complexity from users through several levels of
abstraction, to simplify users’ interactions with the system.
These three views or levels of the architecture are as shown in the diagram as follows:

OBJECTIVES OF THREE LEVEL ARCHITECTURE

 The database views were suggested because of following reasons or objectives of levels of a
database:
1. Make the changes easy in database when some changes needed by environment.
2. The external view or user views do not depend upon any change made ii other view. For example
changes in hardware, operating system or internal view should not change the external view.
3. The users of database should not worry about the physical implementation and internal working of
database system.
4. The data should reside at same place and all the users can access it as per their requirements.
5. DBA can change the internal structure without effecting the user’s view.
6. The database should be simple and changes can be easily made.
7. It is independent of all hardware and software.
All the three levels are shown below

External/View level
The highest level of abstraction where only those parts of the entire database are included which are
of concern to a user. Despite the use of simpler structures at the logical level, some complexity remains,
because of the large size of the database. Many users of the database system will not be concerned with
all this information. Instead, such users need to access only a part of the database. So that their
interaction with the system is simplified, the view level of abstraction is defined. The system may
provide many views for the same database.
Databases change over time as information is inserted and deleted. The collection of information
stored in the database at a particular moment is called an instance of the database. The overall design of
the database is called the database schema. Schemas are changed infrequently, if at all.
 Database systems have several schemas, partitioned according to the levels of abstraction that we
discussed. At the lowest level is the physical schema; at the intermediate level is the logical schema and
at the highest level is a subschema.
The features of this view are
• The external or user view is at the highest level of database architecture.
• Here only one portion of database will be given to user.
• One portion may have many views.
• Many users and program can use the interested part of data base.
• By creating separate view of database, we can maintain security.
• Only limited access (read only, write only etc) can be provided in this view.
For example: The head of account department is interested only in accounts but in library
information, the library department is only interested in books, staff and students etc. But all such data
like student, books, accounts, staff etc is present at one place and every department can use it as per
need.
Conceptual/Logical level
Database administrators, who must decide what information is to be kept in the database, use this
level of abstraction. One conceptual view represents the entire database. There is only one conceptual
view per database.
The description of data at this level is in a format independent of its physical representation. It also
includes features that specify the checks to retain data consistence and integrity.
The features are:
• The conceptual or logical view describes the structure of many users.
• Only DBA can be defined it.
• It is the global view seen by many users.
• It is represented at middle level out of three level architecture.
• It is defined by defining the name, types, length of each data item. The create table
commands of Oracle creates this view.
• It is independent of all hardware and software.
Internal/Physical level
The lowest level of abstraction describes how the data are stored in the database, and what
relationships exist among those data. The entire database is thus described in terms of a small number
of relatively simple structures, although implementation of the simple structures at the logical level may
involve complex physical-level structures, the user of the logical level does not need to be aware of this
complexity.
 The features are :
• It describes the actual or physical storage of data.
• It stores the data on hardware so that can be stored in optimal time and accessed
in optimal time.
• It is the third level in three level architecture.
• It stores the concepts like:
• B-tree and Hashing techniques for storage of data.
• Primary keys, secondary keys, pointers, sequences for data search.
• Data compression techniques.
• It is represented as
FILE EMP [
INDEX ON EMPNO
FIELD = {
(EMPNO: BYTE (4),
ENAME BYTE(25))]
Mapping in DBMS Architecture
We know that three view-levels are described by means of three schemas. These schemas are stored in
the data dictionary. In DBMS, each user refers only to its own external schema. Hence, the DBMS
must transform a request on. a specified external schema into a request against conceptual schema, and
then into a request against internal schema to store and retrieve data to and from the database.The
process to convert a request (from external level) and the result between view levels is called mapping.
The mapping defines the correspondence between three view levels. The mapping description is also
stored in data dictionary. The DBMS is responsible for mapping between these three types of schemas.
There are two types of mapping.

