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ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY, ISLAMABAD

(Department of Sociology)

Name Faraz Hussain


ID 0000109975
Contact # 03005599373
Assignment #01

Course: Sociological Theory II (4687) Semester: Spring, 2022


Level: MSC sociology
Q.1 How does interactionism differ from functionalism? Discuss in
detail.
Ans:
SYMBOLIC INTERACRTIONISM
Symbolic interactionism , usually referred to as interactionism , in a
distinctly American branch of sociology . It developed from the work of
a group of American philosophers who included John Dewey , William I.
Thomas and George Herbert Mead . However , the term symbolic
interaction was coined by Herbert Blumer in 1937. It denotes that this
branch of sociology and social psychology focuses on processes of
interaction immediate reciprocally oriented social action – and that it
has an underlying concept of interaction which stress its symbolically
mediated character . One should not think here of social relations in
which action is a mere act on behalf of pre – given rules , but of those in
which common and reciprocal definitions of the relation are proposed
and established . Social relations then do not appear as fixed once and
for all , but as open and depending on constant common approval . This
basic principle of symbolic interactionism explains its methodology too .
It stands opposed to all social sciences . traditions , which theorize
without having a close , first – hand intimate involvement with those
phenomena about which they theorize . Strongly empirical , it
advocates a wide range of research tools especially participation
observation , life histories and depth interviewing to gain this . Like Max
Weber , symbolic interactionists are concerned with explaining social
actions in term of the meanings that individuals give to them . However
, they tend to focus on small – scale interaction situations rather than
large – scale social change .
George Herbert Mead ( 1863-1931 ) is generally regarded as the
founder of symbolic interactionism . His views will now be examined .
George Herbert Mead
The Act A basic unit of symbolic interactionism developed especially by
G.H.Mead and Blumer , stressing that people act , rather than simply
react . Human life is composed of an ongoing stream of interpretive ‘
doings ‘ both covert ( e.g. thinking ) and overt ( e.g. arguing ) . For Mead
an act is built up through four stages . ( 1 ) Impulse – the generalized
disposition to act , which 51 involves an immediate sensuous
stimulation and the actor’s reaction to the situation , the need to do
something about it . Hunger is a good example of an impulse . ( 2 )
perception- the organizing , selecting and defining of a situation .
People do not simply respond immediately to external stimuli but
rather think about , and assess them through mental imagery . ( 3 )
Manipulation taking action with regard to the situation . Once the
impulse has manifested itself and the object has been perceived , the
next step is manipulating the object . For Mead the manipulation phase
constitutes an important temporary phase in the process so that a
response is not manifested immediately . Before acting people can
examine all the possibilities of their action . ( 4 ) Consumption – The
completion of the act with an achieved goal . Such act may be of
various classes : automatic . blocked , incomplete , and traditional .
Mead sees the dialectical relartionship among the four stages . The
later stages of the act may lead to the emergence of carlier stages . For
example , manipulating or consumtion of food may lead the individral
to the impulse hunger and the perception that one is hungry and that
food is available to satisfy the need . 1.4.2 Symbols In Mead’s view ,
human thought , experience and conduct are essentially social . They
owe their nature to the fact that human being interact in terms of
symbols , the most important of which are contained in language . A
symbol does not simply stand for an object or event : it defines them in
a particular way and indicates a response to them . Thus the symbol ‘
chair ‘ not only represents a class of objects and defines them similar , it
also indicates a line of action that is the action of sitting .
Symbols
Symbols impose particular meanings on objects and in doing so largely
exclude other possible meanings . For example , chair may be made out
of metal , cane or wood , and on this basis be defined as very different
objects . However , such differences are reduced insignificant by the
fact that they are all cartegorized in t of the symbol ' chair ' Similarly ,
chairs can be stood on , used as a source of fuel or as a means for
assaulting another , but the range of possible activities that could be
associated with chairs is largely excluded by the course of action
indicated by the symbol ‘ chair ‘ . Symbols provide the means whereby
human can interact meaningfully with their natural and social
environment . They are human - made and refer not to the intrinsic
nature of objects and events but to the ways in which people perceive
them .
Without symbols there would be no human interaction and no human
society . Symbolic interaction is necessary since human have no
instincts to direct their behaviour . Humans are not genetically
programmed to react automatically to particular stimuli . In order to
survive they must therefore consturct and live within a world of
meaning . For example , they must classify the natural environment into
categories of food and non – food in order to meet basic nutritional
requirements . In this way humans both define stimuli and their
response to them . Thus when hunters on the African Savannah
categorise antelope as a source of food , they define what is significant
in the natural environment and their response to it . Via symbols ,
meaning is imposed on the world of nature and human interaction with
that world is thereby made possible .
