QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Introduction
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Outline
◼ Problem Definition and Hypothesis
Development
◼ Survey Design
◼ Population and Sample
◼ Instrument Design
◼ Data Analysis and Interpretation/Discussion

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

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Good Decisions Start with a Good

Problem Definition
◼ Decision Statement
◼ A written expression of the key question(s) that the
research user wishes to answer.
◼ Problem Definition
◼ The process of defining and developing a decision
statement and the steps involved in translating it
into more precise research terminology, including
a set of research objectives.

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

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Defining Problems Can Be Difficult

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

A Crying Baby: 5

Problem or Symptom

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

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Teething as a Problem

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

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Problem Definition

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

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The Iceberg Rule
◼ No matter how large the tip of an iceberg seems,
80 percent of it lies below the surface of the water.
◼ It is the same way with problems. No matter how
serious or stressful the first encounter with a
problem may seem, it is only a symptom of the
underlying trouble or real problem.
◼ Symptoms may be trivial, like one minor defect, or
they may be serious issues that must be dealt
with quickly, such as falling production levels.
Regardless, they are simply side effects of the real
problem that lies beneath the surface.

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

Problems vs. symptoms of problems 9

◼ For instance, a manager might have tried to decrease

employee turnover (the best people are leaving the
organization) by increasing wages, but with little success.
◼ One way of determining that the problem, rather than the
symptom is being addressed, is a technique called “5
Whys” or “5 Times Why”.
My best employees are leaving the organization.
◼ Why? Because they are not satisfied with their jobs.
◼ Why? Because they do not find a challenge in their jobs.
◼ Why? Because they do not have control over their work.
◼ Why? Because they do not have a lot of influence over planning,
executing, and evaluating the work they do.
◼ Why? Because we have been reluctant to delegate.
Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil
Root Cause Analysis (RCA) 10

◼ Step One: Define the Problem

◼ What do you see happening?
◼ What are the specific symptoms?
◼ Step Two: Collect Data
◼ What proof do you have that the problem exists?
◼ How long has the problem existed?
◼ What is the impact of the problem?
◼ Step Three: Identify Possible Causal Factors
◼ What sequence of events leads to the problem?
◼ What conditions allow the problem to occur?
◼ What other problems surround the occurrence of the
central problem?
Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil
Root Cause Analysis (RCA) - 2 11

◼ Step Four: Identify the Root Cause(s)

◼ Why does the causal factor exist?
◼ What is the real reason the problem occurred?
◼ Step Five: Recommend and Implement
Solutions
◼ What can you do to prevent the problem from
happening again?
◼ How will the solution be implemented?
◼ Who will be responsible for it?
◼ What are the risks of implementing the solution?

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

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Root Cause Analysis (RCA) - 3

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

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The Problem-Definition Process

◼ Problem
◼ When there is a difference between the current
conditions and a more preferable set of conditions.
◼ Problems Mean Gaps
◼ The current performance is worse than the
expected performance.
◼ The actual business performance is less than the
possible performance.
◼ The expected performance is greater than the
possible performance.

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

Example: Poor Questions Result 14

in Poor Research in Japan!

◼ A French yogurt manufacturer
noted that the Japanese were
becoming more Westernized.
◼ A survey supported this and
appeared to offer a strong
market potential for yogurt.
◼ Wrong!
◼ The “Yes/No” question was too
simplistic and most respondents
were too polite to say “No.”
◼ They wouldn’t offend the
researcher by criticizing ads
featuring a spoon as an eating
utensil.
Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil
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The Problem-Definition Process

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

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Research Objectives
◼ Decision/Problem statements must be
translated into research objectives.
◼ Once the decision/problem statement is
written, the research essentially answers
the question, “What information is needed
to address this situation?”
◼ Research objectives are the deliverables
of the research project.