(i) External-Conceptual mapping

(ii)Conceptual-Internal-mapping
External-Conceptual-Mapping
An external-conceptual mapping defines the correspondence between a particular external view and the
conceptual view. The external-conceptual mapping tells the DBMS which objects on the conceptual
level correspond to the objects requested on a particular user's external view. If changes are made to
either an external view or conceptual view, then mapping must be changed accordingly.
Conceptual-Internal-Mapping
The conceptual-internal mapping defines the correspondence between the conceptual view and the
internal view, i.e. database stored on the physical storage device. It describes how
conceptual records are stored and retrieved to and from the storage device. This means that conceptual-
internal mapping tells the DBMS that how the conceptual! records are physically represented. If the
structure of the stored database is changed, then the mapping must be changed accordingly. It is the
responsibility of DBA to manage such changes.

Explain the difference between physical and logical data independence.

It is the property of the database which tries to ensure that if we make any change in any level of
schema of the database, the schema immediately above it would require minimal or no need of
change.What does this mean? We know that in a building, each floor stands on the floor below it. If we
change the design of any one floor, e.g. extending the width of a room by demolishing the western wall
of that room, it is likely that the design in the above floors will have to be changed also. As a result, one
change needed in one particular floor would mean continuing to change the design of each floor until
we reach the top floor, with an increase in the time, cost and labour. Would not life be easy if the
change could be contained in one floor only? Data independence is the answer for this. It removes the
need for additional amount of work needed in adopting the single change into all the levels above.
It means we can change the structure of a database without affecting the data required by users and
program. This feature was not available in file oriented approach. There are two types of data
independence and they are:
1. Physical data independence
2. Logical data independence
Data Independence The ability to modify schema definition in on level without affecting schema
definition in the next higher level is called data independence. There are two levels of data
independence:

1. Physical data independence:- is the ability to modify the physical schema without
causing application programs to be rewritten. It means we change the physical storage/level without
affecting the conceptual or external view of the data. The new changes are absorbed by mapping
techniques. Modifications at the physical level are occasionally necessary to improve performance.
Alteration in the internal schema might include.
* Using new storage devices.
* Using different data structures.
* Switching from one access method to another.
* Using different file organizations or storage structures.
* Modifying indexes.
An example of physical data independence is to change the storage device used to store the database
data, will not affect the conceptual or external schemas / layers.
2. Logical data independence:- in the ability to modify the logical schema without causing
application program to be rewritten. Modifications at the logical level are necessary whenever the
logical structure of the database is altered (for example, when money-market accounts are added to
banking system).
Logical Data independence means if we add some new columns or remove some columns from
table then the user view and programs should not changes. It is called the logical independence. For
example: consider two users A & B. Both are selecting the empno and ename. If user B add a new
column salary in his view/table then it will not effect the external view user; user A, but internal view
of database has been changed for both users A & B. Now user A can also print the salary.
User A’s External View

(View before adding a new column)

User B’s external view

(View after adding a new column salary)

It means if we change in view then program which use this view need not to be changed.
Logical data independence is more difficult to achieve than is physical data independence, since
application programs are heavily dependent on the logical structure of the data that they access.
 Logical data independence means we change the physical storage/level without effecting the
conceptual or external view of the data. Mapping techniques absorbs the new changes.

DATABASE LANGUAGES
Data Description Language (DDL)
The Data Definition Language (DDL) is used to create and destroy databases and database objects.
These commands will primarily be used by database administrators during the setup and removal
phases of a database project. example are
o CREATE - to create objects in the database
o ALTER - alters the structure of the database
o DROP - delete objects from the database
o TRUNCATE - remove all records from a table, including all spaces allocated for the records are
removed
o COMMENT - add comments to the data dictionary
o RENAME - rename an object

The basic functions performed by DDL are: -

• Create tables, files, databases and data dictionaries.
• Specify the storage structure of each table on disk.
• Integrity constraints on various tables.
• Security and authorization information of each table.
• Specify the structure of each table.
• Overall design of the Database.
Data Manipulation Language (DML):- The Data Manipulation Language (DML) is used to retrieve,
insert and modify database information. These commands will be used by all database users during the
routine operation of the database.It can be of two types: -
1. Procedural DML - user specifies what data is required and how to get those data ex. relational
Algebra, INSERT(insert data into a table) , UPDATE(updates existing data within a table),
DELETE(deletes all records from a table, the space for the records remain), SELECT(retrieve data
from the a database) .
2. Non Procedural DML - It describes what data is needed without specifying how to get it. For
example: - Relational calculus.