Role – taking
Communication only occurs where each of the parties not only gives
meaning to their own behaviour but also understands or seek to
understand I the meaning the other gives . Each person places his or
herslef in the place or position of the other person . Such sharing of
meanings helps in developing language and thus becomes truly
symbolic in character .
Social life can only proceed if members of the society largely share the
meaning of symbols . If this were not the case , meaningful
communication would be impossible . However , common symbols
provide only the means by which human interaction is accomplished .
In order for interaction to proceed each person involved must interpret
the meaning and intentions of others . This is made possible by the
existence of common symbols , but actually accomplished by means of
a process which Mead terms ‘ role – taking ‘ .
The role – taking involves the individual taking on the role of another by
imaginatively placing her or himself in the position of the person with
whom she or he is interacting . For example , if a person observes
another . smiling , crying , waving his or her hand or shaking a fist , they
will put themselves in that person’s position in order to interpret the
intention and meaning . On the basis of this interpretation they will
make their response to the action of the other . Thus if individuals
observe someone shaking a fist , they may interpret this gesture as an
indication of aggression but their 53 interpretation will not
automatically lead to a particular response . They may ignore the
gesture , respond in kind , and make an effort to defuse the situation
with a joke and so on . The person with whom they are interacting will
then take their role , interpret their response and either continue or
close the interaction on the basis of this interpretation . In this respect
human interaction can be seen as a continuous process of
interpretation with each taking the role of the other .
Self
The Self Among the Mead most notable achievements is his account of
the genesis of consciousness and the self through the gradually
developing ability in childhood to take the role of the other and to
visualize his own performance from the point of view of others . Mead
argues that through the process of f role – taking individuals develop a
concept of ‘ self . By placing themselves in the position of others they
are able to look back upon themselves . Mead claims that the idea of a
self can only develop if the individual can get outside himself
( experientially ) in such a way as to become an object to himself . To do
this they must observe themselves from the standpoint of others .
Therefore the origin and development of a concept of self lies in the
ability to take the role of another . Mead distinguishes two aspects of
the self . The ‘ me ‘ is your definition of yourself in a specific social role .
For example , you might see yourself as a ‘ good father ‘ ( or mother ) or
a loyal friend ‘ . The ‘ I ‘ is your opinion of yourself as a whole . The ' I '
which can also be called your ‘ self – concept ‘ , is built up from the
reactions of others . to you , and the way you interpret those reaction .
It can exercise considerable influence over your behaviour . For
example , if you see yourslef as cowardly on the basis of the self –
concept you have built up , you are unlikely to act . bravely in
dangerous situations .The notion of self is not inborn , it is learned
during childhood . Mead sees two main stages in its development . The
first , known as the ‘ play stage ‘ , involves the child playing roles which
are not his or her own . For example , children may play at being
mother or father , a doctor or a nurse . In doing so they become aware
that there is a difference between themselves and the role they are
playing . Thus the idea of a self is developed as the child takes the role
of other , and sociability begins to be established . The second stage in
the development of self is known as the ' game stage ‘ . In playing a
game , children come to see themselves from the perspective of the
various participants . In order to play a game such as football or cricket ,
children must become aware of their relationship to the other players .
They must place themselves in the role of the other in order to
appreciate their own particular role in the game . In doing so , they see
themselves in terms of the collective viewpoint of the other players . In
Mead's terminology they see themselves from the perspective of the
generalized other ' . The self reaches its most advanced stages of
development when it is able to integrate the orientations of the others
with which it interacts into a general set of standard of behaviour ,
when it takes the role of the generalized other . In Mead's view the
development of a consciousness of self is an essential part of the
process of becoming a human being . It provides the basis for thought
and action and the foundation for human society . Without an
awareness of self the individual could not direct action or respond to
the action of others . Only by acquiring a concept of self can the
individual take the role of self . In this way thought is possible , since in
Mead's view the process of thinking is simply an ' inner conversation ' .
Thus unless the individual is aware of a self , he or she would be unable
to converse with him or herself and thought would be impossible . By
becoming ' self - conscious ' , people can direct their own action by
thought and deliberation . They can set goals for themselves , plan
future action and consider the consequences of alternative courses of
action . With an awareness of self , individuals are able to see
themselves as others see them . When they take the role of others ,
they observe themselves from that standpoint and become aware of
the view of themselves the others hold . This provides the basis for
cooperative action in society . Individuals will become aware of what is
expected of them and will tend to modify their actions accordingly .
