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Bio-logic, a review on the biomimetic application in architectural

and structural design
Saurav Dixit a,⇑, Anna Stefańska b
a
Division of Research & Innovation, Uttaranchal University, Uttarakhand, Dehradun 248007, India
b
Chair of Structural Design, Civil Engineering and Technical Infrastructure, Faculty of Architecture, Warsaw University of Technology, Warsaw, Poland

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Contemporary interdisciplinary design requires architects’ knowledge and cooperation with such fields
Received 3 November 2021 as construction, material engineering, fabrication methods, and knowledge in optimisation of the design
Revised 24 March 2022 process, production, and minimisation of used materials and energy. Following the example of other dis-
Accepted 26 April 2022
ciplines, contemporary architecture seeks inspiration from Nature on various levels. The development of
Available online xxxx
modern tools and materials opens unprecedented opportunities for designers to shape free forms with
precision, following sustainable development guidelines. The article presents the influence of biomimicry
Keywords:
inspiration on shaping spatial structures of 20th and 21st-century architecture. The primary conclusion
Algorithmic design
Architectural engineering
of the review indicates the need for further implementing bio-logic strategies into interdisciplinary,
Biomimicry holistic building design.
Parametric design Ó 2022 THE AUTHORS. Published by Elsevier BV on behalf of Faculty of Engineering, Ain Shams University
Sustainable constructions This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-
Sustainable development nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction system solutions. In interdisciplinary architectural and structural

design, the search for structurally optimal conditions and materials
In the 21st century, biology is the best developing branch of is particularly needed. UNESCO’s Engineering Report highlights the
science, which supports the development of other disciplines like need for holistic thinking in Sustainable development, based on
physics in the last century. Evolving over millions of years, Nature biomimetics, which ‘‘links engineering and technology with natural
has developed an infinite variety of materials, structures and sys- life structures and systems”, which cannot be achieved without
tems. Understanding the principles that govern them allows tech- ‘‘the development of computer science and technology and new mate-
nological development through bio-inspiration or biomimicry. This rials” [2]. Research into the use of biomimetic patterns has noted
has contributed to a shift in design in the architectural environ- that optimisation of structures must be carried out in parallel with
ment and is observed in numerous inspirations of living organisms material optimisation [3], improvement of their performance, and
and biotechnical trends. Developing issues of interdisciplinarity in the search for new conglomerates [4]. Still, the most significant
architecture, already in the last century, began to draw patterns barrier is the simultaneous use in structures of materials of homo-
from Nature [1]. A distinction must be made between the earlier geneous form, formed into complex systems such as, for example,
references to Nature, found in Arabian ornamentation or shapes the structure of the magpie skull bone, the shell of the beetle wing,
dictated by architectural orders and styles, and the contemporary or the bone of the cuttlefish [5]. This review illustrates the funda-
inspiration by the logic of material used. This inspiration can be mentals for recognising specific examples of biomimetics, their
used on many levels simultaneously, from shape-ornament, current use. The paper provides a possible perspective on the chal-
through the search for an effective structural shape, to building lenges of biological and bioinspired structural behaviour and mate-
rials and their application in contemporary and future designs (see
⇑ Corresponding author. Fig. 1).
E-mail address: sauravarambol@gmail.com (S. Dixit).
Peer review under responsibility of Ain Shams University.
1.1. Contemporary interdisciplinary design

In contemporary Architectural Design and Architectural Engi-

neering, designs of organic forms prevail; however, this is dictated
Production and hosting by Elsevier
not so much by the desire to achieve an affinity with Nature but by

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asej.2022.101822
2090-4479/Ó 2022 THE AUTHORS. Published by Elsevier BV on behalf of Faculty of Engineering, Ain Shams University
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Please cite this article as: S. Dixit and A. Stefańska, Bio-logic, a review on the biomimetic application in architectural and structural design, Ain Shams
Engineering Journal, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asej.2022.101822
S. Dixit and A. Stefańska Ain Shams Engineering Journal xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 1. a) current designing process, b) material-based design process [48].

