UNIT- 12 PESTICIDES: RESISTANCE,

RESURGENCE AND REPLACEMENT

Structure
Introduction
Objectives
Types of Pesticides
Insecticides
Acaricides
Pesticide nomenclature
Registration of the Pesticide and the Pesticide Label
Pesticide Formulations
Pesticide Application Equipments
Merits and Demerits of Chemical Control
Pesticide Management lssues
Inherent Toxicity .
Pesticide Kesis~ancein Pcsts
Pest Resurgence and Outbreaks
Pest Replacement
Destrt~ctionof Natura! Enemies
Effect on Non-target Organi:;xr!s
Pesticide Management Strategies
Integration of Man-made and Natural pest Contiol Agents
Use of Selective and High Potency Chemicals
Management of Pesticide Resistance
Management of Resurgence
Integration of Pesticides with other Methods of Control
Summary
Terminal Questions
Answers

- -
12.1 INTRODUCTION
Chemical control includes in its purview the use of various chemicals that bring about
control of pests either by toxic properties that cause death to the pest, or by other
effects like changing the behaviour, imparting sterility or impairing development of
the insects. But in general usage the chemical control devotes killing of pests by toxic
chemicals called pesticides.
Chemical control of crop pests in India, dates back to ihe earliest historical times
when ash was used as an abrasive dust. The practice of using dried neem leaves
(Azadirachta indica) or tobaccc leaves as repellents of insects and burning of sulfur
for ki!ling insects through fumigation can also be estimated from times immemorial.
Direct poisoning of insect pests was not known until the arsenical compounds (Paris
Green) came to be applied against potato Seetle (Leptinotarsa clecemiineato) in
Europe in the middle of the 1 91hcentury and thus the protection of plants through
chemical methods s:arted.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
explain the types of pesticides,
c describe the reasons for resurgence and outbreak of pests and their management,
explain the f;ffeat of pesticides on non-target organisms,
describe different types of formulations,
discuss the use of diffeient equipments for the application of pesticides,
discuss the development of pesticide resistance in pests and its management and
highlight the management of pesticide resistance and resurgence.
 Pesticides: Resistance,
12.2 TYPES OF PESTICIDES Resurgence and Replacement

FIFRA defines pesticide as 'any substance or mixture of substances, intended for

preventing, destroying or mitigating any pest or intended for use as a plant
growth regulator, defoliant or desiccant." But ordinarily pesticide means something
that kills a pest (icide-means 'to kill').

Pesticides include all the chemicals that are given in the following tables.
(Table 12.1 and Table 12.2)

Table 12.1 Main Types of Pesticides

I Piscicide Fish

Table 12.2 Additional Pesticides and Related Chemicals

1 Pesticide chemical 1 T v ~ of
e im~act 1

You have already been acquainted with rodenticides, nematicides and miticides in
Unit 3 . In this Unit we will provide you a detailed information about insecticides and
a brief account about acaricides.

12.2.1 Insecticides
The chemicals used for the control of insects are called'as insecticides. They can be
classified into three principal classes depending upon the mode of action and their
entry into the body:
i) Stomach poisons (ii) Contact poisons and (iii) Fumigants.
i) Stomach poisons: are insecticides which are made to enter in the stomach for
eliciting toxic effects on the insects. Arsenicals are classical examples of this
group of insecticide.
ii) Contact poisons: are insecticides which cause mortality to insects when it comes
in contact with the toxicant. All the insecticides of plant origin viz. nicotine,
rotenone, pyethrum etc. are contact poisons.
Methods of Pest iii) Fumigants: are chemicals that have high vapour pressure and penetrate in the
Management4
spiracles of insects in the gaseous state. Space fumigants include methyl bromide,
ethylene dibromide, hydrogen cyanide etc. Some soil fumigants are DDVP
(Dichlorvos), lindane etc.
There is no sharp line of demarcation between the three types, for most of the -
synthetic insecticides act in more than one way and thus can not be singled out either
as a contact or a stomach poison. Nevertheless, certain insecticides are predominantly
used as stomach poisons and others as contact poisons and some only as fumigants.