They will be conscious of the general attitudes of the community and
judge and evaluate themselves in terms of this generalized order . From
this perspective thought becomes an inner conversation going on
between this generalized other and the individual ' . Thus a person is
constantly asking what people will think and expect when he or she
reflects upon him or herself . In this way conduct is regulated in terms
of the expectations and attitudes of others . Mead argues that , ' It is in
the form of the generalized other that the social process influences the
berhaviour of the individuals involved in it ....... that the community
exercise control over the conduct of its individual members ' .
behaviour is necessary . Social roles are not therefore fixed or
unchanging ; in reality they are constantly being modified in the course
of interaction .
FUNCTIONALISM
FUNCTIONALISM : CONCEPT The concept of Function in functionalist
analysis refers to the contribution of the parts to the whole . The
function of any part of the society is the contribution it makes to meet
the functional prerequisites of the social system . Parts of society are
functional in so far as they maintain the system and contribute to its
survival . Thus a function of the family is to ensure the continuity of
society by reproducing and socializing new member . A function of
religion is to integrate the social system by reinforcing common values .
SOCIETY AS A SYSTEM
Functionalism views society as a system , that is as a set of
interconnected parts which together form a whole . The basic unit of
analysis is society , and its various parts are understood primarily in
term of their relationship to the whole . The early functionalists often
drew an analogy between society and an organism such as the human
body. They argued that an understanding of any organ in the body ,
such as the heart of lungs , involves an understanding of its relationship
to other organdy and in particular of its contribution towards the
maintenance of the organism . In the same way , an understanding of
any part of the society requires an analysis of its relationship to other
parts such as the schools , the family , the state tend to fit together
with each element of the society to maintain overall stability .
INFLUENCES ON FUNCTIONLISM
The emergence of the functionalist perspective began with Comte’s
work and was carried forward by other thinkers such as Durkheim , Max
Weber in the latter half of the 19th century . It was refined by Talcott
Parsons . During the 1940s and 1950s functionalism was dominant
social theory in American sociology . Since that time it has steadily
dropped , partly because of damaging criticism , partly because other
approaches are seen to answer certain questions more successfully .
Merton criticized some of the more extreme and indefensible aspects
of structural functionalism . He gave some equally important new
conceptual insights . He seeks to resolve the issue of teleology by
making a distinction between manifest functions , those are intended
and recognized , and latent functions which are not .
Q.2 Highlight the contribution of G.H Mead in Sociology.
Ans:
George Herbert Mead
The Act A basic unit of symbolic interactionism developed especially by
G.H.Mead and Blumer , stressing that people act , rather than simply
react . Human life is composed of an ongoing stream of interpretive ‘
doings ‘ both covert ( e.g. thinking ) and overt ( e.g. arguing ) . For Mead
an act is built up through four stages . ( 1 ) Impulse – the generalized
disposition to act , which 51 involves an immediate sensuous
stimulation and the actor’s reaction to the situation , the need to do
something about it . Hunger is a good example of an impulse . ( 2 )
perception- the organizing , selecting and defining of a situation .
People do not simply respond immediately to external stimuli but
rather think about , and assess them through mental imagery . ( 3 )
Manipulation taking action with regard to the situation . Once the
impulse has manifested itself and the object has been perceived , the
next step is manipulating the object . For Mead the manipulation phase
constitutes an important temporary phase in the process so that a
response is not manifested immediately . Before acting people can
examine all the possibilities of their action . ( 4 ) Consumption – The
completion of the act with an achieved goal . Such act may be of
various classes : automatic . blocked , incomplete , and traditional .
Mead sees the dialectical relationship among the four stages . The later
stages of the act may lead to the emergence of carlier stages . For
example , manipulating or consumption of food may lead the individual
to the impulse hunger and the perception that one is hungry and that
food is available to satisfy the need . 1.4.2 Symbols In Mead’s view ,
human thought , experience and conduct are essentially social . They
owe their nature to the fact that human being interact in terms of
symbols , the most important of which are contained in language . A
symbol does not simply stand for an object or event : it defines them in
a particular way and indicates a response to them . Thus the symbol ‘
chair ‘ not only represents a class of objects and defines them similar , it
also indicates a line of action that is the action of sitting .