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

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Determine the Unit of Analysis

◼ Unit of Analysis
◼ Indicates what or who should provide the data and
at what level of aggregation.
◼ Individuals (such as customers, employees, and owners)
◼ Households (families, extended families, and so forth)
◼ Organizations (businesses and business units)
◼ Departments (sales, finance, and so forth)
◼ Geographical areas
◼ Objects (products, advertisements, and so forth).
◼ Multi-level analysis studies variables measured at
more than one unit of analysis.

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

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Determine the Relevant Variable

◼ What is a Variable?
◼ Anything that varies or changes from one instance
to another; can exhibit differences in value, usually
in magnitude or strength, or in direction.
◼ What is a Constant?
◼ Something that does not change; is not useful in
addressing research questions.

Y = c + β1 X1
Daily food
consumption Constant Income
Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil
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Types of Variables
◼ Continuous variable ◼ Dependent variable (Y)
◼ Can take on a range ◼ A process outcome or a
of quantitative variable that is predicted
values. and/or explained by other
variables.
◼ Categorical variable
◼ Indicates ◼ Independent variable (X)
membership in some ◼ A variable that is
group. expected to influence the
◼ Also called dependent variable in
classificatory some way.
variable.

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

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Writing Research Objectives and
Research Questions
◼ Research Questions
◼ Express the research objectives in terms
of questions that can be addressed by
research.
◼ Help to develop well-formulated, specific
hypotheses that can be empirically tested.
◼ Help the researcher design a study that
will produce useful results.

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

Clarity in Research Questions and 21

Hypotheses
◼ Research Questions
◼ The researcher’s translation of the problem into a
specific inquiry.
◼ Provide input that can be used as a standard for selecting from
among alternative solutions.
◼ Hypotheses
◼ Statements that can be empirically tested.
◼ State what is expected to be found through the study.
◼ Managerial Action Standard
◼ A specific performance criterion upon which a decision
can be based.

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

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Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

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Class Exercise #1:

◼ Based on the examples of research

objectives in the previous slide,
what is the probable problem for
each research objective?

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

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Model for Conceptualizing
Quantitative Research
◼ Overall purpose or
objective
◼ Research literature
◼ Research questions and
hypotheses
◼ Selecting appropriate
methods
◼ Validity and reliability of
the data
Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil
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Creating the Foundation
for Quantitative Research
◼ Concept
◼ Abstract thinking to distinguish it from other elements
◼ Construct
◼ Theoretical definition of a concept; must be observable
or measurable; linked to other concepts
◼ Variable
◼ Presented in research questions and hypotheses
◼ Operationalization
◼ Specifically how the variable is observed or measured

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

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Research Hypotheses
for Quantitative Research
◼ Educated guess or presumption based on
literature
◼ States the nature of the relationship between
two or more variables
◼ Predicts the research outcome
◼ Research study designed to test the
relationship described in the hypothesis

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

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Quantitative Research Hypotheses
◼ Directional hypothesis
◼ Precise statement indicating the nature and
direction of the relationship/difference
between variables
◼ Non-directional hypothesis
◼ States only that relationship/difference will
occur

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

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Assessing Hypotheses
◼ Simply stated?
◼ Single sentence?
◼ At least two variables?
◼ Variables clearly stated?
◼ Is the relationship/difference precisely stated?
◼ Testable?

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

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Null Hypotheses

◼ Implicit complementary statement to the

research hypothesis
◼ States no relationship/difference exists
between variables
◼ Statistical test performed on the null
◼ Assumed to be true until support for the
research hypothesis is demonstrated

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

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Research Traditions in the Use of
Hypotheses

◼ Hypotheses are always tentative

◼ Research hypothesis (Ha), not the null
hypothesis, is the focus of the research
and presented in the research report

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

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Research Questions
in Quantitative Research

◼ Preferred when little is known about a

communication phenomenon
◼ Used when previous studies report
conflicting results
◼ Used to describe communication
phenomena

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

PART II

SURVEY DESIGN
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Survey Research

◼ Respondents
◼ People who verbally answer an
interviewer’s questions or provide answers
to written questions.
◼ Sample Survey
◼ A survey that emphasizes contacting
respondents who are a representative
sample of the target population.