SDL & VDL

The storage definition language (SDL), is used to specify the internal schema. The mappings between
the two schemas may be specified in either one of these languages. For a true three-schema
architecture, we would need a third language, the view definition language (VDL), to specify user
views and their mappings to the conceptual schema, but in most DBMS the DDL is used to define both
conceptual and external schemas.

Data Control Language (DCL): It is used to create roles, permissions, and referential integrity as well
it is used to control access to database by securing it. Some examples:
GRANT - gives user's access privileges to database
o REVOKE - withdraw access privileges given with the GRANT command

Transaction Control (TCL): Language It is used to manage different transactions occurring within a
database. Some example ARE
o COMMIT - save work done
o SAVEPOINT - identify a point in a transaction to which you can later roll back
o ROLLBACK - restore database to original since the last COMMIT
o SET TRANSACTION - Change transaction options like isolation level and what rollback
segment to use

Data Model
• Data Model: A set of concepts to describe the structure of a database, and certain constraints
that the database should obey.
Categories of data models:
• High-level, semantic data models: Provide concepts that are close to the way many users
perceive data. (Also called entity-based or object-based data models.)
• Physical (low-level, internal) data models: Provide concepts that describe details of how
data is stored in the computer.
• Implementation (representational) data models: Provide concepts that fall between the
above two, balancing user views with some computer storage details.

Hierarchical Model
• Hierarchical Model is based on tree structure. A Hierarchical Db consists of collection of
records, that are connected to each other by links. The root node is dummy node or an empty
node.
• ADVANTAGES:
• Hierarchical Model is simple to construct and operate on
• Corresponds to a number of natural hierarchically organized domains - e.g., assemblies
in manufacturing, personnel organization in companies
• DISADVANTAGES:
• It can not represent all the relationship of entire world
• Maintaining the Database is very difficult task.
• Little scope for "query optimization“
• Wastage of storage space
• Inconsistency during updation of database because when parent node is deleted that
results in deletion of child node force fully.
 • Not flexible.
• Commercially available Hierarchical Database system:
• IBM’s information management system
• MRI’s system 2000
• IMS informatics Mark IV
• Time –shared Data management System of SDC
 Network Model

• Network model is based on graph structure. A Network Db consists of collection

of records, that are connected to each other by links.

ADVANTAGES

 Provide very efficient "High-speed" retrieval

 Simplicity

 The network model is conceptually simple and easy to design.

 Ability to handle more relationship types

 The network model can handle the one-to-many and many-to-many relationships.

 Ease of data access

 In the network database terminology, a relationship is a set. Each set comprises of two types of
records.- an owner record and a member record, In a network model an application can access
an owner record and all the member records within a set.

 Data Independence

 The network model draws a clear line of demarcation between programs and the complex
physical storage details. The application programs work independently of the data. Any changes
made in the data characteristics do not affect the application program.

 Flexible than hierarchical model.

• DISADVANTAGES

 Complex to design than relational model

 Maintenance is not easy.

 Flexibilty and efficiency are less than relational model

 Lack of Structural independence.

 Making structural modifications to the database is very difficult in the network database model
as the data access method is navigational. Any changes made to the database structure require
the application programs to be modified before they can access data. Though the network model
achieves data independence, it still fails to achieve structural independence.

Relational Model

• The relational model used the basic concept of a relation or table. The columns or fields in the
table identify the attributes such as name, age, and so. A tuple or row contains all the data of a
single instance of the table such as a person named Doug. In the relational model, every tuple
must have a unique identification or key based on the data. In this figure, a social security
account number (SSAN) is the key that uniquely identifies each tuple in the relation.