Symbols
Symbols impose particular meanings on objects and in doing so largely
exclude other possible meanings . For example , chair may be made out
of metal , cane or wood , and on this basis be defined as very different
objects . However , such differences are reduced insignificant by the
fact that they are all cartegorized in t of the symbol ‘ chair ‘ Similarly ,
chairs can be stood on , used as a source of fuel or as a means for
assaulting another , but the range of possible activities that could be
associated with chairs is largely excluded by the course of action
indicated by the symbol ‘ chair ‘ . Symbols provide the means whereby
human can interact meaningfully with their natural and social
environment . They are human – made and refer not to the intrinsic
nature of objects and events but to the ways in which people perceive
them .
Without symbols there would be no human interaction and no human
society . Symbolic interaction is necessary since human have no
instincts to direct their behavior . Humans are not genetically
programmed to react automatically to particular stimuli . In order to
survive they must therefore construct and live within a world of
meaning. For example , they must classify the natural environment into
categories of food and non – food in order to meet basic nutritional
requirements . In this way humans both define stimuli and their
response to them . Thus when hunters on the African Savannah
categories antelope as a source of food , they define what is significant
in the natural environment and their response to it . Via symbols ,
meaning is imposed on the world of nature and human interaction with
that world is thereby made possible .
Role – talking
Communication only occurs where each of the parties not only gives
meaning to their own behavior but also understands or seek to
understand I the meaning the other gives. Each person places his or
herself in the place or position of the other person. Such sharing of
meanings helps in developing language and thus becomes truly
symbolic in character .
Social life can only proceed if members of the society largely share the
meaning of symbols . If this were not the case , meaningful
communication would be impossible . However , common symbols
provide only the means by which human interaction is accomplished .
In order for interaction to proceed each person involved must interpret
the meaning and intentions of others . This is made possible by the
existence of common symbols , but actually accomplished by means of
a process which Mead terms ‘ role – taking ‘ .
The role – taking involves the individual taking on the role of another by
imaginatively placing her or himself in the position of the person with
whom she or he is interacting . For example , if a person observes
another . smiling , crying , waving his or her hand or shaking a fist , they
will put themselves in that person’s position in order to interpret the
intention and meaning . On the basis of this interpretation they will
make their response to the action of the other . Thus if individuals
observe someone shaking a fist , they may interpret this gesture as an
indication of aggression but their interpretation will not automatically
lead to a particular response . They may ignore the gesture , respond in
kind , and make an effort to defuse the situation with a joke and so on .
The person with whom they are interacting will then take their role ,
interpret their response and either continue or close the interaction on
the basis of this interpretation . In this respect human interaction can
be seen as a continuous process of interpretation with each taking the
role of the other .
Self
The Self Among the Mead most notable achievements is his account of
the genesis of consciousness and the self through the gradually
developing ability in childhood to take the role of the other and to
visualize his own performance from the point of view of others . Mead
argues that through the process of f role – taking individuals develop a
concept of ‘ self . By placing themselves in the position of others they
are able to look back upon themselves . Mead claims that the idea of a
self can only develop if the individual can get outside himself
( experientially ) in such a way as to become an object to himself . To do
this they must observe themselves from the standpoint of others .
Therefore the origin and development of a concept of self lies in the
ability to take the role of another . Mead distinguishes two aspects of
the self . The ‘ me ‘ is your definition of yourself in a specific social role .
For example , you might see yourself as a ‘ good father ‘ ( or mother ) or
a loyal friend ‘ . The ‘ I ‘ is your opinion of yourself as a whole . The ' I '
which can also be called your ‘ self – concept ‘ , is built up from the
reactions of others . to you , and the way you interpret those reaction .
It can exercise considerable influence over your behaviour . For
example , if you see yourslef as cowardly on the basis of the self –
concept you have built up , you are unlikely to act . bravely in
dangerous situations .
The notion of self is not inborn , it is learned during childhood . Mead
sees two main stages in its development . The first , known as the ‘ play
stage ‘ , involves the child playing roles which are not his or her own .
For example , children may play at being mother or father , a doctor or
a nurse . In doing so they become aware that there is a difference
between themselves and the role they are playing . Thus the idea of a
self is developed as the child takes the role of other , and sociability
begins to be established . The second stage in the development of self
is known as the ' game stage ‘ . In playing a game , children come to see
themselves from the perspective of the various participants . In order
to play a game such as football or cricket , children must become aware
of their relationship to the other players . They must place themselves
in the role of the other in order to appreciate their own particular role
in the game . In doing so , they see themselves in terms of the collective
viewpoint of the other players . In Mead’s terminology they see
themselves from the perspective of the generalized other ‘ .