The introduction of the synthetic organic compounds has made it difficult to classify
modem day insecticides in the above categories, since many of these materials may
enter the insect's body in more than one way. Thus, insecticides are commonly
referred today as INORGANIC or ORGANIC compounds. The organic compounds
will include botanicals, synthetic organic compounds and Insect Growth Regulators
(IGRs)

Classification of Common Insecticide Groups

Stomach poisons Fumigants Contact poisons

Organic Inorganic Organic Inorganic Oreanic Inorganic

Synthetic
I
Microbial ~otsnical I

Chlorinated Organophosphates Carbarnates Synthetic others Juvenile Moulting Chitin Others

Hydrocarbons Py rethroids Hormone tlormonr Synthesis
(agonists inhibitors
and antagon~sts)

In India there has been rapid progress in the use of pesticides after the Second World
War due to the expansion of intensive agriculture. In due course of time, the inorganic
compounds which had occupied an important position in the chemical control of
insects were replaced by organic synthetic compounds as their usage increased all
over the world.
A) Inorganic Chemical Compounds: With the development of the synthetic organic
Truck crops include those compounds following World War 11, the inorganic insecticides have largely been
crops that are not processed replaced by more efficient toxicants. Most of the inorganic compounds are
before selling and directly stomach poisons. Some of the chemicals which are occasionally used are as
used/gr sold fresh such as
~ e t t d ecelery
, and flowers. follows:
LEAD ARSENATE - used for foliage feeders in orchards and forests.
SODIUM FLUOSILICATE - used in baits for cockroaches, ants and grasshoppers.
CRYOLITE - used on truck crops which are generally sensitive to chemical injury.
8 ) Organic Compounds
I Natural Organic Compounds
a) Botanical Pesticides:
Botanical compounds (bio-pesticides) are the plant derivatives and have a long history
of their use in insect control. Besides being mainly used as insect toxicants, they have
had other uses in insect control e.g., eugenol and geraniol as attractants, citronella and
oil of cedar as repellents. Neem, pyrethrum, rotenqne and nicotine are the four most
important compounds used as insect toxicants.
i) NEEM Pesticides: Resistance,
Resurgence and Replacement
The principal plant source for pesticides is Neem (Azadirachta indica) All parts of the
neem tree possess insecticidal activity but seed kernel is the most active. The main
compound having pesticidal activities in neem is azadirachtin.

ii) PYRETHRUM
Pyrethrum is prepared from the ground flowers of the daisy, Chrysanthemum
cinerariaefolium ("guldawdi"), by extracting the active materials with solvents and
formulating the extracts into sprays and dusts. It acts almost entirely as a contact
poison with quick 'knock-down' effect with less persistence. It is relatively harmless to
mammals and plants.

iii) ROTENONE
Rotenone is extracted from the roots of two species of Derris grown in the Far East
and several species of Lonchocarpus grown in the Amazon Valley of South America.
Rotenone is a selective insecticide ,acting both as stomach and contact poison. It is
harmless to plants and most mammals.

iv) NICOTINE
Nicotine is extracted from the leaves of tobacco Nictotiana tobacum. It is highly toxic
to many insects, but it also has a very high mammalian toxicity. It is toxic if ingested,
absorbed through the body wall, or taken in through the tracheae. It has very low
phytotoxicity .

b) Microbial Compounds
Considerable research has been underway for the past 30 to 35 years to develop
commercially produced insecticides from the natural pathogens of insects. Such
materials have the advantage of being specific to certain insects and harmless to
mammals and the environment. Bacteria and virus are being used commercially,
Bacillus thuringiensis is the popularly used bacterium as biopesticide.

Bacillus thuringiensis: Commonly called "Bt" which is the most widely used
microbial (bacterial) agent. It is most effective against lepidopterous leaf-eating
caterpillars, but its toxicity varies tremendously with species. Among its
disadvantages, Bt has very little residual activity, and being a stomach poison, it must
be present at the time the caterpillar is actively feeding. (See Box 12.1)

Box 12.1 Bacillus thurirzgiensis (Bt)