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

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Using Surveys
◼ Survey Objectives
◼ Surveys attempt to describe what is happening,
what people believe, what they are like, or to learn
the reasons for a particular business activity.
◼ Survey research is descriptive research:
◼ Identifying characteristics of target markets
◼ Measuring consumer attitudes
◼ Identifying information regarding activities that could
make the company more “green”

◼ Surveys can be both quantitative and

qualitative.

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

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Advantages of Surveys

◼ Advantages of Surveys
◼ Gathering information via surveys is:
◼ Quick
◼ Inexpensive

◼ Efficient

◼ Accurate

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

Errors in Survey Research 36

◼ Random Sampling Error

◼ A statistical fluctuation that occurs because of
chance variation in the elements selected for a
sample.
◼ Systematic Error
◼ Error resulting from some imperfect aspect of the
research design that causes respondent error or
from a mistake in the execution of the research.
◼ Sample Bias
◼ A persistent tendency for the results of a sample to
deviate in one direction from the true value of the
population parameter.

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

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Categories of Survey Errors

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

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Respondent Error
◼ Respondent Error
◼ A category of sample bias resulting from
some respondent action or inaction such as
nonresponse or response bias.
◼ Nonresponse Error
◼ The statistical differences between a survey
that includes only those who responded
and a perfect survey that would also include
those who failed to respond.

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

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Respondent Error
◼ Non-respondents
◼ People who are not contacted or who refuse to
cooperate in the research.
◼ No contacts: people who are not at home or who are
otherwise inaccessible on the first and second contact.
◼ Refusals: People who are unwilling to participate in a
research project.

◼ Self-Selection Bias
◼ A bias that occurs because people who feel
strongly about a subject are more likely to respond
to survey questions than people who feel
indifferent about it.

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

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Response Bias
◼ Deliberate Falsification
◼ Occasionally people deliberately give false
answers.
◼ Misrepresent answers to appear intelligent
◼ Conceal personal information
◼ Avoid embarrassment
◼ Average-person hypothesis:
◼ Individuals may prefer to be viewed as average,
so they alter their responses to conform more
closely to their perception of the average
person.
Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil
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Response Bias
◼ Unconscious Misrepresentation
◼ When a respondent is consciously trying to be
truthful and cooperative, response bias can arise
from the question format, the question content, or
some other stimulus that affects their response to a
question.
◼ Sources of misrepresentation:
◼ Misunderstanding the question
◼ Unable to recall details
◼ Unprepared response to an unexpected question
◼ Inability to translate feelings into words
◼ After-event underreporting
Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil
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Types of Response Bias
◼ Acquiescence Bias
◼ A tendency to agree with all or most questions.
◼ Extremity Bias
◼ The tendency of some Individuals to use extremes
when responding to questions.
◼ Interviewer Bias
◼ The presence of the interviewer influences
respondents’ answers.
◼ Social Desirability Bias
◼ Bias in responses caused by respondents’ desire,
either conscious or unconscious, to gain prestige or
appear in a different social role.
Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil
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Administrative Error
◼ An error caused by the improper
administration or execution of the research
task.
◼ Data-processing error: incorrect data entry,
incorrect computer programming, or other
procedural errors during data analysis.
◼ Sample selection error: improper sample design or
sampling procedure execution.
◼ Interviewer error: mistakes made by interviewers
failing to record survey responses correctly.
◼ Interviewer cheating: filling in fake answers or
falsifying questionnaires by an interviewer.
Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil
 Classifying Survey Research 44

Methods
◼ Structured/Unstructured Questionnaires
◼ Structured question: imposes a limit on the number of
allowable responses.
◼ Unstructured question: does not restrict respondents’
answers.
◼ Disguised/Undisguised Questionnaires
◼ Undisguised questions: assume the respondent is
willing to answer.
◼ Disguised questions: assume the purpose of the study
must be hidden from the respondent.