The self reaches its most advanced stages of development when it is
able to integrate the orientations of the others with which it interacts
into a general set of standard of behaviour , when it takes the role of
the generalized other . In Mead’s view the development of a
consciousness of self is an essential part of the process of becoming a
human being . It provides the basis for thought and action and the
foundation for human society . Without an awareness of self the
individual could not direct action or respond to the action of others .
Only by acquiring a concept of self can the individual take the role of
self . In this way thought is possible , since in Mead’s view the process
of thinking is simply an ‘ inner conversation ‘ . Thus unless the
individual is aware of a self , he or she would be unable to converse
with him or herself and thought would be impossible . By becoming ‘
self – conscious ‘ , people can direct their own action by thought and
deliberation . They can set goals for themselves , plan future action and
consider the consequences of alternative courses of action . With an
awareness of self , individuals are able to see themselves as others see
them . When they take the role of others , they observe themselves
from that standpoint and become aware of the view of themselves the
others hold . This provides the basis for cooperative action in society .
Individuals will become aware of what is expected of them and will
tend to modify their actions accordingly . They will be conscious of the
general attitudes of the community and judge and evaluate themselves
in terms of this generalized order . From this perspective thought
becomes an inner conversation going on between this generalized
other and the individual ‘ . Thus a person is constantly asking what
people will think and expect when he or she reflects upon him or
herself . In this way conduct is regulated in terms of the expectations
and attitudes of others . Mead argues that , ‘ It is in the form of the
generalized other that the social process influences the behavior of the
individuals involved in it ……. That the community exercise control over
the conduct of its individual members ‘ . behavior is necessary . Social
roles are not therefore fixed or unchanging ; in reality they are
constantly being modified in the course of interaction .
Q.3 Discuss the concept of reinforcement in the process of exchange.
Also explain the process of social exchange with examples.
Ans:
Definition of reinforcement
The process of encouraging or establishing a belief or pattern of
behavior.
What is a social exchange process?
Social exchange theory is a concept based on the notion that a
relationship between two people is created through a process of cost-
benefit analysis . Reinforcement Theory proposes that social behavior is
governed by external events (events outside the human psyche). The
basic premise is that people will more likely perform a specific behavior
if it is followed directly by the occurrence of something pleasurable or
by the removal of something aversive. Additionally, the opposite
premise is also included in the theory, but tends not to have as strong
of an impact on behavior: people will less likely perform a specific
behavior if it is followed by something aversive or the removal of
something pleasurable. One of the benefits of this approach to
understanding human (and animal) behavior is that the events are
observable, as compared with cognitive theories of human behavior.
The external events that play a role in reinforcement theory are
referred to as stimuli. They include any event that leads to an alteration
or change in behavior. The change in behavior induced by a stimulus is
a response.
Reinforcement
Reinforcement theory has been operationalized in a process called
operant conditioning. Positive reinforcement is the contingent
presentation of a stimulus following a response, resulting in an
increased likelihood of the response occurring in the future. Negative
reinforcement is the contingent withdrawal of a stimulus following a
response, resulting in an increased likelihood of the response occurring
in the future. Unconditioned reinforcement, also called primary
reinforcement, is the presentation of stimuli that are inherently
reinforcing, such as affection, food, sex, or sleep. Conditioned
reinforcement, also called secondary reinforcement, is the presentation
of a stimulus which has acquired reinforcing power through association
with primary reinforces. Social reinforcement is a form of conditioned
reinforcement in which the reinforce involves some sort of interaction
with others. Positive punishment is the contingent presentation of a
stimulus following a response, resulting in a decreased likelihood of the
response occurring in the future, whereas negative punishment is the
contingent withdrawal of a stimulus following a response, resulting in a
decreased likelihood of the response occurring in the future.
Reinforcement types
There are four types of reinforcement: positive, negative, punishment,
and extinction.
Positive Reinforcement
The examples above describe what is referred to as positive
reinforcement. Think of it as adding something in order to increase a
response. For example, adding a treat will increase the response of
sitting; adding praise will increase the chances of your child cleaning his
or her room. The most common types of positive reinforcement or
praise and rewards, and most of us have experienced this as both the
giver and receiver.
Negative Reinforcement
Think of negative reinforcement as taking something away in order to
increase a response. Taking away a toy until your son picks up his room,
or withholding payment until a job is complete are examples of this.