 ADVANTAGES:-

1. Ease of use: The revision of any information as tables consisting of rows and columns is quite
natural and therefore even first time users find it attractive.
2. Flexibility: Different tables from which information has to be linked and extracted can be
easily manipulated by operators such as project and join to give information in the form in
which it is desired.
3. Precision: The usage of relational algebra and relational calculus in the manipulation of he
 relations between the tables ensures that there is no ambiguity.
4. Security: Security control and authorization can also be implemented more easily by moving
sensitive attributes in a given table into a separate relation with its own authorization controls.
5. structural Independence
6. Easy to Design

Disadvantage:-

• A major constraint and therefore disadvantage in the use of relational database system is
machine performance. If the number of tables between which relationships to be established are
large and the tables themselves are voluminous, the performance in responding to queries is
definitely degraded.
• Need more powerful computing H/W and data storage devices that increase the cost and H/W
overhead.

What do you mean by DBMS?

• Database Management System (DBMS)is a software package/ system to facilitate the
creation and maintenance of a computerized database. A DBMS is best described as a
collection of programs that manage the database structure and that control shared access to the
data in the database. DBMSes also store the relationships between the database components;
they also take care of defining the required access paths to those components The main
function of a DBMS is to provide efficient and reliable methods of data retrieval to many
users. Efficient data retrieval is an essential function of database systems. DBMS must be able
to deal with several users who try to simultaneously access several items and most frequently,
the same data item
.
Functions of DBMS:-
DBMS perform the following functions:
• Data definition: The DBMS must be able to accept data definitions (external schemas, the
conceptual schema, the internal schema, and all associated mappings) in source form and convert them
to the appropriate object form.
• Data manipulation: The DBMS must be able to handle requests from the users to retrieve, update,
or delete existing data the database, or to add new data to the database. In other words, the DBMS must
include a data manipulation language (DML) processor component.
 • Data security and integrity: The DBMS must monitor user requests and reject
any attempt to violate the security and integrity rules defined by the DBA.
• Data recovery and concurrency: The DBMS - or else some other related software component,
usually called the transaction manager - must enforce certain recovery and concurrency controls.
• Data Dictionary: The DBMS must provide a data dictionary function. The data dictionary can be
regarded as a database in its own right (but a system database, rather than a user database). The
dictionary contains “data about the data” (sometimes called metadata) - that is, definitions of other
objects in the system - rather than just”raw data.” In particular, all the various schemas and mapping
(external, conceptual, etc.) will physically be stored, in both source and object form, in the dictionary.
A comprehensive dictionary will also include cross- reference information, showing, for instance,
which programs use which pieces of the database, which users require which reports, which terminals
are connected to the system, and so on. The dictionary might even - in fact, probably should — be
integrated into the database it defines, and thus include its own definition. It should certainly be
possible to query the dictionary just like any other database, so that, for example, it is possible to tell
which programs and or users are likely to be affected by some proposed change to the system.
Performance: It goes without saying that the DBMS should perform all of the functions identified
above as efficiently as possible.

Main Characteristics of the Database Approach

1) Self-describing nature of a database system: A fundamental characteristic of the database
approach is that the database system contains not only the database itself but also a complete definition
or description of the database structure and constraints. A DBMS catalog stores the description of the
database. The description is called meta-data. This allows the DBMS software to work with different
databases.
2) Insulation between programs and data: Called program-data independence. Allows changing data
storage structures and operations without having to change the DBMS access programs.
3) program-operation independence:- In object-oriented and object-relational databases users can
define operations on data as part of the database definitions. An operation (also called a function) is
specified in two parts. The interface (or signature) of an operation includes the operation name and the
data types of its arguments (or parameters). The implementation (or method) of the operation is
specified separately and can be changed without affecting the interface. User application programs can
operate on the data by invoking these operations through their names and arguments, regardless of how
the operations are implemented. This may be termed program-operation independence
4) Data Abstraction: The characteristic that allows program-data independence and program-operation
independence is called data abstraction. A DBMS provides users with a conceptual representation
of data that does not include many of the details of how the data is stored or how the operations are
implemented. Informally, a data model is a type of data abstraction that is used to provide this
conceptual representation.
5) Support of multiple views of the data: Each user may see a different view of the database, which
describes only the data of interest to that user. A multiuser DBMS whose users have a variety of
applications must provide facilities for defining multiple views. For example; the people using the
payroll system need not/should not see data about students and class schedules.
6) Sharing of data and multiuser transaction processing : allowing a set of concurrent users to
retrieve and to update the database. The DBMS must include concurrency control software to ensure
that several users trying to update the same data do so in a controlled manner so that the result of the
updates is correct. For example, when several reservation clerks try to assign a seat on an airline flight,
the DBMS should ensure that each seat can be accessed by only one clerk at a time for assignment to a
passenger. These types of applications are generally called on-line transaction processing (OLTP)
applications. A fundamental role of multiuser DBMS software is to ensure that concurrent transactions
operate correctly

