REINFORCED EARTH AND

GEOTEXTILES
CEPE29
Dr. Deendayal Rathod
ASSOSIATE PROFESSOR
Civil Engineering Department

1
 Syllabus
1. Reinforced Earth – The mechanisms of the reinforced earth techniques – Design principles
– Materials used for construction – Advantages of reinforced earth – Reinforced earth
construction techniques.
2. An overview of Geosynthetics, Description of Geotextiles – Geogrids – Geonets –
Geomembranes – Geocomposites– Geocells – Designing with Geotextiles – Geotextile
properties and test methods – Functions of Geotextile – Design methods for separation –
stabilization – filtration – Drainage.
3. Designing with Geogrids – Geogrid properties and test methods – Designing with Geonets
– Geonet properties and test methods – Designing with Geomembranes – Geomembrane
properties and test methods – construction practices with Geotextiles, Geogrids, Geonets,
Geomembranes.
4. Design of liquid Contaminant liners – liquid contaminant liners – Covers for reservoirs-
Water conveyance (Canal liners)-- solid material liners – underground storage tanks –
Design of pavements – Geo composites as liquid /Vapour Barriers – Improvement in
bearing capacity – Erosion Control for water ways.
5. Geo Synthetics: Recent research and Developments. Control of Improvement – Field
Instrumentation – design and analysis for bearing capacity and settlement of improved
deposits
 TYPES OF GEOGRID

 Biaxial geogrid
• Roads
 Triaxial geogrid
• Trafficked surface
 Uniaxial geogrid
• Wall, slope application

10-Oct-23 3
Highway maintenance and road construction with geogrids

10-Oct-23 4
 GEOGRID
 Geogrids are polymeric products which are formed by means of
intersecting grids
 These grids are formed by material ribs that are intersected by
manufacture in two direction
 The primary function of geogrid is reinforcement
 Geogrid serve the function of holding or capturing aggregate
together
 The aperture in geogrid help in interlocking
 It also helps in redistribution of load over a wide area. This
function has made the pavement construction more stabilized and
strong 5
FUNCTIONS AND APPLICATION OF GEOGRID
• Soil Stabilization for Slopes and Embankments
• Retaining Wall Reinforcement
• Reinforcement in Soil and Asphalt Pavements
• Erosion Control
• Load Distribution and Base Reinforcement

10-Oct-23 6
 REINFORCED SOIL SLOPES
 Most soil slopes become unstable steeper than 2H to1V (angle of
repose)
 Slope reinforcement method reduce driving force and increase
resisting force ensuring adequate FOS
 Use of geotextile or geogrid will lead to increase in slope angle or
height
 Steeps slopes created by the provision of geogrid will provide
additional usable area
 Geogrid reinforcement layers have sufficient tensile capacity (say
100t), as long as this tensile capacity is more than the tensile force
generated (say 50t), the system is safe
10-Oct-23 7
 Primary purpose of reinforcing soil mass is to improve its stability
by increasing its bearing capacity and by reducing settlement and
lateral deformation σv
σv σ

 If a vertical stress (σv) is applied on a soil element, it undergoes a

vertical compression (δv) associated with a lateral deformation (δh)
 If a reinforcement is added to soil in the form of horizontal layers,
the soil element will be restrained against lateral deformation as it
acted by a lateral force 10-Oct-23 8
SLOPE STABILITY IMPROVEMENT

 BS 8006 (1995) indicates that reinforcement of slope is

possible for a number of applications they are :
 Reinforcement of a fill in new construction
 Reinforcement of failed slopes
 Reinforcement of existing ground in cut slope
 Design of reinforced soil slope
Approach: Limit Design earth
equilibrium pressure
method of coefficient
slopes approach
10-Oct-23 9
DESIGN OF REINFORCED SOIL SLOPES
 Approach of design are based on Limit equilibrium method for
slopes
 It is assumed that failure occur along a known failure surface
 When a failure surface intersects a reinforcement layer, an
additional resisting moment is added
 If factor of safety > 1.3(safe)
 The moment contribution of reinforcement (MG)
can be added directly to the resisting moment (MR)
FSu=MR/MD FSR= (MR+MG)/MD

 The allowable tensile strength of geogrid is

taken into account while calculating available
shear strength 10-Oct-23 10
CONTD..
 Interaction parameters
Direct sliding coefficient :
measure of shearing resistance for sliding across surface of a
reinforcement
Bond coefficient :
This property is due to bond through soil-reinforcement
interaction
 Minimum reinforcement length
 At top of slope, the earth pressure is less, so pullout resistance is
less, so length have to be little longer
10-Oct-23 11