Basically, you want to remove or withhold something of value in order
to increase a certain response or behavior.
Punishment (Positive Punishment)
What most people refer to punishment is typically positive punishment.
This is when something aversive is added in order to decrease a
behavior. The most common example of this is disciplining (e.g.
berating) a child for misbehaving. The reason we do this is because the
child begins to associate being punished with the negative behavior.
The punishment is not liked and therefore to avoid it, he or she will
stop behaving in that manner.
Negative Punishment
When you remove something in order to decrease a behavior, this is
called negative punishment. You are taking something away so that a
response or unwanted behavior is decreased. Putting a child in a time-
out until they can decrease their aggressive behavior, for instance, is an
example of a negative punishment. You’re removing interactions with
others in order to decrease the unwanted behavior.
Research has found positive reinforcement is the most powerful of any
of these. Adding a positive to increase a response not only works
better, but allows both parties to focus on the positive aspects of the
situation. Punishment, when applied immediately following the
negative behavior can be effective, but problems may result when it is
not applied consistently. Punishment can also invoke other negative
emotional responses, such as anger and resentment.
SOCIAL EXCHANGE / RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY
In the field of sociology , anthropology , and social psychology , social
exchange theory is developing in a way that is radically different from ,
the traditional study of exchange in economics . The major difference in
this : at its core , neoclassical economics theory views the actor as
dealing not with other actors but with a market . In economic theory ,
decisions are made by actors not in response to , the decisions of
another party but in response to environmental parameters such as
market price ( Emerson , 1987 ) . By contrast , sociologists view a wide
variety of non – economic relationships as exchange in the various form
of social exchange theory . This is done in three main ways : 1 )
extending the economic analysis to cover a wide range of activities ; 2 )
using the mixture of behavioural psychology and economics ; and 3 )
viewing exchanges as expressions of underlying social relationship . The
first two approaches focus on the individual , and the third on the
collective . Applying the third approach Levi – Strauss discovered a
connection between exchange practices and social solidarity in his
comparative studies of kinship and marriage rules : direct ( or restricted
) exchange , in which two groups give and take from each other ( A→←
B) , generates mechanical solidarity ; whereas indirect ( or generalized )
exchange , involving a network of several exchange partners who do
not give to those whom they receive , for instance , A → B → C → D
→ A , promotes organic solidarity . In these studies it is a group that
form exchange partnerships .
Social exchange and rational choice : Rational choice denotes actions
motivated by personal gains in the course of economic activities that
constrain actors to make choices from scarce means . From its
beginning , the Anglo – American brand of social exchange theory has
used rational choice arguments , borrowed from economics and game
theory , to conceptualize social exchange behavior’s in Western and
non Western societies .
Waters summarized rationality theories as
1 . Human beings seek to maximize the gratification they receive from
the social world . These ‘ interests ‘ in relation to the social world have
an objective character .
2 . Each member of society is in control of supply of social valuables .
Valuables consist of items with both material and psychological
consequences . Individual gratification is maximized to the extent that
the supply of valuables under the individual’s control is maximized and ,
correspondingly , that the need or demand for the valuables is
maximized .
3. Interaction with others in the social world is conceived as a series of
trading negotiations or games , which are competitive in character . The
object of social participation is to increase the supply of social valuables
through this process of interaction . This may involve simply the
exchange of valuables with a view to profit or may involve a more
complex attempt to use the supply one has in order to control , coerce
and / or exploit the other . In many theories of rationality the total
costs of all participants set against the total benefits are held to amount
zero - that is , the game is a ' zero - sum ' game . This means that self -
advantage automatically implies disadvantage for the other . 4 . Human
behaviour is thus held to be rational because individuals engage in a
continuous calculation of returns to engagement in a particular piece of
action against the costs of that engagement .
5 . Because human wants and gratifications are relatively unchanging ,
stable interaction patterns emerge which offer regular exchanges that
are understood by the participants to be normative in character , i.e.
morally correct . These stable exchange patterns , taken together ,
constitute larger scale phenomena . To reverse the reasoning , macro -
structural phenomena can always be reduced to rationalized exchanges
between individuals . The technical term for describing such a position
is ' methodological individualism ' .
6 . However , emergent structural arrangement are not the main focus
of interest for theories of rationality . Rather , the general tendency is
to reach and analyse small group interaction , or hypothetical small
empirical generalization . These empirical generalizations become the
building block of theory .