Properties. This biological compound is a suspension of spores in an inert powder,

specific in action to lepidupterous larvae, on which it acts as a stomach poison only.
There are no phytotoxic effects, and it is innocuous to both mammals, other animals,
and insect predators and parasites. However, since it is a viable biological compound
it has to be protected from extremes of heat and light, and corrosive fumes, This
bacterium, in addition to forming resistant body produces a parasporal, which is the
insecticidal agent in any preparation of B. thuringiensis. The crystalline toxin is
insoluble in water and is thus deposited intact upon the leaf surface, and after
ingestion by the caterpillar acts as a stomach poison.
Use. This is effective only against the larvae of Lepidotera.
Caution. There appears to be no real restrictions against the use of this insecticide at
all. However, it is inconlpatible with certain insecticides which appreciably alter the
pH.
Formulations. It is formulated as a wettable powder containing 25 billion viable
spores per gram of product (2.5%), and 97.5%- of inert ingredients.
Methods of Pest Viral insecticides: Five described types of viruses, the NUCLEAR
Management-I
POLYHEDROSIS VIRUSES (NPV), the CYTOPLASMIC POLYHEDROSIS
VIRUSES, the GRANULOSIS INCLUSION VIRUSES, ENTMOPOX VIRUSES
and the NONINCLUSION VIRUSES have been tested as vi,ral insecticides. A
nuclear polyhedral virus which infests species of Heliothis was the first naturally
occurring virus to be registered as a pesticide. It has been the most extensively tested
insect pathogen.

Box 12.2 Heliothis Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus (HaNPV)

Properties. This is a commercial formulation of the naturally occurring Heliothis

Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus, produced by Sandoz Inc. in California for use against
Heliothis bollworms on cotton. Now it is being tested on other crops in various
countries. There are no toxic effects against other animals or plants, but the virus is
destroyed by high temperatures and lengthy exposure to bright sunlight.
Use. Effective against species of Heliothis only; the caterpillars die within a few days
of eating the sprayed foliage.
I~ormulations.Used as a water-based surav. a ~ ~ l i to
e dthe ulant f o l i a ~ e . 1
SAQ 1
i) Name the first chemical ever used against the pests.

ii) Fill in the blanks

a) Pyrethrum is prepared from.. ........................
b) Nicotine is extracted from.. ..........................
c) Rotenone is extracted from.. ........................

I1 Synthetic Organic Chemical Compounds

i) Chlorinated Hydrocarbons
During World War 11, DDT (Dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane) with miraculous
killing powers, was discovered which opened the door for the development of the
synthetic organic insecticide industry and the chemical control era of the 19401s,50's,
and 60's. DDT has been man's most significant insecticide discovery. The insecticidal
activities of DDT were discovered by Paul Muller. Even though it was found that
organisms in the food chain accumulate DDT and pass it on through the food chain
with increasing concentration (biomagnification), it has done more to relieve human
suffering and death than any other chemical. It led to extensive research not only on
the chemistry and biological activity of DDT, but in the development of newer
compounds which are less hazardous in their persistence. DDT has now largely been
banned or phased out by the worldwide authorities because of undesirable
characteristics, primarily its persistence in the environment and its accumulation in the
fat tissue of animals.
/

Chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides are made up of molecules composed of chlorine

(Cl), hydrogen (H), carbon (C), and occasionally oxygen ( 0 ) or sulfur (S). Many 'of
these materials, particularly the chemically related cyclodienes: ALDKIN,
DIELDRIN, CHLORDANE, HEPTACHLOR, ENDRIN, etc. have been banned or are
being phased out because of their persistence and tendency to produce
carcinogenicity (cancer causing) and possible mutagenicity (causing mutation) in
test animals.
 ii) Organophosphates Pesticides: Resistance,
Resurgence and Replacement
Organophosphorus compounds are made up of organic molecules containing
phosphorus. These are the esters or anhydrides of phosphoric acid. Organo-
phosphorus insecticides were first developed in Germany during World War 11. Since
then, intensive research has led to the discovery of thousands of chemicals with
various insecticidal properties. Some of these organopl~osphoruscompounds are
contact poisons, some are stomach poisons with limited contact activity. Others are
systemically active i.e., they are absorbed by the plant either through the foliage or
root system, making the plant sap toxic to insects, or they may be taken in by animals,
rendering the blood toxic. All the compounds of this group paralyse the neuro-
muscular system of the pests. Some of the organophosphorus compounds which have
different insecticidal properties are given below (generic names are followed by the
commercial or trade names in brackets marked by 09).

TEPP, PARATHION, MEVINPHOS (phosdrinB) - short residual activity, broad

spectrum insecticides, with very high toxicity.

DIAZINON, AZINPHOSMETHYL ( ~ u t h i o n-~prolonged

) activity, broad spectrum
insecticides.