integrating form with the supporting structure. Today’s construc- designing and how designers perceive and relate to biomimetic
tion sector is responsible for the effective use of natural resources, inspirations at an early stage of interdisciplinary architectural
which minimises material consumption. Interdisciplinary research designs. The paper provides a possible perspective on the chal-
leads architects to look less at the aesthetics of the ‘‘sculptural lenges of the biological and bio-inspired structural behaviour and
object” and more at the rational use of repetitive elements. Design- materials and their applications in contemporary and future
ing according to the logic of Nature can be seen in definitions such design.
as biomimicry-material science, biomimetics or bionics. All these
definitions differ slightly etymologically, but today they are used
as synonyms by many researchers, as in this article. The structures
of organisms found in Nature are very different from the structures 2. Literature review. Bionic forms as an inspiration to
built by humans. However, the purpose of implementing bionic architectural designing
shapes in architecture is not the great complexity or the use of
many advanced and expensive energy-consuming materials that 2.1. Historical background of biomimicry
make these solutions far from being ecological - close to Nature
and the guidelines of sustainable development. Architectural inspiration from Nature has been evident since
The increased interest in bionic design in the 21st century is the beginning of human construction. Like the modern hanging
mainly due to computer capabilities. Computer-Aided Design roofs of today, tents are an example of man’s technical structures
(CAD) and Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM) tools aided the [13]. References to acanthus or lotus leaves, visible in the ancient
speed of innovation and digital fabrication in the 20th century. order, became a model of harmony and proportion identified with
However, it was not until computer-aided design, introducing the concept of beauty [14]. According to Aristotle, Nature is the
morphogenic and evolutionary algorithms derived from Nature, first source of all human creations, including the artistic aspects
that significantly changed the way of designing [6]. Previously of designing [15]. Biodiversity prompts us to search for optimal
impossible curvilinear, complex geometries are no longer a barrier solutions in architecture and construction. The most famous
to innovation and fabrication [7,8] thanks to the shift from form researcher who sought to use patterns found in Nature was Leo-
designing to form finding [9] and computer-aided design and the nardo da Vinci, who based his design of flying machines on bird
development of modern structural computing. observation. In modern times it can be seen that this search was
Algorithm-based models support form and structure develop- too close to repeating shape rather than functioning principles
ment by differentia growth according to given parameters, without [16]. Actual examples of the following inspiration from animate
human interactions. Computer-aided design allowed the transcrip- Nature include Leonardo da Vinci’s the flying machine (1452–
tion of the design into a digital record and the ability to process the 1519) [17] and the invention of the Wright brothers, thanks to
input and create new databases based on boundary conditions. The which in 1903 man took to the air for the first time [14,18].
designer asks research questions, provides context and resource The beginning of research into the use of bionic patterns by
constraints of material, time or budget. The implementation of dig- humans can be seen in zoologist D’Arcy Thomson, who in a book
ital technologies allows for an interdisciplinary exchange of infor- published in 1917 describes the phenomenon of the formation of
mation that supports the development of research into optimising the shapes of living organisms, describing mathematically and
architecture as a project and the process of creating and operating physically the parameters affecting their development [19].
a building. The concept of being inspired by Nature’s designs is found in
Therefore, the use of bionics is coupled with the possibility of many different fields under names such as ‘‘Bio-life”, ‘‘mimesis-to
using modern computer programs. The apparent differences in imitate”, ‘‘Biomimetic”, ‘‘Biomimesis”, ‘‘Biognosis”, ‘‘nature and tech-
structural design and those produced by Nature are evident in nology”, ‘‘biology and innovation” or ‘‘Bionic”. Pushing research
the degree of complexity of living organisms. Significant differ- towards developing more technologically advanced ways of opti-
ences in living organisms and man-made structures indicate the mally producing human creations through ‘‘Learning from nature”
need for a deeper understanding of the systems occurring in Nat- [20]. The term Biomimetic was first used in 1957 by Otto Schmitt,
ure. Minimising the material used and the energy required for its describing it as ‘‘the transfer of ideas and analogues from biology to
construction are the main aspects necessary to enter the genera- technology” [21], and Bionic in 1960 by Jack E. Steele of NASA,
tive design, which is also factors of sustainable development mainly about material science. In 1997, Janine M. Benyus pub-
[10]. The philosophy of using biomimicry in the building sector lished her book Biomimicry, in which she described the phe-
stems from the need to design according to sustainable develop- nomenon as: ‘‘conscientious emulation on nature genius” [22].
ment guidelines. Nature can be an inspiration to reduce natural Benyus emphasises that biomimicry plays the leading role in tech-
resources and the carbon footprint [11,12]. The paper attempts to nological development, copying natural material properties and
address the issue of evolving technologies’ influence on structural understanding algorithmic design behaviour and ecosystem levels.
At the same time, Gruber defines biomimicry as ‘‘delivering identi-
2
S. Dixit and A. Stefańska Ain Shams Engineering Journal xxx (xxxx) xxx

fication of new and innovative fields together with a method of trans- found in Nature and the structural logic achieved by combining
ferring ideas from nature’s phenomena to architecture” [23]. lightweight and strength.
The search for bionic inspiration in structural logic is mainly Biomimicry has contributed to a shift in design, not only follow-
evident in the 20th century searching for architects and construc- ing free aesthetic forms, but above all, minimising natural
tors. The shift in design from purely aesthetic sculptural design, resources and carbon footprint, and thus sustainable architecture,
which allows free forms to be achieved without any attempt at meeting the ‘‘shift from an industrial age to the ecological age of
material optimisation, to the use of algorithms to shape bionic humankind” [4]. The early inspiration in biomimetic forms was vis-
structures, has become a ground field of the search for bio-logic. ible in new architectural trends such as zoomorphism (the struc-
The table shows how the inspiration of patterns found in Nature ture looks like the animal form) and biomorphism (embracing
changed in the 20th century (Table 1). natural patterns in architectural form), mimicking the shapes
Contemporary trends in interdisciplinary design are charac- found in Nature on a geometry level. Examples of Biomimicry-
terised by a search for inspiration in the characteristics of materials compliant design, shown in Table 1, indicate the trend of shifting

Table 1
Examples of the use of bionic inspiration in the 20th century.