 At bottom earth pressure is higher, so length could be little lesser

Geogrid
Reinforcement

Geogrids can help reduce the

required right-of-way (ROW) for
pavement construction by
enhancing the performance of
the pavement layers, allowing for
the use of thinner pavement
sections
10-Oct-23 12
WALL REINFORCEMENT DESIGN CONCEPTS

Internal design includes:

 Adequate Spacing of geogrid
 Adequate Length of geogrid
 Facing connection stress
(to resist the earth pressure on wall)
External design used to assess:
 Overall stability
 Sliding stability
 Bearing capacity Fig. Geogrid MSE wall

(Note : Reduction factors on reinforcement has to be included in design)

10-Oct-23 13
Reinforced soils-principles and mechanism
Externally stabilized system
•Uses external walls or material on the
outside of the soil mass to resist soil
movement
1. In-situ walls Fig1. Wall without reinforcement

2. Gravity walls
Internally stabilized systems
•Involves reinforcement installed within
and extending beyond potential failure
surface
1. Reinforced soils
2. In-site reinforcement 10-Oct-23
Fig 2. Wall with reinforcement
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Physical properties of geogrid
 Rib structure-Extruded rib
Woven rib
Fibrous rib
 Junction bond- Ultrasonic bond
Unit stitch bond
Double bond
Melt bond
 Percent open area
 Thickness
 Aperture size
 Mass per unit area
 Stiffness 10-Oct-23 15
I Percent open area
 The percent open area refers to the proportion of the geogrid's
surface that consists of voids or openings compared to the total
area. It is a critical parameter as it directly affects the geogrid's
interaction with soil, water flow, and its ability to provide
effective reinforcement.
 A higher percent open area generally allows for better soil
interaction, drainage, and filtration capabilities. However, it
might also lead to reduced tensile strength and stiffness due to
larger openings. A balance between open area and mechanical
properties must be considered based on the specific project
requirements.
10-Oct-23 16
II Thickness
 Geogrid thickness refers to the dimension that measures the distance
between the top and bottom surfaces of the geogrid material. This
property affects various aspects of the geogrid's functionality in different
applications. Here's how geogrid thickness impacts its performance:
1. Load Distribution: Thicker geogrids often have greater stiffness, allowing
them to distribute applied loads more effectively. They help prevent
localized stress concentrations by spreading the load over a larger area.
2. Reinforcement Capacity: Thicker geogrids generally possess higher tensile
strength and can withstand greater loads before reaching their breaking
point.
3. Interaction with Soil: Thicker geogrids can provide a more substantial
structure for soil particles to interlock with, enhancing the geogrid's
stability within the soil. 10-Oct-23 17
III Aperture Size
 These apertures allow soil particles to interact with the geogrid and
contribute to its overall performance
 The size of the apertures affects how well soil particles can interlock with
the geogrid. Smaller apertures provide more contact points and can
create a stronger bond with the surrounding soil.
 Aperture size influences how loads are transferred from the soil to the
geogrid and vice versa. Proper aperture size ensures efficient load
distribution and prevents localized stress concentrations.
 Larger apertures allow for better water flow through the geogrid, making
it suitable for applications where drainage or filtration is necessary, such
as erosion control.
10-Oct-23 18
IV Mass per unit area
 It is a physical property that measures the weight of the geogrid material
per a defined unit of surface area. It is expressed in units like grams per
square meter (g/m²). This property is important in understanding the
density and overall weight of the geogrid.
 In some cases, the mass per unit area can indicate the geogrid's stiffness
and load-bearing capacity. Heavier geogrids might provide better load
distribution capabilities.
 Lighter geogrids may be suitable for certain soil reinforcement needs,
while heavier ones might be preferable for applications requiring
significant strength and stability.

10-Oct-23 19
V Stiffness
 It reflects how the geogrid responds to applied forces and how it
maintains its shape while providing reinforcement and stability to the soil
or other materials it interacts with. Stiffness is critical in determining the
geogrid's effectiveness in various civil engineering applications. It can be
quantified with a flexural rigidity test, which involves measuring the
resistance of the geogrid to bending under specific conditions.
 Stiff geogrids distribute applied loads more effectively, preventing
localized stress concentrations and promoting even load distribution
across the structure
 Stiffness influences the geogrid's ability to interlock with soil particles,
enhancing its stability within the soil mass.
 In applications like slope stabilization, a stiff geogrid can provide lateral
support to the soil and prevent slope failure. 10-Oct-23 20
V Stiffness
 Stiff geogrids are essential in retaining wall structures to ensure that the
soil behind the wall remains stable and doesn't exert excessive pressure
on the wall face
 Stiff geogrids are essential in retaining wall structures to ensure that the
soil behind the wall remains stable and doesn't exert excessive pressure
on the wall face
 Stiff geogrids tend to deform less under load, resulting in reduced
settlement and surface distortion
 A geogrid's stiffness also influences its long-term performance, affecting
factors like creep (gradual deformation under sustained load) and overall
stability over time
10-Oct-23 21
Mechanical properties and tesing of geogrid
 Tensile strength
 Shear strength
 Anchorage strength
 Node/junction strength
 Creep resistance
Endurance properies
 Installation stresses/damage