'.MALATHION - broad spectrum insecticide with lower hazard and short residual
-2 activity. This compound is commonly used as fogging against mosquitoes.

SCHRADAN - selective action

DEMETON (systoxm),DIMETHOATE (cygonB, ~ o ~ o r ' )PHORATE

, c hi met@)-
systemic insecticides.

DIPTEREX - a stomach poison with limited contact activity.

iii) Carbarnates
Systemic pesticides are
Carbamates, structurally are esters of the unstable carbamic acid. They resemble the nonherbicidal pesticides that
organo-phosphorus insecticides, apparently owing their activity to action as are mobile within the plant or
competitive inhibitors of the cholinesterase enzymes of the neuro-muscular system. the pest. Systemic pesticides
are absorbed by the plant and
Inhibition of cholinesterase by carbarnates is reversible. Some have low toxicity translocated in the system in
while others are very toxic. They have the advantage of being rapidly detoxified and lethal dose. Some examples of
eliminated from animal tissues and are not accumulative in fats or milk. These systemic insecticides are
compounds break down rapidly and leave no harmful residues. They are unstable phorate, dimethoate,
compounds in alkaline solutions. thiometon, phosphamidon.

CARBARYL ( ~ e v i n @- )the best known of the carbamates, is particularly useful in

commercial and home gardens because of its low m'ammalian toxicity and broad
spectrum of activity. However, it has the disadvantage of being extremely toxic to
honeybees.

CARBOFURAN ( ~ u r a d a n -~is) an example of highly toxic carbamate which has

particularly effective agricultural use.

PROPOXPUR ( ~ a ~ ~ o- na @ moderately
) toxic carbamate has some agricultural use,
but has been,developed for the control of household insects.

ALDICARB ( ~ e m i k @- )is an extremely toxic carbamate which acts only systemically

as an insecticide. Aldicarb is known for its wide spectrum of effectiveness against not
only insects, but also mites and nematodes.
Methods of Pest iv) Synthetic Pyrethroids
Management-I
Synthetic pyrethroids are related to natural pyrethrins, but are synthesized from
pertoleum-based chemicals. The first potent insecticide developed is resmethrin which
has high selectivity towards insects and low mammalian toxicity. Continued efforts on
structural optimization of natural pyrethroids led to the discovery of a few more
extremely potent analogues e.g., permethrin, cypermethrin, fenvalerate and
decamethrin.

RESMETHRIN - it has greater residual activity than the pyrethrins and is more toxic
to insects and less toxidio mammals. It is commonly used against insects in
household, greenhouses and industrial buildings and in mosquito control.

PERMETHRIN - it is a broad spectrum insecticide with highest activity against

lepidopterous insects.

FENVALERATE - it also has broad spectrum activity. It is effective at very low

rates, but is also highly toxic to some insect parasites and predators.

ALLETHRIN - it has the characteristics of quick knockdown effect, high toxicity to

insects and low toxicity to warm blooded animals with unique similarity to pyrethrins.
It is commonly used by pest control operators to flush cockroaches while determining
the extent of infestation.

The actual amount of insecticide (active ingredient) generally required, per hectare of
land, is given in Table 12.3.

Table 12.3 Active ingredient of different insecticide groups

The active ingredient (often

shortened to 'ai') is the
chemical in the formulated
product that provides the
desired toxic action.

C) Insect Growth Regulator (IGRs)

Insect Growth Regulators (IGRs), also called third-generation insecticides, are
pesticides that disrupt the normal activity of the endocrine or hormone system of
insects, affecting the development, reproduction, or metamorphosis of the target
insect. They have a slower mode of action than synthetic chemical insecticides. IGRs
include juvenile hormone (JH) mimics, moulting hormone (MH), chitin synthesis
inhibitors, precocenes, etc.

Juvenile Hormones (JH) mimics (e.g. Fenoxycarb, methoprene or Altosid@,

Pyriproxyfen; hydroprene)
JH mimics are not very specific to the pest under attack, as the molecules based on the
JH system are more or less common to all insect species.

Moulting Hormone Agonists (e.g., Tebufenozide, methofenozide):

These are selective and safe insecticides acting as ecdysone agonists (mimic the action
of the natural insect moulting hormone, 20-hydroxyecdysone, which is the
physiological inducer of the moulting and metamorphosis process in insects).