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

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Classifying Survey Research
Methods (2)
◼ Temporal Classification
◼ Cross-sectional study: various segments of a
population are sampled and data are collected at a
single moment in time.

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

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Classifying Survey Research
Methods (3)
◼ Temporal Classification (cont’d)
◼ Longitudinal study: A survey of respondents at
different times, thus allowing analysis of
response continuity and changes over time.
◼ Tracking study: uses successive samples to compare
trends and identify changes in variables such as
consumer satisfaction, brand image, or advertising
awareness.
◼ Consumer panel: a survey of the same sample of
individuals or households to record (in a diary) their
attitudes, behavior, or purchasing habits over time.
Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil
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Self-Administered Questionnaires

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

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Selecting the Appropriate Survey
Approach
◼ Questions to be answered:
◼ Is the assistance of an interviewer necessary?
◼ Are respondents interested in the issues being
investigated?
◼ Will cooperation be easily attained?
◼ How quickly is the information needed?
◼ Will the study require a long and complex
questionnaire?
◼ How large is the budget?
Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil
PART III

POPULATION AND SAMPLE

 50
Sampling Terminology
◼ Population (universe)
◼ Any complete group of entities that share some
common set of characteristics.
◼ Population Element
◼ An individual member of a population.
◼ Census
◼ An investigation of all the individual elements
that make up a population.
◼ Sample
◼ A subset, or some part, of a larger population.
Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil
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Why Sample?
◼ Pragmatic Reasons
◼ Budget and time constraints.
◼ Limited access to total population.
◼ Accurate and Reliable Results
◼ Samples can yield reasonably accurate information.
◼ Strong similarities in population elements makes
sampling possible.
◼ Sampling may be more accurate than a census.
◼ Destruction of Test Units
◼ Sampling reduces the costs of research in finite
populations.

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

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Stages in the Selection of a Sample

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

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Practical Sampling Concepts
◼ Defining the Target Population
◼ What is the relevant population?
◼ Whom do we want to talk to?
◼ Population is operationally defined by specific and
explicit tangible characteristics.
◼ The Sampling Frame
◼ A list of elements from which a sample may be
drawn; also called working population.
◼ Sampling Frame Error
◼ Occurs when certain sample elements are not listed or
are not accurately represented in a sampling frame.
Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil
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Practical Sampling Concepts (2)
◼ Sampling services (list brokers)
◼ Provide lists or databases of the names,
addresses, phone numbers, and e-mail
addresses of specific populations.
◼ Reverse directory
◼ A directory similar to a telephone directory except
that listings are by city and street address or by
phone number rather than alphabetical by last
name.
◼ International Research
◼ Availability of sampling frames varies
dramatically around the world.
Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil
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Sampling Units
◼ Sampling Unit
◼ A single element or group of elements
subject to selection in the sample.
◼ Primary Sampling Unit (PSU)
◼ A unit selected in the first stage of sampling.
◼ Secondary Sampling Unit
◼ A unit selected in the second stage of sampling.
◼ Tertiary Sampling Unit
◼ A unit selected in the third stage of sampling.

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

Random Sampling and Non-sampling 56

Errors
◼ Random Sampling Error
◼ The difference between the sample result and the result of a
census conducted using identical procedures.
◼ A statistical fluctuation that occurs because of chance
variations in the elements selected for a sample.
◼ Systematic Sampling Error
◼ Systematic (non-sampling) error results from non-sampling
factors, primarily the nature of a study’s design and the
correctness of execution.
◼ It is not due to chance fluctuation.

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

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Random Sampling and Non-sampling

Errors (2)
◼ Less than Perfectly Representative Samples
◼ Random sampling errors and systematic errors
associated with the sampling process may combine to
yield a sample that is less than perfectly representative
of the population.