10-Oct-23 22
I Tensile strength
 As geogrids are manufactured for exclusive
reinforcement applications, tensile strength becomes
the most important mechanical property
 Tensile strength can be determined by clamping and
pulling either individual ribs or a combination of ribs
(ASTM D6637)

10-Oct-23 23

Fig. Single rib and multiple rib tension test

 In the case of biaxial-geogrids, tensile strength
is to be determined in both direction. Soil fails
within 2-5% strain in the presence of
reinforcement and hence the tensile strength
corresponding to 2-5% strain is generally taken
for design.
 The major limitation of the existing test
method for tensile strength is that the effect
of confinement could not be simulated

Fig. Zhang et al
10-Oct-23 24
II Shear strength

 The geogrid in field applications can be subjected to

shearing either under sliding of soil mass or when the
geogrid is subjected to pulling out

10-Oct-23 25
III Anchorage strength
 The anchorage strength of a geogrid indeed refers to its capacity to resist pullout or
displacement from the soil or other materials in which it is embedded. The anchorage
strength of a geogrid indeed refers to its capacity to resist pullout or displacement from the
soil or other materials in which it is embedded. The anchorage strength depends on factors
such as:
a) Geogrid material and design
b) Soil type
c) Installation method
d) Load condition
e) Surface friction
a) Long-term performance
 Anchorage resistance can far exceed the direct shearing resistance. This is due to the
additional passive resistance mobilized against the cross ribs in addition to the surface
resistance.
 The anchorage resistance is relevant when geogrid is subjected to pullout. The pullout test
can be carried out in a test box on a geogrid specimen embedded between soil layers.
 Currently there is no universally accepted testing method for anchorage 26strength. 10-Oct-23
However, the test suggested by ASTM is being used
III Anchorage strength
 Test conditions:
a) Test box should be long enough to dissipate the stresses along the
length of geogrid layer
b) The depth of box should be sufficient to have minimum soil thickness
of 30cm on either sides of geogrid
c) Strain gauges are to be fixed (large number) on the longitudinal and
cross ribs inorder to understand the rib behavior
d) Clamping should be made within the fill but not outside the box. This
suggestion is made as outside clamping is likely to give wide width
tensile strength as theupper bound value
e) Adequate capacity of tensile testing unit is to be ensured to conduct
the pullout test
f) Above all these, pullout resistance is function of normal stress and soil
type. In case of clays , it is the deciding factor in deciding the anchorage
resistance
10-Oct-23 27
IV Node/junction strength
 A geogrid’s node or junction strength is a critical mechanical
property that determines the grid's overall performance in
reinforcing soil or other materials. Geogrids comprise intersecting
ribs or strands that form nodes or junctions. These nodes are points
where the ribs are bonded or connected. The node strength is the
force required to separate or break the connections at these
junctions.
 Node strength is essential because it influences the geogrid's ability
to transfer load, distribute stress, and provide reinforcement. Higher
node strength contributes to better load distribution and enhanced
reinforcement performance. A geogrid's design, material properties,
and manufacturing process all impact its node strength

10-Oct-23 28
 IV Node/junction strength
 Factors affecting node/junction strength of geogrid
1. Material Properties: The type of polymer used to manufacture the geogrid significantly affects its node
strength. Different polymers have varying tensile strength and stiffness, contributing to the nodes' overall
strength.
2. Rib Geometry: The shape and dimensions of the ribs that form the geogrid impact the node strength.
Wider and thicker ribs generally result in stronger nodes.
3. Manufacturing Technique: The method used to bond or connect the ribs at the nodes can influence the
strength of the connections. Various manufacturing processes, such as extrusion, weaving, or welding, can
yield different node strength characteristics.
4. Rib Configuration: The arrangement of ribs at the nodes can affect how forces are distributed. Some
geogrids have a uniform rib arrangement, while others have varying arrangements to optimize performance
under different loading conditions.
5. Load Direction: The node strength may vary depending on the direction of applied load. Geogrids are often
stronger due to the rib orientation in their primary load-bearing direction.
6. Environmental Factors: Environmental conditions like UV exposure, temperature variations, and chemical
exposure can affect a geogrid's long-term durability and node strength.
10-Oct-23 29
IV Node/junction strength