Moulting Hormone Antagonists (e.g., Azadirachtin)

Azadirachtin, an extract from the neem tree (Azadirachta indica), disrupts insect
moutling by antagonizing the action of ecdysone. It is effectively used in India and
other countries.
Chitin Synthesis Inhibitors (e.g., diflubenzuron or DimilinB, hexaflumuron) Pesticides: Resistance,
Resurgence and Keplacernenl
These pesticides inhibit the production of chitin, a major component of the insect
exoskeleton. Insects treated with chitin synthesis inhibitors become uiiable to
synthesize new cuticle, and therefore unable to successfully molt into the next stage.

Precocenes
'These are substances, first discovered in plants, that damage the corpora allata, an
endocrine gland located close to the insect's brain that is responsible for the
production of juvenile hormone (JH) thus preventing JH from doing its normal
function.

SAQ 2
i) Name two chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides which are either banned or are
being phased out.
..................................................................................................
.......................................................................................
ii) Name a systemic organophosphorus compound.
..............................................................................................
iii) Name the carbamate insecticide which is used against household pests.
.............................................................................................
iv) Name two synthetic pyrethroids.
-.. '.
..............................................................................................
.
.
-
.............................................................................................
"+.

v) Fill in the blanks

a) Bt is most commonly used against.. ......................
b) NPV has been successfully used against.. ................
c) .................IGR is commonly used as chitin synthesis inhibitor
vi) Match the following Insecticides with the group they belong.

A) Lindane I) Synthetic pyrethroid

B) Malathion II) Carbamate
C) Carbofuran 111) Organophosphate
D) Allethrin IV) Organochlorine

12.2.2 Acaricides
Acaricides are the pesticides which kill mites and ticks. Mites, along with ticks,
comprise a large group pf arthropods belonging to the order acarina of the class
Arachnida. Mites are found in almost every habitat available to animal life. They are
closely related to insects and are recognized by the unsegmented body, the possession
of usually eight instead of six legs in the nymphal and adult stages.

Some of the inorganic compounds that remain in use against mites are sulfur dust
(both contact and stomach poison) and liquid-lime sulfur made by boiling mixtures of
sulfur and freshly slaked or hydrated, lime. Chemicals which are primarily used
against mites are mostly dinitro-phenols or organo-phosphates and chlorinated
sulphonyl compounds. Some acaricides have ovicidal (egg-killing) properties and are
useful to control mites in the egg stage. The largest application of acaricides is in
plantation, jute, sugarcane and vegetable crops in India. Some of the acaricides,
comnlonly used are:
i) ARAMITE - It is effective against nymphs and adults of red spider mites and is
used for its control on cucurbits, conon, okra, bean and jute crops.
,Methods of Pest
Management-I
ii) CHL.ORBENZILATE - It is effective against almost a11 stages of red spider mite
infestirlg vegetable crops and tea.
iii) OVOTRAN - It is highly persistent ncaricide which, beside killing nymphs and
adults, acts as an ovicide.
iv) TEDION - It is an organic acaricide which gives excellent control of Tetranychid
mites on tea, apple, pear, beans, tomatoes, cucumbers, okra, cotton, jute, etc. due
to its effectiveness against eggs and nymphs and its ability to diffuse through
leaves and long persistence of residues.
v) KELTHANE - It has some chemical resemblance to DDT but differs in biological
properties. This compound is used against red spider mite on tea.
Besides Kelthane as an excellent ovicidal miticide; Rogor, Parathion, Phorate,
Thiorneton, Diazinon, Phosdrin insecticides have also proved miticidal against the
adult pests.

The nomenclature associated with each pesticide provides information about the
chemical. Each chemical has a chemical name, which spells out the full nomenclature
of the pesticide. Only chemists and research community use this name. Chemical
structure denotes the structure of the molecule. A Common name is assigned to the
chemical which may be related to the formed chemical name. The trade name is the
registered brand name and is the property of a particular commercial entity (usually a
chemical company). An example is given below:

Common name: Aldicarb

Trade name :~ e m i k @
Chemical name: 2-methyl-2 (methylthio) propionaldehyde 0-(methyl carbano) oxime
Type of pesticide: carbamate, insecticide and nematicide

The pesticides that are commercially being used against pests are regulated. by laws.
You will study about legal aspects of pesticide use in Unit 16 of this course.