Period/date Representations Inspiration description Example Building Photo

Art Nouveau Hector Guimard Sculptural use of aesthetics and bionic 1911-Hector Guimard, door and
1890–1910 Victor Horta ornamentation in architecture portals ornaments
Antoni Gaudi

Modernism Frank L. Wright Embedding the building in Nature, organic 1964-Fallingwater house
architecture [24,24]

Modernism Frei Otto Use of shell structures, the introduction of 1972- Frei Otto, Munich Olimpic
Buckminster the concept of form-finding on physical Stadium
Fuller models, membranes and rod structures
Heinz Isler

Modernism Eero Saarinen The use of form-finding and free surfaces 1962- Eero Saarinen, JFK Airport
Jorn Utzon in reinforced concrete structures
Niemeyer

Deconstruc-tivism Frank Gehry Advance digital design and fabrication 1992-Golden Fish
tools, zoomorphism

1990 Greg Lynn Morphogenetic, incorporating biological 1990-The visualisation of Embryologic

growth and mutation based on animation Housing, from IT Revolution in
software Architecture

1997 Santiago As the architect and structural engineer, 1997- The Quadracci Pavilion,
Calatrava Calatrava created his unique style based Milwaukee Art Museum
on recreating the natural structures:
Biomorfizm

3
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from pattern mimicking to the logic of Nature in shaping load- cal optimisation allows for interdisciplinary research, already in
bearing structures. They become the vestibule of research works the initial design phase, using a generation-to-application
that herald a new design era- emerging computational approach [34].
technologies. The search for inspiration in living structures is carried out,
among others, in the research of the new structuralism, which
2.2. Modern use of biomimicry ‘‘turn away from formalism and towards a material practice open to
ecological potential” [33]. Biomimetics does not mimic Nature by
The development of research into the use of biomimicry in using the same materials or functions but instead captures princi-
architecture represents new perspectives in the way we design, ples that can be used to optimise technological aspects of design
with its characteristics enabling the production of sustainable [16]. Topological optimisation, form-finding, morphogenesis or
architecture across the board (cradle-to-grave or even cradle-to- intelligent evolutionary algorithms have become the main devel-
cradle). The innovative use of computer models has enabled con- opment directions.
temporary architects and researchers to design independently Increasingly, research aimed at finding tools for precision man-
and achieve specific digital models optimisations. In contrast, mod- ufacturing, minimising the generation of carbon footprint, cost
ern materials engineering and advanced digital fabrication enable (cost-effective), and more optimal (efficient) forms focus on biomi-
more efficient and rational execution with unprecedented preci- metic architecture as means to achieve the most optimal shapes.
sion [25]. The biomimetic approach changes the perception of Contemporary computation design opens up new possibilities
design, detaching separate design elements like form, function and discussions on morphogenetic and evolutionary approaches
structure and material selection. Copying Nature’s evolutionary [10,31]. Biologically inspired morphogenesis differs from the tradi-
models, the interplay of geometric principles and biological knowl- tional architectural design process. In biomimetic algorithmic
edge allows these elements to permeate, co-solidify and connect design, form-finding is led by a dynamic process concerning pro-
[26]. duct materialisation in time [35]. As ‘‘Morphogenesis is the creation
A significant increase in the use of biomimetic solutions and of forms that evolve in space and over time” [36]. Computational
structures has been seen in recent years, particularly in numerous design, based on parametric and generative algorithmic scripting,
research-based optimisation analyses on small pavilion objects. In together with the possibility of mass production of extraordinary
2005 and 2008, it was estimated to be around USD 1.5 trillion, quality, allows the exploration of geometry in holistic terms. In
while in 2025, it has risen to USD 1 trillion, creating over 1.6 mil- architecture, morphogenesis (also described as ‘‘digital morphogen-
lion new jobs in the US alone [11]. According to the World Eco- esis”) is understood as the use of generative tools such as emer-
nomic Forum, improving efficiency and global productivity in the gence, self-organisation and form-finding, to obtain the form and
Architecture, Engineering and Construction (AEC sector by 1% its further transformations [37,38]. Understanding the morpholog-
could save as much as $100 trillion a year [27,28]. The unique man- ical diversity used in the computational design process is possible
ufacturing scale affects the difficulty of adapting new manufactur- by understanding the totality of environmental conditions affect-
ing technologies available in other industries [29], mainly because ing the emergence of natural forms.
of insufficiently skilled professionals [30].
The search for optimum structures in the first industrial revolu-
tion was based mainly on the research for overcoming hitherto 2.3. Development of biomimicry research
unachievable surfaces (the palace of machines) and the large-
scale development of steel structures in the industry. The possibil- The last 30 years have shown an increased interest in emerg-
ities of fast erection of buildings in skeletal systems forced design- ing biomimetic studies for civil engineering. Among structural
ers to optimise the known construction materials: concrete, steel, objects being researched using algorithmic optimisations are
reinforced concrete, wood and diaphragm materials. small scale buildings such as foot bridges [39], towers, and pavil-
The second industrial revolution, triggered by the rapid devel- ions [40]. Especially pavilions became the ‘‘vehicle for design-
opment of science and technology, introduced further industriali- build projects” [41] in terms of finding the parametric designing
sation of production, introducing unification of construction and digital fabrication methods for bionic inspirations [42]. The
solutions. The scientific and technical process resulted from the search for biomimetic inspiration can be seen on three primary
computerisation of work, improving science and production tech- levels: [4,43]:
nology. The current progress of digitalisation can also be seen in
how building elements are designed and manufactured. The term
Geometrical pattern level
‘‘tectonics”, which emerged in the mid-nineteenth century, fits into
the mode of contemporary interdisciplinary architectural optimi- This search contributed to using Delaunay triangulation or Vor-
sation, as ‘‘not only indicating structural and material integrity but onoi diagram or Laguerre tesselation in architecture, derivatives of
also the poetics of construction” [31]. Access to advanced computer dragonfly wing patterns, giraffe skin colour patterns, or Turing’s
programs based on evolutionary algorithms and key to evolving pattern, which can describe zebra or gecko skin colour patterns.
digital fabrication methods allows for achieving individualised The search for 3D prints can be seen, for example, in the use of
construction solutions that result in visible savings in production foam cells or birds nests, on the scale of extensive sports facilities.
time, natural resources, and waste minimisation.
The organic shapes found in Nature are beautiful and inspire the
Behavioural level
search for efficiency. As the biologist points out: ‘‘Materials are
expensive, and shape is cheap” [4]. Living organisms are the most Depending on the specific environmental conditions, the load-
economical creations, using the minimum amount of material bearing structures of living organisms have developed many mod-
available in the environment and the physical characteristics of els that are now an inspiration for designers. Designers find analo-
that material in shaping a corresponding final form. In the search gies to arboreal forms [44] are used, exoskeletons of underwater
for efficiency in shaping load-bearing structures, modern tools organisms or the distribution of material, as in a system of a bone
open up the discussion of morphogenesis and evolutionary design or the bamboo [45].
[32]. Collaboration early in the design phase allows deeper analysis
and more accurate use of patterns found in Nature [33]. Topologi-
Ecosystem level
4
S. Dixit and A. Stefańska Ain Shams Engineering Journal xxx (xxxx) xxx