7 . There is a general convergence between sociological theories of
rationality and both economic theory and game theory because each
stresses the maximization of individual advantage within a rational
calculus of action ( 1994 : 57-58 )
BURRHUS FEDERICK SKINNER
Skinner's theoretical statement is indeed a rationalistic one . He sees an
image of behaviorisms as a recipe for solving individual anxieties and
the world's ills . He begins with the view that many items in the
environment of 45 the human organism are critically necessary for its
survival , including food , water , fuel and shelter . Behavior which
reduces threats to organic survival , that is , which procures necessary
items , is strengthened or reinforced by that consequence . There are
two types of such behavior : reflex behavior , which is involuntary and
automatic , and more important and interesting , operant behaviour ,
which is a product of the will . Skinner argued that operant behaviour is
conditioned , that is , to have been reinforced by events in the external
environment . A positive reinforce strengthens the behavior that
produces it for example , eating reduce hunger and is therefore likely to
be repeated ; similarly a negative reinforce strengthens any behavior
that stops or prevents it .
GEORGE CASPER HOMANS
Homans launched an individualistic social exchange theory in which
interactions are limited to direct reciprocities . This version of social
exchange theory underscores the significance of the unique individual
by employing such key concepts in economics and psychology as
rewards , costs , punishment , profits and investments . He presents
people as providing each other with rewards which have costs to them
but that also elicit behavior that they find rewarding . Viewing people
as exchange rewards provides the basis of an attempt to combine
behavioral psychology with economics. Homan confenes his analysis to
what he calls everyday or substitutional social behavior , that is to
interpersonal interaction . The behavior in which he is interested has
three significant characteristic . These are Homans argues that his
theory is not a grand theory in the accepted sense of seeking to explain
everything . He does not seek , for example , to examine the ways in
which rules are established and institutionalized or the way in which
whole societies change . Homans intention is to established some
propositions about exchange between human beings which hold
universally and he aims to do this at the most elementary or primitive
level . These are . the basis of his exchange theory of social behavior .
These are classified as : 1 . The success proposition The stimulus
proposition It is social in the sense that when an individual acts , the
performance . will be rewarded or punished by the behavior of another
person . The other person must be the direct source of reinforcement
which must not be the mediated through some larger structure . The
behavior must be actualized rather than merely ideal or expected .
The value proposition The deprivation – satiation proposition The
aggression – approval proposition The rationality proposition
PETER M. BLAU
Social exchange provides an explanation of the interactions and
relationships Blau observed while researching. He believed that social
exchange could reflect behavior oriented to socially mediated goals.
Peter started from the premise that social interaction has value to
people, and he explored the forms and sources of this value in order to
understand collective outcomes, such as the distribution of power in a
society. People engage in social interactions in which we would not
think deep about, but Blau suggested it is for the same reason why
people engage in economic transactions. They need something from
other people, the exchange. That then leads to an increase in social
exchange in which people attempt to stay out of debt because it gives
them an advantage, as well as potential power. Although social
exchange can be genuine, when the goal for the individual to stay out
of debt or to get something in return, it is selfishness. "The tendency to
help others is frequently motivated by the expectation that doing so
will bring social rewards”Blau explained that social exchange between
individuals either stem from inherent rewards (things such as love or
admiration) or external rewards (money, etc.).Blau expressed the
difference between social exchange and the purchasing of goods,
stating that there is an emotional component within social exchange
that is nonexistent in everyday transactions.
Blau also studied the social exchange that occurs within relationships.
He believed that most thriving friendships occur when both participants
are the same status level, allowing for an equal potential for exchange
and benefit throughout the relationship. He also studied the social
exchange of partners, and how these relationships come together in
the first place. Blau explains how loving relationships come to existence
through the exchange of certain favorable traits that would attract one
person to another. Blau discusses how status, beauty, and wealth are
some of the key characteristics that people search for in a partner, and
that the most successful relationships occur when both partners have
valuable attributes that they can benefit from.
Q.4 Elaborate the contribution of G.C. Homans in exchange theory.