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

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Errors Associated with Sampling

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

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Probability versus Non-probability
Sampling
◼ Probability Sampling
◼ A sampling technique in which every member of
the population has a known, non-zero probability
of selection.
◼ Non-probability Sampling
◼ A sampling technique in which units of the
sample are selected on the basis of personal
judgment or convenience.
◼ The probability of any particular member of the
population being chosen is unknown.
Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil
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Non-probability Sampling
◼ Convenience Sampling
◼ Obtaining those people or units that are most
conveniently available.
◼ Judgment (Purposive) Sampling
◼ An experienced individual selects the sample
based on personal judgment about some
appropriate characteristic of the sample member.
◼ Quota Sampling
◼ Ensures that various subgroups of a population
will be represented on pertinent characteristics to
the exact extent that the investigator desires.

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

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Nonprobability Sampling (2)

◼ Possible Sources of Bias

◼ Respondents chosen because they were:
◼ Similar to interviewer
◼ Easily found
◼ Willing to be interviewed
◼ Middle-class
◼ Advantages of Quota Sampling
◼ Speed of data collection
◼ Lower costs
◼ Convenience
Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil
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Non-probability Sampling (3)
◼ Snowball Sampling
◼ A sampling procedure in which initial
respondents are selected by probability
methods and additional respondents are
obtained from information provided by the
initial respondents.

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Probability Sampling
◼ Simple Random Sampling
◼ Assures each element in the population of an
equal chance of being included in the sample.
◼ Systematic Sampling
◼ A starting point is selected by a random
process and then every nth number on the list
is selected.
◼ Stratified Sampling
◼ Simple random subsamples that are more or
less equal on some characteristic are drawn
from within each stratum of the population.
Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil
Proportional versus 64

Disproportional Sampling

◼ Proportional Stratified Sample

◼ The number of sampling units drawn from
each stratum is in proportion to the
population size of that stratum.
◼ Disproportional Stratified Sample
◼ The sample size for each stratum is allocated
according to analytical considerations.

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

Disproportional Sampling: 65

Hypothetical Example

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

Cluster Sampling 66

◼ Cluster Sampling
◼ An economically
efficient sampling
technique in which the
primary sampling unit
is not the individual
element in the
population but a large
cluster of elements.
◼ Clusters are selected
randomly.

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

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Multistage Area Sampling
◼ Multistage Area Sampling
◼ Involves using a combination of two or
more probability sampling techniques.
◼ Typically, geographic areas are randomly
selected in progressively smaller (lower-
population) units.
◼ Researchers may take as many steps as

necessary to achieve a representative sample.

◼ Progressively smaller geographic areas are

chosen until a single housing unit is selected

for interviewing.
Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil
Illustration of Multistage Area 68

Sampling in the United States

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

Geographic Hierarchy Inside 69

Urbanized Areas

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

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What is the Appropriate Sample
Design?
◼ Degree of accuracy
◼ Resources
◼ Time
◼ Advanced knowledge of the population
◼ National versus local project

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

 71
Sample Size
◼ Random Error and Sample Size
◼ Random sampling error varies with
samples of different sizes.
◼ Increases in sample size reduce
sampling error at a decreasing rate.
◼ Diminishing returns - random sampling
error is inversely proportional to the
square root of n.

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

 72
Relationship between Sample Size
and Error

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

Factors of Concern in Choosing 73

Sample Size
◼ Variance (or Heterogeneity)
◼ A heterogeneous population has more variance (a
larger standard deviation) which will require a
larger sample.
◼ A homogeneous population has less variance (a
smaller standard deviation) which permits a smaller
sample.
◼ Magnitude of Error (Confidence Interval)
◼ How precise must the estimate be?
◼ Confidence Level
◼ How much error will be tolerated?
Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil
 74
Estimating Sample Size for Questions
Involving Means
◼ Sequential Sampling
◼ Conducting a pilot study to estimate the population
parameters so that another, larger sample of the
appropriate sample size may be drawn.
◼ Estimating sample size:

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

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Sample Size Example
◼ Suppose a survey researcher, studying expenditures
on lipstick, wishes to have a 95 percent confident
level (Z) and a range of error (E) of less than $2.00.
The estimate of the standard deviation is $29.00.
What is the calculated sample size?