Research conducted on the way ecosystems functions in Nature modulating the algorithm allows architects to create algorithms
and local ways of organising resource flows. Research in structural that shape optimal structures in multivariate analyses without
sustainability reached beyond the structural systems and focused interfering with the final form. The ability to carry out such inves-
on building performance, such as the inspiration of natural ventila- tigations at the initial design stage allows for minimisation of wear
tion, wind energy, or water collection [46]. and tear and appropriate selection of materials, adjustment of
Each level of biomimetic inspiration requires different in-depth structure dimensions and maintenance of architectural aesthetics
studies and a growing need for interdisciplinary research. Innova- (see Table 3).
tor designers look up to biomimicry to achieve efficient and effec- Programs such as 3ds Max, Rhinoceros, Blender, Cinema 4D and
tive products. Natural systems and their logic-based evolution hold similar, which enable to animate the transformation of an object in
the knowledge to survive and optimise energy, material, and time-frame mode, provide the possibility to shape free geometries
labour. Presented architectural examples highlight the differences in architectural design. In parallel with graphics programs, BIM
in three levels of biomimetic inspirations (Table 2). (Building Information Modelling) tools are developing to enable
inter-disciplinary technical innovation, such as Revit, ArchiCAD
2.4. Development of design support tools and Vectorworks. The search for an interdisciplinary design that
allows for interference, not only in the algorithm that shapes the
The search for freeform in contemporary architecture is becom- form architecturally but also in the form-finding that enables the
ing a two-pronged task, combining the search for aesthetic expres- shape to be optimised structurally in real-time, is possible in
sion and structural optimisation to select sustainable geometry in Grasshopper, a plug-in for the already mentioned Rhinoceros.
each project [47]. Biomimicry in contemporary design is changing the way we
Generative and parametric design supports the development of design. The interdependence of boundary conditions, the interdis-
biomimetic approaches in architecture, with the use of algorithmic ciplinary approach to the processes of shaping form requires a
patterns based on geometric relationships of forms found in Nat- holistic understanding of the design processes, depending on the
ure. Enabling computer simulations of infinite iterations and re- chosen materials, calculation methods, environmental guidelines

Table 2
Examples of the use of bionic inspiration in the 21st century.

Date Type of Inspiration description Building Photo

inspiration
2009 Pattern Voronoi Diagram Alibaba Headquarters, in Hangzhou, China, by HASSELL
architects

2007 Beijing National Aquatic Center

2008 Birds Nest Bejing Olympic Stadium, by Herzog and DeMeuron

2003 Behaviour Silica skeleton of sponge, as a lightweight 30 St Mary Axe, London, by Foster and Partners
material

2014 Water Spider web ICD/ITKE Research Pavilion, by Nemesi&Partners

2014 Ecosystems Termite mound ventilation systems HygroSkin

5
S. Dixit and A. Stefańska Ain Shams Engineering Journal xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table 3
Non-standard materials in architectural design with the use of additive manufacturing.

year Author Building, location Material Picture

Technology/algorithm
2020 Neri Oxman, Mediated Silk Pavilion II, Museum of Silk web
Matter Group, MIT Media Modern Art (MoMa) in NYC. the natural ability of silkworms to spin threads on the
Lab initially installed ‘‘structural threads.”