What are the various keys?

• A key is an attribute (also known as column or field) or a combination of attribute that is used to
identify records. Sometimes we might have to retrieve data from more than one table, in those cases
we require to join tables with the help of keys. The purpose of the key is to bind data together across
tables without repeating all of the data in every table.

The various types of key with e.g. in SQL are mentioned below, (For examples let suppose we have
an Employee Table with attributes ‘ID’ , ‘Name’ ,’Address’ , ‘Department_ID’ ,’Salary’)
1. Primary Key
A key is a single attribute or combination of two or more, attributes of an entity that is used to
identify one or more instances of the set. The attribute Roll # uniquely identifies an instance of the
entity set STUDENT. It tells about student Amrita having address 101, Kashmir Avenue and phone no.
112746 and have paid fees 1500 on basis of Roll No. 15. The 15 is unique value and it gives unique
identification of students So here Roll No is unique attribute and such a unique entity identifies called
Primary Key. Primary key cannot be duplicate.
 The primary key is important since it is the sole identifier for the tuples in a relation. Any tuple in
a database may be identified by specifying relation name, primary key and its value. Also for a tuple to
exist in a relation, it must be identifiable and therefore it must have a primary key.
2. Secondary Key
The attributes that are not even the Super Key but can be still used for identification of records (not
unique) are known as Secondary Key. E.g. of Secondary Key can be Name, Address, Salary,
Department_ID etc. as they can identify the records but they might not be unique.

3. Super Key
If we add additional attributes to a primary key, the resulting combination would still uniquely
identify an instance of the entity set Such keys are called super keys A primary key is therefore a
minimum super key For example, if DOB (date of birth field or attribute) is the primary key, then by
adding some additional information about the day of the month key in the DOB field, this field or
attribute becomes more powerful and useful Such type of key is called super key Super key are less
used in a small database file. Now these days it has less importance, but due to its feature, this key
gives the complete description of the database.
4. Candidate Key
• Candidate Key – It can be defined as minimal Super Key or irreducible Super Key. In other
words an attribute or a combination of attribute that identifies the record uniquely but none of its proper
subsets can identify the records uniquely.
E.g. of Candidate Key
1 Code
2 Name, Address
For above table we have only two Candidate Keys (i.e. Irreducible Super Key) used to identify the
records from the table uniquely. Code Key can identify the record uniquely and similarly combination
of Name and Address can identify the record uniquely, but neither Name nor Address can be used to
identify the records uniquely as it might be possible that we have two employees with similar name or
two employees from the same house..
5. Alternate Key – Alternate Key can be any of the Candidate Keys except for the Primary Key.
E.g. of Alternate Key is combination of “Name, Address” as it is the only other Candidate Key which is
not a Primary Key.
6 Foreign Key
Foreign Key – A foreign key is an attribute or combination of attribute in one base table that points to
the candidate key (generally it is the primary key) of another table. The purpose of the foreign key is to
ensure referential integrity of the data i.e. only values that are supposed to appear in the database are
permitted.
E.g. of Foreign Key – Let consider we have another table i.e. Department Table with Attributes
“Department_ID”, “Department_Name”, “Manager_ID”, ”Location_ID” with Department_ID as an
Primary Key. Now the Department_ID attribute of Employee Table (dependent or child table) can be
defined as the Foreign Key as it can reference to the Department_ID attribute of the Departments table
(the referenced or parent table), a Foreign Key value must match an existing value in the parent table or
be NULL.