 The cross ribs are gripped through

clamps and the longitudinal rib also
is clamped to a separate clamp in a
tensile testing machine
 These clamps are pulled apart. The
node strength varies from 7-100%.
The major limitation of this test is
that it could not simulate the field
confinement condition

Fig. Junction strength test specimen

30
 V Creep resistance
 Creep is the most important endurance property of all geogrids. The
creep within the geogrid is possible by:
a) Slip along the polymer chain
b) Slip along the fibres in an oriented geogrid
c) Chain breakage along the crystalline and amorphous region
 Beyond the molecular mechanism, the other factors that could influence
the creep is stress level, temperature and other environmental
influences
 It is known that design stresses at 40% of the ultimate strength keeps
the creep strain under control

31
TWO METHODS OF DESIGN
Tie back wedge
method Coherent gravity
method

10-Oct-23 32

L L
REINFORCEMENT
 Forms: Steel strips, bar, GTs depend on interfacial friction between
soil and reinforcement for mobilization of tensile force
 Surface properties: Roughened surface provide better frictional
properties
 Dimensions: length of reinforcement is 0.7 times height of wall at
every point
 Stiffness: Governs the strain mobilization in
the reinforced soil structure
 Spacing: Optimum vertical spacing of
reinforcement layer is between 0.2B and 0.4B
10-Oct-23 33
SOIL STATE
 Factors such as overburden, state of soil, drainage condition and
degree of saturation affects the response of reinforced soil
structure
 If overburden is high (ϒH), means pullout resistance is high
 But towards the surface or nearer to retaining wall, the soil
pullout resistance is less
 Strain softening (in dense soil) will not occur
for reinforced soil
 Higher angle of dilation Higher normal
stress on reinforcement, which increases
10-Oct-23 34

the pullout resistance

Improvement of bearing capacity of soft soil
 Soft soil are nearly everywhere
 If we put a reinforcement in soft soil, there is no friction
(tan∂)
 So first we will put a layer of sand (1-2m), that acts as a
loading platform. Because whatever load can come it
just gets absorbed in sand layer and shear stress that
can occur is less than shear strength of soil
Improvement is attributed to 3 effects
 Shear layer effect
 Confinement effect
Additional surcharge effect
10-Oct-23 35

 Shear layer effect
 We place granular bed above the soft clayey soil
 We know that sand have shear resistance compared to clay. And
this sand bed act as a shearing layer to impart adequate bearing
capacity
 The shearing force that are developed along vertical plane at
edges of footing is given by
Tf1=1/2KpϒH2tanΦs

Improvement due to shear layer effect:

ΔQSL =2Tf1/B
10-Oct-23 36
 Confinement effect
 The Tensile force will provide confinement effect
 Tensile forces are generated in reinforcement as a result of
frictional force induced between reinforcement and granular soil
Tf2=TRtanΦs
where
TR= ϒHtanΦRLe

Improvement due to confinement effect:

ΔQ CE=2Tf2/B
10-Oct-23 37
APPLICATION OF GEOSYNTHETICS IN UNPAVED ROADS
 If soil is poor and we want to design road, we do CBR test which is
a strength test and we arrive at thickness of pavement based on
CBR value
Function of geosynthetics in roadway
 Act as seperator to prevent 2 dissimilar materials(subgrade soils
and aggregates) intermixing. GT and GG performs this function by
preventing penetration of aggregate into subgrade (localized
bearing failure
 Reinforcement action
 Seperation and reinforcement helps to reduce the depth of
excavation
 Reduces the thickness of aggregate required
 Geogrid will reduce differential settlement in roadways
10-Oct-23 38
 An increase in soil subgrade strength from the non reinforced
case to reinforced case as indicated by the
qe=ꙥCu+ϒho qp=(ꙥ+2) Cu +ϒh

qe= Stress on soil subgrade(without GT)

qp= Plastic bearing capacity(with GT)
Cu= Undrained soil strength at Nth vehicle passage
ho=thickness of stone base without GT
h =thickness of stone base with GT
To control the contamination of aggregates, in the absence of
reinforcement, the applied load from axle be limited to qe based
on elastic limit 10-Oct-23 39
Mechanism:
1. Lateral restrainment of base and
subgrade through friction and
interlock between aggregate, soil
and geosynthetic
2. Increase in the system-bearing
capacity by forcing the potential-
bearing capacity failure surface to
develop along an alternate, higher
shear-strength surface
3. Membrane support of the wheel
loads