2017 Block research Group ETH Institute Sand-print

Zurich, researchers of technology Optimised through Thrust Network Analysis and
in Architecture, ETH Zurich Rhino VAULT, EXOne S-Max 3D sand printer

2019 ICD ITKE Research Pavilions, Stuttgart Carbon and glass fibre-reinforced polymer composites
The unique additive manufacturing methods
concerning mechanical pretension structures
[101,101]

2019 TECLA/ WASP Sustainable Habitats, Bolonia Clay-based earth materials, based on surrounding
materials availability, two-axis printing robot

2020 ETH Zurich researchers. J. Reinforced concrete column Reinforced concrete with custom-made filament
Flatt optimisation, ETH Zurich The fabrication with the use of the six-axis robotic
arm of Universal Robots UR10

2021 Joris Laarman, MX3D Bridge, Amsterdam 3D Printed bridge with the use of stainless steel.

or methods of execution. Architectural form in parametric and gen- tion seeks highly efficient results in terms of material, stiffness,
erative design becomes the result of a search and not, as before, a stress, or other related behaviour [50].
set of variants predestining a given historical style. In constructing Structural design optimisation is commonly limited to a post-
scripts, algorithms, and interdependencies, the architect becomes a rationalisation of free-form architectural shapes. Focusing only
manager, not just a sculptor, choosing the aesthetics of bio-like on minor shape adjustments in the late-designing phase [51].
structures. The following graphic, modelled by Pragya Bharati’s While modern possibilities of using multivariate optimisation
study, shows the need to change how biologically optimised forms allow already in the preliminary design phase, construct a state-
are designed. ment, parameters for further modifications based on structural
logic and generate multiple solutions to consider by the architect
[52].
3. Mechanical properties of biomimetic structures
Numerical tools, and the availability of Finite Element Method
(FEM) and Bidirectional Evolutionary Structural Optimization
3.1. Structural design
(BESO) optimisation methods, stimulate architects’ audacity for
free-form geometries researches [53]. Primarily used centrical
Biological inspirations in engineering design develop in various
shapes in the XXth century, such as domes or catenary models in
aspects, still challenging in the contemporary interdisciplinary
concrete shells, cable nets of membranes mainly were used thanks
environment [39]. Vincent [49] created a set of suggestions on
to easy optimisation tools. Nowadays, thanks to the so-called
the ‘‘Biomimetic Map” diagram between finding the solutions in
‘‘Guggenheim effect”, the approach to complex forms emerges with
biology and converting them into engineering. As a mathematical
structural buildings behaviour.
approach to best-performing solution finding, structural optimisa-
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Digitisation of tools has allowed architects and designers to use ‘‘elegant strategies that fulfil a variety of not only mechanical but also
generative tools to design the form and the supporting structure functional needs” [68]. The hierarchical structure of organisms to
with Evolutionary Structural Optimisation [54,55] and Bi- form supporting skeletons can be seen throughout the natural
Directional Evolutionary Structural Optimisation [6,56]. These world. While the search for the optimal shape is becoming possi-
involve the removal of redundant material during successive iter- ble, using computer-based tools, fabrication of load-bearing struc-
ations of static calculations, making it possible to achieve smooth tures is still a challenge in the ACE sector [69]. The use of cellular
shapes of load-bearing forms. An example of evolutionary algo- structural materials, such as honeycomb, cancellous bone, cuttle-
rithms in architecture is the plug-in for Grasshopper: tOpos [57]. bone inspirations, typically lightweight materials with optimal
The search for optimal shapes is carried out by using, among strength, load-bearing and lightweight structures [68], become
other things, topological optimisation. Topological sensitivity the new direction in material optimisation.
changes are the most radical type of shape adjustment to selected Top-quality architecture has been enhanced by developing new
boundary parameters than changes in individual aesthetic fea- technologies in the design of forms and materials [70,71]. Investi-
tures, changes in geometry, or adjustment of element cross- gating the dependence on new materials and producing them is
sections. Topological optimisation can significantly impact cost- becoming a growing need in light of sustainable design require-
efficiency while being difficult to model mathematically [58,59]. ments [72]. These are visible in interior design [70] and the search
However, structural topology is not often used in architectural for complex structural forms carrying considerable loads. Their
scale because ‘‘mathematically formulating objectives and con- chemical composition dictates that the search for bio-materials
strains is difficult or impossible in the design of buildings” [50]. that meet the increasingly stringent standards is more straightfor-
Topological optimisation is most often accompanied by the BESO ward. The other performance, combined with their shaping charac-
method, eliminating redundant material and adding it where teristics, makes it possible to achieve benefits that are difficult to