Constraints

• Constraints within a database are rules which control values allowed in columns and also
enforce the integrity between columns and tables

Entity integrity

• The entity integrity constraint states that no primary key value can be null. This is because the
primary key value is used to identify individual tuples in a relation. Having null value for the
primary key implies that we cannot identify some tuples.This also specifies that there may not
be any duplicate entries in primary key column key row.

Referential integrity Constraints

• The referential integrity constraint is specified between two relations and is used to maintain the
consistency among tuples in the two relations. Informally, the referential integrity constraint
states that a tuple in one relation that refers to another relation must refer to an existing tuple in
that relation. It is a rule that maintains consistency among the rows of the two relations

Domain Constraints:

• A Domain constraint deals with one or more columns. It is important to ensure that a particular
column or a set of columns meets particular criteria. When you insert or update a row, the
constraint is applied without respect to any other row in the table. The focus is on the data that
is in the column. These kinds of constraints will resurface when we deal with Check
constraints, Default constraints and rules and defaults.

User Defined Integrity

• A business rule is a statement that defines or constrains some aspect of the business. It is
intended to assert business structure or to control or influence the behavior of the business. E.g.:
pswd>=5 && username<=20

A constraint is a property assigned to a column or the set of columns in a table that prevents
certain types of inconsistent data values from being placed in the column (s). Constraints are
used to enforce the data integrity. This ensures the accuracy and reliability of the data in the
database CONSTRAINT=The threat or use of force to prevent, restrict, or dictate the action or
thought of others. there are 7 types of constraints are there and they are grouped in to 4 types.
They are TYPES GROUP

• 1.DEFAULT = DOMAIN INTEGRITY

• 2.NOT NULL = DOMAIN INTEGRITY
• 3.CHECK = DOMAIN INTEGRITY
• 4.FOREIGN KEY = REFERENTIAL INTEGRITY 5.UNIQUE KEY = ENTITY INTEGRITY
• 6.PRIMARY KEY = ENTITY INTEGRITY
• 7.RULE = USER DEFINED INTEGRITY
ENTITY - RELATIONSHIP MODEL

The Entity - Relationship Model (E-R Model) is a high-level conceptual data model developed
by Chen in 1976 to facilitate database design. Conceptual Modeling is an important phase in designing
a successful database. A conceptual data model is a set of concepts that describe the structure of a
database and associated retrieval and updation transactions on the database. A high level model is
chosen so that all the technical aspects are also covered.

The E-R data model grew out of the exercise of using commercially available DBMS's to model
the database. The E-R model is the generalization of the earlier available commercial models like the
Hierarchical and the Network Model. It also allows the representation of the various constraints as well
as their relationships.

So to sum up, the Entity-Relationship (E-R) Model is based on a view of a real world that
consists of set of objects called entities and relationships among entity sets which are basically a group
of similar objects. The relationships between entity sets is represented by a named E-R relationship and
is of 1:1, 1: N or M: N type which tells the mapping from one entity set to another.

The E-R model is shown diagrammatically using Entity-Relationship (E-R) diagrams which
represent the elements of the conceptual model that show the meanings and the relationships between
those elements independent of any particular DBMS and implementation details.

Features of the E-R Model:

1. The E-R diagram used for representing E-R Model can be easily converted into Relations (tables) in
Relational Model.

2. The E-R Model is used for the purpose of good database design by the database developer so to use
that data model in various DBMS.