Ans:
GEORGE CASPER HOMANS
Homans launched an individualistic social exchange theory in which
interactions are limited to direct reciprocities . This version of social
exchange theory underscores the significance of the unique individual
by employing such key concepts in economics and psychology as
rewards , costs , punishment , profits and investments . He presents
people as providing each other with rewards which have costs to them
but that also elicit behavior that they find rewarding . Viewing people
as exchange rewards provides the basis of an attempt to combine
behavioral psychology with economics . Homan confenes his analysis to
what he calls everyday or sub institutional social behavior , that is to
interpersonal interaction . The behavior in which he is interested has
three significant characteristic . These are Homans argues that his
theory is not a grand theory in the accepted sense of seeking to explain
everything . He does not seek , for example , to examine the ways in
which rules are established and institutionalized or the way in which
whole societies change . Homans intention is to established some
propositions about exchange between human beings which hold
universally and he aims to do this at the most elementary or primitive
level . These are . the basis of his exchange theory of social behavior .
These are classified as : 1 . The success proposition The stimulus
proposition It is social in the sense that when an individual acts , the
performance . will be rewarded or punished by the behavior of another
person . The other person must be the direct source of reinforcement
which must not be the mediated through some larger structure . The
behavior must be actualized rather than merely ideal or expected .
The value proposition The deprivation – satiation proposition The
aggression – approval proposition The rationality proposition.

Q.5 Write short note on following:


a) Types of theory
b) Rationality and human behavior
Ans:
a) Types of theory
TYPES OF SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY
There are in general, three types of theory : formal , substantive and
positivistic . Each theory focuses the researcher’s attention on
particular types of question about how society is organized, and each
provides a different explanation about why certain patterns are found
in society .
Formal theory
is the most inclusive. It seeks to produce a scheme of concepts and
statements within which society or human interaction in its whole can
be explained. Often such theory is paradigmatic in nature, i.e. it seeks
to set the entire agenda for future theoretical practice against the
claims of opposing paradigms . Such theory is often foundational, in
character. It seeks to identify a single set of principles which are
ultimate foundation for social life and by which everything can be
explained. It includes functionalism, action theory, rational choice
theory , structure and system theory .
Substantive theory,
by contrast, is much less inclusive. It seeks not to explain all things but
either specific, but very generally dividing , events or 19 specified types
of social process . It includes theories of stratification, conflict, religion
commitment , deviant behavior or feminist or gender theory .
Positivistic theory seeks to explain empirical relationships between
variables by showing that they can be deduced from more abstract
theoretical statements .
Positivistic theory
It explains very Positivistic theory focused on specific empirical
relationships . Positive science rejects supernatural forces and abstract ,
speculative principles or in other words it reject all tendencies ,
assumptions and ideas which exceed the limits of scientific technique ;
it records the objectively given relations between observable
phenomena and codifies these in universal and certain laws . This
knowledge forms the basis for the prediction and control of natural and
social processes . Sociological knowledge is not in principle different
from other form of scientific knowledge . According to Comte the three
direct methods of sociology are observation , experiment , and
comparison which are at power of physical sciences .
b) Rationality and human behavior
1. Human beings seek to maximize the gratification they receive from
the social world. These ‘interests ‘ in relation to the social world have
an objective character .
2. Each member of society is in control of supply of social valuables.
Valuables consist of items with both material and psychological
consequences. Individual gratification is maximized to the extent that
the supply of valuables under the individual’s control is maximized and ,
correspondingly , that the need or demand for the valuables is
maximized .
3. Interaction with others in the social world is conceived as a series of
trading negotiations or games, which are competitive in character. The
object of social participation is to increase the supply of social valuables
through this process of interaction . This may involve simply the
exchange of valuables with a view to profit or may involve a more
complex attempt to use the supply one has in order to control , coerce
and / or exploit the other . In many theories of rationality, the total
costs of all participants set against the total benefits are held to amount
zero – that is , the game is a ' zero – sum ‘ game . This means that self –
advantage automatically implies disadvantage for the other.
4. Human behavior is thus held to be rational because individuals
engage in a continuous calculation of returns to engagement in a
particular piece of action against the costs of that engagement.
5. Because human wants and gratifications are relatively unchanging,
stable interaction patterns emerge which offer regular exchanges that
are understood by the participants to be normative in character, i.e.
morally correct . These stable exchange patterns, taken together,
constitute larger scale phenomena. To reverse the reasoning, macro –
structural phenomena can always be reduced to rationalized exchanges
between individuals . The technical term for describing such a position
is ‘methodological individualism ‘ .
6. However, emergent structural arrangement are not the main focus
of interest for theories of rationality . Rather, the general tendency is to
reach and analyze small group interaction, or hypothetical small
empirical generalization. These empirical generalizations become the
building block of theory.
7 . There is a general convergence between sociological theories of
rationality and both economic theory and game theory because each
stresses the maximization of individual advantage within a rational
calculus of action.

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