needed. Although topological optimisation inspires designers to achieve, such as superwettability of lotus leaves [73,73], shark skin
use bionic inspiration, it does not allow them to control and influ- [74] or desert beetles [75], stimuli-responsiveness of hygroscopic
ence the final shape of the forms aesthetically or functionally plants [76], chameleon changing colours based on tension on its
[60,61]. skin [77], or lightness combined with the extreme strength of cut-
tlebone [68]. Research is also being conducted based on biomi-
3.2. New technology implementation metic studies of the characteristics of biological materials such as
Ammophila areanaria grasses and their commonalities with materi-
3.2.1. Experimental optimisation als such as bimetal [78].
Biomimicry has an undoubtful impact in creating double-
curvature buildings, such as free-form transparent canopies, con- 3.2.2. Fabrication design
crete shells, material membranes or masonry vaults [62]. Most of The development of computer-aided design has significantly
those structures cover important areas without additional sup- influenced the selection of bespoke solutions for both design and
ports, creating an open space concept interiors. execution. The engineering-assisted design and form-finding
While form-finding is a process used mainly by architects, it design described above have highlighted the need for more accu-
also improves the mechanical properties of structures. Mechani- rate solutions at the architectural scale. A new field of research
cally constrained shapes such as those used in the form-finding has risen in the contemporary AEC sector, and the latest digital
approach have a strong relationship between the form and the modelling considers form, material properties and 3D printing
structural forces, ensuring stable static equilibrium. The most pop- properties [79,80].
ular prestressing methods were a physical model based form- Bio-inspired designing in a sustainable approach transforms
finding delivered by Frei Otto and Heinz Isler [63], based on science to ‘‘regenerate” and ‘‘enhance”. Current strategies for mate-
dynamic relaxation and force-density methods [64]. Modern para- rial optimisation bring new technologies such as Additive Manu-
digms using numerical methods of form optimisation, such as facturing, Computer Numerical Control (CNC) machines and
dynamic relaxation, force density method, or particle spring sys- computer-based algorithms for robotic manufacturing. Recent pro-
tems, allow optimisation of pre-determined forms by the architect jects refer to robotic fabrication in architecture as craft engaging
[64,65]. Prestressed structures such as the membrane of concrete different materials [81,82]. Mass customisation (MC) as a new
shell structures demand the equilibrium state, which finds an anal- approach to delivering wetter tailored with competitive price pro-
ogy to minimising the area content, such as in the film soap anal- duction also becomes a viral aspect of architectural design.
ogy [66,67]. The search to minimise the use of support material Automation design enables the shift in the fabrication and assem-
based on compressive or tensile forces and minimise bending bly process, from make-to-order to engineering-to-order products
moments has made it possible to experimentally design concrete [83,84].
shell structures that effectively achieve thin shells at significant Technology, which is developing at the intersection of many dif-
spans. The research search involving chain systems was quite chal- ferent fields, has become the focus of modern researchers. Until
lenging to use in FEM due to substantial displacement, only using now, 3d printing technologies have been used in prototyping. In
modern computing power and iterative solvers. the 21st century, additive methods have become an independent
The search for structurally optimal shapes using form-finding is technology, combining the optimal material and design method
particularly evident in the design of long-span roofs and light- [85]. Because of its poof labour productivity, the AEC sector has
weight systems. experienced rather a stagnation than development over the last
The search for modern technologies for the production of dur- years [86]. Additive technologies primarily identified with cloth
able and versatile materials, on the one hand, and require low design, medical implants or vegan meat became in 200 s the sepa-
energy and technical sophistication has led to traditional construc- rate technology branch. Also, using additive technologies to use
tion being dominated by concrete, steel and wood. These materials, eatable materials in architectural design is increasingly popular
combined with conventional construction, whose main objective and appealing [87,88]. However, numerous attempts of houses
was repetition and maximum unification, work very inefficiently, 3D printing in real-scale have been made in multiple materials,
such as cantilevers with constant cross-sectional thickness. such as concrete, soil, clay [89], and structural elements in such
Inspired by the logic of using materials in bionic structures, the materials as sand-print, steel [90] and, carbon fibre [91], bamboo
recent search to optimise the use of natural resources strives for and wood-based materials [92,93].
7
S. Dixit and A. Stefańska Ain Shams Engineering Journal xxx (xxxx) xxx