3. It is helpful as a problem decomposition tool as it shows the entities and the relationship between
those entities.

4. It is inherently an iterative process. On later modifications, the entities can be inserted into this
model.

5. It is very simple and easy to understand by various types of users and designers because specific
standards are used for their representation

Entity
An entity is an object that exists and is distinguishable from other objects.Might be Object with
physical existence like Lect,student,car. Object with conceptual or logical existence like
course,job,postion.
Entity Type:- a collection of similar entities
• A set of entities that have the same attributes is called an entity type. Each entity type in the
database is described by a name and a list of attributes. For example an entity employee is an
entity type that has Name, Age and Salary attributes.
• The individual entities of a particular entity type are grouped into a collection or entity set,
which is also called the extension of the entity type.
An entity is a thing in the real world. It may be an object with a physical existence or an object
with a conceptual existence. A set of these entities having same attributes is entity type and
collection of individual entity type is an entity set.

entity type is like fruit which is a class .we havn't seen any "fruit"yet though we have
seen instance of fruit like "apple ,banana,mango etc.hence..
fruit=entity type=EMPLOYEE
apple=entity=e1 or e2 or e3
enity set= bucket of apple,banana ,mango etc={e1,e2......}
•
• STRONG ENTITY SETS
An entity set containing a key attribute are called strong entity types or regular entity types.For
example, The STUDENT entity has a key attribute Roll No which uniquely identifies it, hence
is a strong entity set.
• WEAK ENTITY SETS
An entity set may not have sufficient attribute to form a primary key. Entity types that do not
 contain any key attributes, and hence can not be identified independently are called weak entity
sets.
• A weak entity can be identified uniquely only by considering some of its attributes in
conjunction with the primary key attribute of another entity, which is called the identifying
owner entity

Attributes
Entities are represented by means of their properties, called attributes. All attributes have values. For
example, a student entity may have name, class, and age as attributes.
There exists a domain or range of values that can be assigned to attributes. For example, a student's
name cannot be a numeric value. It has to be alphabetic. A student's age cannot be negative, etc.
Types of Attributes
 Simple attribute − Simple attributes are atomic values, which cannot be divided further. For
example, a student's RollNumber is an atomic value of 7 digits.

 Composite attribute − Composite attributes are made of more than one simple attribute. For
example, a student's complete name may have FirstName and LastName.

 Derived attribute − Derived attributes are the attributes that do not exist in the physical
database, but their values are derived from other attributes present in the database. For example,
average_salary in a department should not be saved directly in the database, instead it can be
derived. For another example, Age can be derived from BirthDate
  Single-value attribute − Single-value attributes contain single value. For example −
Social_Security_Number.

 Multi-value attribute − Multi-value attributes may contain more than one values. For example,
a person can have more than one Phone Number, Email Address, etc.

These attribute types can come together in a way like −

 simple single-valued attributes
 simple multi-valued attributes
 composite single-valued attributes
 composite multi-valued attributes
Relationships

Relationship
The association among entities is called a relationship. For example, an employee works_at a
department, a student Enrolls in a course. Here, Works_at and Enrolls are called relationships.
Relationship Set
A set of relationships of similar type is called a relationship set. Like entities, a relationship too can
have attributes. These attributes are called descriptive attributes.
Degree of Relationship
The number of participating entities in a relationship defines the degree of the relationship.
 Binary = degree 2
 Ternary = degree 3
 N-ary = degree n
Mapping Cardinalities
Cardinality defines the number of entities in one entity set, which can be associated with the number
of entities of other set via relationship set.
 One-to-one − One entity from entity set A can be associated with at most one entity of entity
set B and vice versa.

 One-to-many − One entity from entity set A can be associated with more than one entities of
entity set B however an entity from entity set B, can be associated with at most one entity.

 Many-to-one − More than one entities from entity set A can be associated with at most one
entity of entity set B, however an entity from entity set B can be associated with more than one
entity from entity set A.
  Many-to-many − One entity from A can be associated with more than one entity from B and
vice versa.

Let us now learn how the ER Model is represented by means of an ER diagram. Any object, for
example, entities, attributes of an entity, relationship sets, and attributes of relationship sets, can be
represented with the help of an ER diagram.