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

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Sample Size Example (2)
◼ Suppose, in the same example as the one
before, the range of error (E) is acceptable
at $4.00. Sample size is reduced.

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

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Calculating Sample Size at the 99
Percent Confidence Level

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

 78

Determining Sample Size for

Proportions

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

Determining Sample Size for 79

Proportions (2)

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

 80
Calculating Example Sample Size
at the 95 Percent Confidence Level

Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil

PART IV

INSTRUMENTATION
 82
Instrumentation
◼ Refers to the tools or means by which investigators
attempt to measure variables or items of interest in the
data-collection process.
◼ It is related not only to instrument design, selection,
construction, and assessment, but also the to
conditions under which the designated instruments
are administered—the instrument is the device used
by investigators for collecting data.
◼ In addition, during the process of data collection,
investigators might fail to recognize that changes in
the calibration of the measuring instrument(s) can lead
to biased results. Therefore, instrumentation is also a
specific term with respect to a threat to internal
validity in research.
Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil
 83
Instrumentation (2)

◼ Related to:
◼ the data-collection process,
◼ internal validity, and
◼ research designs

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What is data collection?
◼ The process by which the researcher collects
the information needed to answer the research
problem.
◼ In collecting the data, the researcher must
decide:
◼ Which data to collect
◼ How to collect the data
◼ Who will collect the data
◼ When to collect the data

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What is data collection? - 2

◼ The selection of data collection method should

be based on the following:
◼ The identified hypothesis or research problem
◼ The research design
◼ The information gathered about the variables
◼ The methods of data collection vary according
to:
◼ Degree of structure
◼ Degree of quantifiability
◼ Degree of obtrusiveness
◼ Degree of objectivity
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Research Instruments
◼ Instrument or a Tool
◼ described as a device used to collect the data.
◼ facilitate variable observation and measurement.
◼ The type of instrument used by the researcher
depends on the data collection method
selected.
◼ Instrument development requires a high
degree of research expertise, as the instrument
must be reliable and valid.

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Ways of Searching for Research 87

Instruments
◼ Read professional journals
◼ to learn what kind of instruments are being used for similar
studies, their format, style, and how they are used by the writers.
◼ Read books
◼ that provide a description or an actual copy of various
instruments for the reader.
◼ Talk with other researchers
◼ who may know of certain tools they have developed for
themselves, or may have used tools developed by others.
◼ Combine or adapt one or more tools
◼ used by other researchers.
◼ Develop his/her own instrument
◼ to fulfill a specific need

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Guidelines for Developing an
Instrument
◼ The instrument must be suitable for its
function.
◼ The research tool will only be effective only as
it relates to its particular purpose.
◼ The instrument must be based on the
theoretical framework and selected for the
study.
◼ The instrument should be valid.

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Guidelines for Developing an
Instrument - 2

◼ The content of the instrument must be

appropriate to test the hypothesis or answer
the question being studied.
◼ The instrument should be reliable.
◼ The devised research tool should provide
comparable data every time the subject uses
the instrument.
◼ An instrument should include an item that
directly asks the hypothesis.
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Guidelines for Developing an
Instrument - 3
◼ The research tool should be designed and
constructed in such a way that cheating is
minimized.
◼ The instrument should be free of bias.
◼ A good instrument is free of build-in clues.
◼ The instrument should not contain measures
that function as hints for desired responses.
◼ The researcher may need to read extensively
to identify which aspects of the theory are
appropriate for investigation.
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Guidelines for Developing an 91

Instrument - 4
◼ The researcher, through the instrument, must be
able to gather data that are appropriate in order
to test the hypothesis or to answer the question
under investigation.
◼ The researcher should gather a group of items
from such sources, such as persons
knowledgeable in the field, accepted theories or
hypotheses, personal experience, or material
from studies reported in books and professional
journals.