The close relationships with crafting and material-oriented One of the most critical factors in contemporary design is a sus-
algorithmic design and architectural technology aim to more in- tainable approach and its influence on structural and aesthetic
depth search for effective fabrication methods. A part of optimisation [111–114]. Rapid industrialisation has resulted in
material-oriented research, self-assembly material-over-form environmental pollution [115–117]. Hence the need for more
investigations explore the use of prestressed textiles and 3D biomimetic-based structural and material optimisation is crucial
printed rigid elements [94,95]. 4D printing, i.e., standard 3D with in AEC Sector. Learning from natural-based evolutionary algo-
the parameter of changing aspects over time, or with materials giv- rithms might be a way of improving technologies for the environ-
ing the possibility of changing according to parameters, is becom- ment. Principles of biomimicry in design: adaptation, material and
ing a desirable technology, allowing modifications regarding form, system, evolution, emergency, form, and behaviour in terms of
properties, or functionality [96,97]. CAD, CAM design and architectural and structural optimisation
The possibility of using high-precision robotic arms allows for are important sustainable methodology factors for building life
the free handling of additive materials and cutting or multi-axis cycle [118–125].
machining. This changes the way traditional materials such as con-
crete, steel or wood are used. Additive manufacturing allows using
unique features of materials, without restrictions, e.g. of shapes, 5. Conclusion
which in the mass production of the last century forced straight
walls and a straight angle [98]. Nowadays, quickly developing This paper discussed how the underlying geometries found in
Assemble Additive Manufacturing, which combines origami shape Nature could be a powerful tool for architect-engineer. Implement-
design and additive fabrication, allows various shapes and angles ing the new optimisation approach, based on topology optimisa-
in fabrication [99]. AM allows for adjustments in material usage tion (possible to achieve thanks to new digital tools), in
and greater freedom of shape, reduces the proportion of labour conjunction with new fabrication methods and research for new
involved in formwork preparation, and more stringent safety pro- materials, can benefit sustainable development in architecture
tocols [100–104]. and construction.
Nature not only reduces human impact on natural resources Despite fruitful research and implementation of both materials
[72]. The usage of timber in the AEC sector significantly rises, a and structural systems inspired by patterns from Nature (which
renewable resource with a negative carbon footprint and low have contributed to the significant development of Computer
embodied energy [105–110]. Aided Architectural Design), there is still a need to develop this
Computer-aided design, the use of algorithmic construction of field of science. Interdisciplinary collaboration between materials
genetic codes, and the simultaneous possibility of using an infinite engineers, designers and the search for modern fabrication is still
number of existing materials and those designed for specific a challenge that needs to be addressed on the excellent use of
objects have allowed designers to return to contact with the mate- bioinspiration in any branches of human crafts. This is particularly
rial and the use of its unique aesthetic qualities. visible in research limitations in architectural scale objects. The
most significant barrier is the search for solutions at bionic hierar-
chical structures in terms of the materials used and how the sup-
porting skeleton is built and developed at the macro-scale
4. Discussion on contemporary research systems. Rapid Development of modern tools and research on facil-
itating digital fabrication are the focus of the search to translate the
Recent research on biomimetic structural designs Biomimicry fundamental understanding of biological behaviour into practical
in architectural engineering focuses on adaptive morphological engineering application. The future scope of the study conducted
structures on the one hand and the accessibility to unique mass by the authors consists of interdisciplinary research based on dif-
production. Post-Fordism created the need for the individual out- ferent material fabrication and improvement of biomimetic algo-
put of elements well-tailored to their specific function. The poten- rithms application in architectural designing at the early stage of
tial of contemporary Computer-Integrated Manufacturing under design.
Industry 4.0 advances towards intelligent and adaptive technolo-
gies. A feedback type of production based on fabrication and
Declaration of Competing Interest
real-time sensor adaptation creates a new set of smart production.
The most significant disadvantage of those techniques is a good
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
quality environment around the sensors. Still, it improves
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
human-robot interaction towards enhancing the precision of the
to influence the work reported in this paper.
final form. Machine Learning (ML) techniques, despite the limita-
tions, is still difficult to ignore in the construction sector, allowing
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[82] Kolarevic B, Klinger K. Manufacturing Materials Effects: Rethinking Design [107] Dixit S, Mandal SN, Thanikal JV, Saurabh K. Study of Significant Factors
and Making in Architecture. Routledge, 2008. Affecting Construction Productivity Using Relative Importance Index in
[83] Browne J, Sackett PJ, Wortmann JC. Future manufacturing systems - Towards Indian Construction Industry, vol. 09010, 2019.
the extended enterprise,‘‘ vol. 25, pp. 235–254, 1995, https://doi.org/10.1016/ [108] Dixit S, Sharma K, Singh S. Identifying and Analysing Key Factors Associated
0166-3615(94)00035-o. with Risks in Construction Projects. In: Emerging Trends in Civil Engineering,
[84] Ertelt C, Shea K. GENERATIVE DESIGN AND CNC FABRICATION USING SHAPE vol. 61, Springer, Singapore, 2020, pp. 25–32. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-
GRAMMARS. In: Proceedings of the ASME 2008 International Design Engineering 981-15-1404-3_3
Technical Conferences & Computers and Information in Engineering Conference [109] Shah MN, Dixit S, Kumar R, Jain R, Anand K. Causes of delays in slum
IDETC/CIE 2008. p. 1–10. doi: https://doi.org/10.1115/detc2008-49856. reconstruction projects in India. Int J Constr Manag 2021;21(5):452–67. doi:
[85] Labonnote N, Rønnquist A, Manum B, Rüther P. Additive construction: State- https://doi.org/10.1080/15623599.2018.1560546.
of-the-art, challenges and opportunities. Autom Constr 2016;72:347–66. doi: [110] Singh P, Bhardwaj S, Dixit S, Shaw RN, Ghosh A. ‘‘Development of prediction
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2016.08.026. models to determine compressive strength and workability of sustainable
[86] Dixit S, Saurabh K. Impact of Construction Productivity Attributes Over concrete with ann.” In: Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering, vol. 756 LNEE,
Construction Project Performance in Indian Construction Projects. Period Springer, Singapore, 2021, pp. 753–769. 10.1007/978-981-16-0749-3_59.
Polytech Archit 2019;50(1):89–96. doi: https://doi.org/10.3311/ppar.12711. [111] Dixit S, Stefańska A, Musiuk A, Singh P. Study of enabling factors affecting the
[87] Jordan A, Adriaenssens S, Kilian A, Adriaenssens M, Freed Z. Material driven adoption of ICT in the Indian built environment sector. Ain Shams Eng J
design for a chocolate pavilion. CAD Computer Aided Design 2015;61:2–12. 2021;12(2):2313–9. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asej.2020.09.020.
doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cad.2013.12.002. [112] Dixit S. Study of factors affecting the performance of construction projects in
[88] Yin P, Leung V. Sugar 3D Printing : Additive Manufacturing with Molten Sugar AEC industry. Organ Technol Manag Constr 2020;12(1):2275–82. doi:
for Investigating Molten Material Fed Printing. 3D Print Addit Manuf 2017;4 https://doi.org/10.2478/otmcj-2020-0022.
(1):1–5. doi: https://doi.org/10.1089/3dp.2016.0045. [113] Dixit S, Sharma K, Singh S. Identifying and Analysing Key Factors Associated
[89] Motamedi M, Mesnil R, Oval R. Scaffold-Free Robotic 3D Printing of a Double- with Risks in Construction Projects. In: Emerging Trends in Civil Engineering,
layer Clay Shell Scaffold-Free Robotic 3D Printing of a Double-layer Clay Shell. 2020, pp. 25–32.
In: Proceedings of the IASS Annual Symposium 2020/21 and the 7th [114] Joseph K. Systems in Timber Engineering : Loadbearing Structures and
International Conference on Spatial Structures , 2021, pp. 1–12. Component Layers. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter GmbH, 2008. https://doi.org/
[90] Hildreth OJ, Nassar AR, Chasse KR, Simpson TW. Dissolvable metal supports 10.1007/978-3-7643-8690-0.
for 3D direct metal printing. 3D Printing and Additive Manufacturing 2016;3 [115] Christie J, Bodea S, Solly J, Menges A, Knippers J. Filigree Shell Slabs Material
(2):91–7. doi: https://doi.org/10.1089/3dp.2016.0013. and Fabrication-aware Shape Optimisation for CFRP Coreless- wound Slab