Entity
An entity is a person,place,thing or event for which data is collected and maintained.
for example a library system may contain data about different entities like BOOK and MEMBER. A
college system may include entities like STUDENT, TEACHER and CLASS.

Entities are represented by means of rectangles. Rectangles are named with the entity set they represent.

Relationships
Relationships are represented by diamond-shaped box. Name of the relationship is written inside the
diamond-box. All the entities (rectangles) participating in a relationship, are connected to it by a line.
Binary Relationship and Cardinality
A relationship where two entities are participating is called a binary relationship. Cardinality is the
number of instance of an entity from a relation that can be associated with the relation.
 One-to-one − When only one instance of an entity is associated with the relationship, it is
marked as '1:1'. The following image reflects that only one instance of each entity should be
associated with the relationship. It depicts one-to-one relationship.

 One-to-many − When more than one instance of an entity is associated with a relationship, it is
marked as '1:N'. The following image reflects that only one instance of entity on the left and
more than one instance of an entity on the right can be associated with the relationship. It
depicts one-to-many relationship.

 Many-to-one − When more than one instance of entity is associated with the relationship, it is
marked as 'N:1'. The following image reflects that more than one instance of an entity on the left
and only one instance of an entity on the right can be associated with the relationship. It depicts
many-to-one relationship.

 Many-to-many − The following image reflects that more than one instance of an entity on the
left and more than one instance of an entity on the right can be associated with the relationship.
It depicts many-to-many relationship.
Participation Constraints
 Total Participation − Eachinstance of an entity is involved in the relationship. Total
participation is represented by double lines.
 Partial participation − Not all instances of entities are involved in the relationship. Partial
participation is represented by single lines.

Extended(Enhanced ) ER Model:

• The ER modeling concepts are sufficient for representing traditional database application. For
more complex database application such as telecommunications , CAD/CAM , GIS etc , we
need more complex requirements than traditional applications. In late 1970’s database designers
have tried to design more accurate ER model , which reflects the data properties and constraints
more accurately . So extended(Enhanced ) ER model have some enhanced features than normal
ER model. It uses the concepts of Specialization , Generalization , Aggregation

Generalization Specialization and Aggregation in DBMS are abstraction mechanisms used to model
information. The abstraction is the mechanism used to hide the superfluous details of a set of objects.
For example, vehicle is a abstraction, that includes the types car, jeep and bus.

So, the two abstraction mechanisms used to model information :

 Generalization (Specialization is the reverse process of Generalization)

 Aggregation
Specialization:

Specialization may be seen as the reverse process of Generalization. Specialization is the abstracting
process of introducing new characteristics to an existing class of objects to create one or more new
classes of objects.

In specialization, a group of entities is divided into sub-groups based on their characteristics. Take a
group ‘Person’ for example. A person has name, date of birth, gender, etc. These properties are
common in all persons, human beings. But in a company, persons can be identified as employee,
employer, customer, or vendor, based on what role they play in the company.

Similarly, in a school database, persons can be specialized as teacher, student, or a staff, based on what
role they play in school as entities.

Generalization
• Generalization is just reverse of Specialization. Generalization is the process to define a
generalized entity type from the given entity type. In generalization, a number of entities are
brought together into one generalized entity based on their similar characteristics. For example,
pigeon, house sparrow, crow and dove can all be generalized as Birds.
For ex. Consider the two entity CAR and TRUCK . Because both have some common attributes, they
can combindly make a super entity called VEHICLE. So it is the process to identify the common
features (attributes) from two or more entity and generalized them into a super entity.
Aggregation:

• Aggregration is a process when relation between two entity is treated as a single entity. Here the
relation between Center and Course, is acting as an Entity in relation with Visitor.
Inheritance

We use all the above features of ER-Model in order to create classes of objects in object-oriented
programming. The details of entities are generally hidden from the user; this process known
as abstraction.

Inheritance is an important feature of Generalization and Specialization. It allows lower-level entities to

inherit the attributes of higher-level entities.

For example, the attributes of a Person class such as name, age, and gender can be inherited by lower-
level entities such as Student or Teacher.