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Guidelines for Developing an
Instrument - 5
◼ The response given by each respondent in the
research study should solely be his own. There
should be no contamination through outside
influences, such as someone else’s ideas or
products.
◼ Therefore, the respondent who agrees to
participate in a study is responsible for
supplying information or for exhibiting
behavior that is truly his own.

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Types of Research Instruments
1. Questionnaire
2. Checklist
3. Distribution
4. Interview
5. Observation
6. Records
7. Experimental Approach
8. Survey Approach

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Types of Research Instruments - 2
◼ Questionnaire
◼ A series of questions designed to elicit information,
which is filled in by all participants in the sample.
◼ This can be gathered either by oral interview or by
written questionnaire.
◼ This is the most common type of research
instrument.
◼ Advantages of a Questionnaire
◼ Relatively simple method of obtaining data.
◼ Less time is consumed.
◼ Researcher is able to gather data from a widely
scattered sample.
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Types of Research Instruments - 3
◼ Disadvantages of a Questionnaire
◼ Responses to a questionnaire lack depth.
◼ Respondent may omit or disregard any item he chooses.
◼ Some items may force the subject to select responses
that are not his actual choice.
◼ Length of the questionnaire is limited according to the
respondent’s interest.
◼ Printing may be costly especially if it is lengthy.
◼ Data are limited to the information that is voluntarily
supplied by the respondents.
◼ Some items maybe misunderstood.
◼ The sample is limited to those who are literate.

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Types of Research Instruments - 4

◼ Characteristic of a Good Questionnaire
◼ It is well-stated title.
◼ It has statement of purpose.
◼ It assures the respondents about the confidentiality
of responses.
◼ It is designed to achieve the objectives of the study.
◼ It has a clear direction.
◼ There are no double-negative questions.
◼ It avoids double barreled questions.
◼ The design corresponds to an easy tabulation of
data

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Types of Research Instruments - 5 97

◼ Checklist
◼ These are items that comprise several questions on a
topic and require the same response format.
◼ Example:
◼ Here are some characteristics of birth-control devices
that are of varying importance to different people. How
important are the following in choosing a birth-control
method?
Characteristic of Of very great Of great Of some Of no
birth-control device importance importance importance importance
Comfort
Cost
Ease of Use
Effectiveness
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Types of Research Instruments - 6
◼ Interview
◼ This involves either structure or unstructured verbal
communication between the researcher and subject, during
which information is obtained for a study.
◼ Types of Interview
◼ Unstructured Interviews
◼ more conversational
◼ long sometimes (hours) and conducted in a usual situation.
◼ allowing the researcher flexibility in questioning the subject.
◼ Structured Interviews
◼ always operates within formal written instrument referred as interview
schedule.
◼ researcher designed the questions to be asked prior to interview
including the order of the questions.
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Types of Research Instruments - 7 99

◼ Observation
◼ most commonly used in qualitative research
◼ Types of Observation
◼ Unstructured observation
◼ a method of collecting research data that has both opponents
and proponents.
◼ Structured observation
◼ preparation of record-keeping forms such as category
systems, checklists and rating scales.
◼ researcher typically has some prior knowledge about the
behavior or event of interest.

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◼ Records
◼ refers to all the numbers and statistics that
institutions, organizations and people keep as a
record of their activities.
◼ Sources
◼ 1. Census data.
◼ 2. Educational records.
◼ 3. Hospital/clinic records.

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Operationalizing Variables

◼ All variables need an operationalization

◼ Multiple operationalization exist for most
variables
◼ Specifies the way in which variable is
observed or measured
◼ Practical and useful?
◼ Justified argument?
◼ Coincides with the conceptual definition?

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Operational Definitions
◼ Operationalization
◼ The process of identifying scales that correspond to
variance in a concept involved in a research process.
◼ Scales
◼ A device providing a range of values that correspond
to different characteristics or amounts of a
characteristic exhibited in observing a concept.
◼ Correspondence rules
◼ Indicate the way that a certain value on a scale
corresponds to some true value of a concept.
◼ Constructs
◼ Concepts measured with multiple variables.