10-Oct-23 40
Subgrade conditions in which
geosynthetics are useful

 Poor soil
 Low undrained shear strength
τf=cu< 90kPa
CBR<3% (unsoaked)
 Higher ground water table
 High sensitivity

10-Oct-23 41
 Undrained shear Subgrade CBR Function
stregth of soil obtained
from (VST) or CU-Test
60-90 2-3 Filtration and possibly
seperation
30-60 1-2 Filtration, seperation
and possibly
reinforcement
<30 <1 All functions including
reinforcemet
Fig. Effectiveness of geosynthetics as a function of subgrade strength
10-Oct-23 42
Application of geosynthetic in paved road
Appropriate location for placement of geotextile in a paved road are:
 Interface between sub-base and subgrade soil
 Near underside of wearing course
 Beneath surface overlay to a damaged pavement

Subgrade to sub-base interface

 Placement of geotextile at this level reduces the rutting and also
reduces the thickness of sub-base, besides controlling
contamination by fines from subgrade soil
Failure mode of flexible pavement:
Rutting (deformation large)
10-Oct-23 43

Fatigue (because of load repetition)

Pavement wearing course
 Advantage of geogrid or geotextile in wearing course help in
Restriction of reflection cracking
Decrease rutting
Restriction of fatigue cracking
 In area of high contact stress (heavy traffic areas, taxiways the
effect is beneficial)
Pavement overlays
 Geotextile (asphalt-saturated GT) can be an alternative to stress
relieving granular layer, seat coat, rubberised asphalt for
controlling moisture infiltration and retardation of reflection
crack in pavement overlay
 Both functions combine to extend life of overlay and pavement
10-Oct-23 44
10-Oct-23 45
 Increase of pavement life time due to the use of geosynthetic
reinforcement

E=Nr/Nu
Nr=number of load repetitions up to
failure for the reinforced pavement
Nu=number of load repetitions up to
failure for the unreinforced pavement

10-Oct-23 46
 embankments on soft soil
 Soft soil have low shear strength, high compressibility and low
permeability
 The reinforcement/confinement effect from GG improves the
stability of embankment
 Permits controlled construction over soft soil
 Ensures more uniform settlement of embankment
 Rate of construction is very slow for soft clayey deposits since
the rate of consolidation is very low and we usually adopt staged
construction
 Results in cost effective solutions
10-Oct-23 47
 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
 Three failure mechanism considered
1. Rotational stability
Modes of failure
2. Lateral sliding
3. Bearing capacity

Internal stability Overall stability

•Direct sliding at soil- •Slippage across the

reinforcement interface foundation surface
•Stability in the
10-Oct-23 48

foundation
Rotational stability

One component of tensile force interacts with and acts against

10-Oct-23

the driving force
 One form of analysis is simplified bishops method
 We take vertical slices
 Once reinforcement is introduced we have
component of tensile force in each slices
 And we get improved FOS
 Failure surface can be deep seated or shallow
49
Lateral sliding

 Horizontal movement of fill driven by active wedge is possible

 Reinforcement force acting in the opposite direction will prevent
the wedge from moving out

10-Oct-23 50
Foundation extrusion

 Solution to this mode of failure is to reduce the settlement by

making base stiffer
 Soil thickness>embankment base width (a bearing capacity
analysis is required)
 Otherwise base foundation width extrusion occurs at toe

10-Oct-23 51
Serviceability limit states

 Both ultimate limit state (FOS and stability issue) and

serviceability (deformation) should be considered
 Settlement should be minimized (settlement criteria)
possible with stiffer geogrid

10-Oct-23 52
REFERENCES
1. Robert. M. Koerner. “Design with geosynthetics”. Pearson Education
2. Sanjay Kumar Shukla, Jian-Hua Yin (2006). “Fundamentals of
geosynthetic engineering. Taylor and Francis group
3. Ernst Wilhelm & Sohn (2011). “Recommendations for design and
analysis of earth structures using geosynthetic reinforcement”.
German geotechnical society
4. Peter L Anderson, Robert A Gladstone (2010). “Coherent Gravity:
The correct design method for steel reinforced MSE wall”. ASCE
5. Wei Wu, Hai-Sui Yu (2016). “Proceedings of China Europe
conference on geotechnical engineering”. Springer
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