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S. Dixit and A. Stefańska Ain Shams Engineering Journal xxx (xxxx) xxx

Components. In: AAG Advances in Architectural Geometry, 2021, pp. 244– universities from Europe and Russia. I am having a rich experience of attending and
263. 10.13140/RG.2.2.16871.98727. heading conferences/ technical discussions, and scientific events in Europe and
[116] Mukherjee D, Gupta K, Chang LH, Najjaran H. A Survey of Robot Learning Russia. I have visited and attended events in France, Italy, Hungary, Switzerland,
Strategies for Human-Robot Collaboration in Industrial Settings. In: Robotics Slovenia, Czech Republic, Germany, Austria, St Petersburg (Russia), and other
and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, vol. 73, no. October 2020, p. countries.
102231, 2022. 10.1016/j.rcim.2021.102231.
[117] Oguntona OA, Aigbavboa CO. Benefits of biomimicry adoption and
implementation in the construction industry. Adv Intell Syst and Comput
Anna Stefańska –PhD candidate and worker at the
2019;788:506–14. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-94199-8_49.
Faculty of Architecture of the Warsaw University of
[118] Dixit S. Analysing the Impact of Productivity in Indian Transport Infra
Technology in the Department of Structural Design,
Projects. IOP Conf Ser: Mater Sci Eng 2022;1218(1):12059.
[119] Singh P, Dixit S, Sammanit D, Krishnan P. The Automated Farmlands of Construction and Technical Infrastructure. Her research
Tomorrow: An IoT Integration with Farmlands. IOP Conf Ser: Mater Sci Eng is concerned with the issues of architectural and struc-
2022;1218(1):12048. tural optimisations in terms of generative design.
[120] Dixit S, Stefańska A, Singh P. Manufacturing technology in terms of digital
fabrication of contemporary biomimetic structures. Int J Construct Manage
2021:1–9.
[121] Dixit S et al. Replacing E-waste with coarse aggregate in architectural
engineering and construction industry. Mater Today: Proc 2021.
[122] Dixit S, Singh S, Singh S, Varghese RG, Pandey AK, Varshney D. Role of Solar
energy and issues in its implementation in the Indian context. In: MATEC
Web of Conferences, 2018, vol. 172, p. 6001.
[123] Dixit S, Mandal SN, Sawhney A, Singh S. Relationship between skill
development and productivity in construction sector: A literature review.
Int J Civil Eng Technol 2017;8(8):649–65.
[124] Dixit S, Stefańska A. Digitisation of contemporary fabrication processes in the
AEC sector. Mater Today: Proc 2021.
[125] Kumar K, Arora R, Khan S, Dixit S. Characterization of fly ash for potential
utilization in green concrete. Mater Today: Proc 2021.

Dr Saurav Dixit a middle management professional

with more than 10 years of experience in managing
projects, working in academics, and as a research pro-
fessional. He has visited and delivered speech and lec-
tures in 15 European countries including Russia. The
topic of research for Saurav PhD is ‘‘Framework to
Improve On-site Construction Productivity: Indian Sce-
nario”. Saurav is a creative person with a passion for
research and technology up-gradation and works dedi-
catedly to achieve his goals, led to a good number of
publications in peer-reviewed Scopus indexed journals.
He is having an excellent publication record (20 publi-
cations and 250 number of citations on Scopus database). He is having a good
connection and collaboration with international researchers/academicians and

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