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Measurement of Variables
◼ Measurement is the process by which the
researcher assigns specific number to the
collected data (Massey, 1991).
◼ What is Level of Measurement?

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Levels of Measurement
◼ Nominal
◼ Ordinal
◼ Interval
◼ Ratio

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Levels of Measurement
1. Nominal level (the lowest level)
◼ This level includes assignment of numbers simply
to classify characteristics into categories.
◼ “ASSIGNING A CODE TO LABEL”
◼ The value does not imply any ordering of the
cases, for example, jersey numbers in football and
dates in a calendar.
◼ Example:
◼ In relation to marital status, “0” might represent single
and “1” married.
◼ Nominal level variables include sex, marital status and
health status

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 106
Levels of Measurement (2)
◼ Nominal:
◼ These variables consist of categories that are non-
ordered. For example, race or ethnicity is one
variable used to classify people.
◼ A simple categorical variable is binary or
dichotomous (‘1’/’0’ or ‘yes/’no’). For example, did a
councilwomen vote for the ordinance change or
not?
◼ When used as an independent variable, it is often
referred to as a “dummy” variable.
◼ When used as a dependent variable, the outcome of
some phenomenon is either present or not.
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Levels of Measurement (3)

2. Ordinal level (the second lowest level)

◼ This permits the sorting of objects on the basis of
their standing on an attribute relative to each other.
◼ Data are categorized and ranked, ordered from
“most” to “least”, according to frequency of
occurrence.
◼ represent the rank order (1st, 2nd, 3rd etc.)
◼ Ordinal type measurement:
◼ Likert scale
◼ Guttman scale
◼ Graphic Rating Scale
◼ Semantic Differential Scale

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Levels of Measurement (4)
◼ Ordinal:
◼ These variables are also categorical, but we
can say that some categories are higher
than others. For example, income tax
brackets, social class, levels of education
etc.
◼ However, we cannot measure the distance
between categories, only which is higher or
lower.
◼ Hence, we cannot say that someone is twice as
educated as someone else.
◼ Can also be used as a dependent variable.
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Levels of Measurement (5)
Ordinal:
When attributes can be rank-ordered…
◼ Distances between attributes do not have any

meaning, for example, code Educational

Attainment as
0 = less than High School
1 = some High School
2 = High School degree
3 = some college
4 = college degree
5 = post college
Is the distance from 0 to 1 the same as 3 to 4?
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Levels of Measurement (6) 110

◼ Interval level (the second highest level)

◼ This occurs when the researcher can specify both
the rank-ordering of objects attribute and the
distance between those objects.
◼ Variables of this type are called scalar or index
variables in the sense they provide a scale or index
that allows us to measure between levels. We cannot
only measure which is higher or lower, but how much
so.
◼ It does not have an absolute or rational zero point.
◼ It uses of mode, median, mean.
◼ Example:
◼ Fahrenheit and centigrade temperatures
◼ Anxiety levels measured on a Likert scale
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Levels of Measurement
In Ordinal, the distance between attributes has
meaning, for example, temperature (in
Fahrenheit) -- distance from 30-40 is same as
distance from 70-80
◼ Note that ratios don’t make any sense -- 80

degrees is not twice as hot as 40 degrees

(although the attribute values are).
80º C ≠ 2 * 40º C

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◼ Ratio level (the highest level)

◼ Similar to interval level variables in that it can
measure the distance between two points, but can
do so in absolute terms.
◼ The ratio level has a rational, meaningful zero.
◼ For example, one can say that someone is twice as
rich as someone else based on the value of their
assets since to have no money is based on a
starting point of zero.
◼ Can construct a meaningful ratio (fraction), for
example, number of clients in past six months.
◼ It is meaningful to say that “...we had twice as many
clients in this period as we did in the previous six
months”.
Research Methodology – Ari Warokka, PhD, MSc, MBA, MA, MPhil