12.4 REGISTRATION OF THE PESTICIDE AND

THE PESTICIDE LABEL

The pesticide label is a To get a product registered, the analytical procedures to extract the pesticide, hazards
legal document. caused by pesticide, effect of pesticides on environment and toxicological studies
Application of a must be conducted.
pesticide in a manner
inconsistent with the
label is a crime. The registrant writes the label and submits it for approval at the time of requesting
registration by the federal agency responsible for regulating pesticides. Once
approved, the label can only be altered with the further approval of the agency. A
label requires that certain information be provided.

i) Brand or registered trade nameltrademark (varies by language and country)

ii) Type of pesticide (e.g., insecticide, miticide, herbicide)
iii) Chemical name of active ingredient(s); referred to as the active ingredient
iv) Common chemical name
v) Type of formulation (e.g., wettable powder, emulsifiable concentrate)
vi) List of active ~ngredients
vii) Total contents in the container (e.g., 5 gallons, 5 lb)
viii) Name and address of the manufacturer
ix) Registration number issued by the agency at the time of label approval
x) Establishment number (indicates the factory where the pesticide was
manufactured)
xi) Use classification (general or restricted)
xii) Signal word (based on the hazards) Pesticides: Resistance,
Danger Resurgence and Replacement
Warning
Caution
xiii) Precautionary statements (provide information on how to use the pesticide
safely; Itemize how to reduce hazard to eyes, skin, etc.)

List of pesticides registered on regular basis, under review, banned, for restricted use
and provisionally registered are given.as Ann~xureI to VI and list of indigenously
manufactured pesticides is given as Annexure VII at the end of this Unit.

12.5 PESTICIDE FORMULATIONS

Most pesticides cannot
The successful use of pesticides to control pests, plant diseases, and weeds depends be used in IPM system
not only on their toxicity with respect to the harmful organisms, but also to a in their native chemical
considerable extent on the form of the pesticides. All pesticides must be formulated to state.
produce a commercial product that is suitable for practical use. The following
formulations are manufactured for the protection of plants:
The term 'formulation'
Pesticides are generally presented in two basic formulations, either dry or liquid strictly denotes the art of
Some of the liquid pesticides are so volatile that they actually function as a gas. expressing a formula in a
precise form.
Liquids
I) Solution (S or SC). In this formulation, the parent chemical will dissolve in water
for application.
ii) Emulsifiable concentrate (EC). The native compound is dissolved in suitable
organic solvent because it is not soluble in water.
iii) Flowable (FL). The parent compound is not soluble in water, but can be
suspended in water as a finely divided powder.
iv) Aerosols. The pesticide is formulated so that it is dispensed as a fog of ultra- fine
droplets.

Dusts. The parent compound is mixed into an appropriate finely ground carrier.
Granules (G). The native pesticide chemical is either coated into, or mixed
into, an inert carrier such as refined clay that can be formed into granules.
Granular formulations are usually referred to in relation to the percentage of
concentration of the native chemical. A 10'3 formulation, for example, contains
10% active ingredient.
iii) Wettable powder (WP). The parent compound is finely ground and mixed with
inert dry materials.
i v) Soluble powder. The parent compound is soluble in water and can be dissolved
directly in spray solution for application.
V) Baits. The native pesticide is applied to or mixed into an attractive food bait.
The pest eats that bait and so ingests the pesticide. Used widely in vertebrate,
mollusc, certain ants, and fruit fly pest control, and to a lesser extent for some
soil-dwelling insects.
vl) Slow release (encapsulated). The native compound is physically encased or
entrapped in an inert medium from which it escapes slowly.
vii) Impregnates. Similar to granules, as pesticide is impregnated into a solid
medium from which it escapes slowly. A good example is impregnation of
pesticides on to fertilizers.

Fumigants: The native compound is active in the gaseous form. Application can be
in the form of a gas from a pressurized cylinder, a liquid that volatilizes or a solid that
releases the gas when it comes in contact with water. Adjuvants are chemicals added
to pesticide formulation or to the spray solution to enhance performance.
Methods of Pest
The factors to be considered in insecticide formulations are:
Management-I
It must be bio-available (formulated to get to the insect),
Persistence of compound in different formulationg,
Hazard of compound in different formulations,
Compatibility.
Increasing coverage,
lncreasing penetration,
Reducing hazard and
Cost

In case of insecticides, it is safer to employ systemic substances, especially in the

treatment of seeds, or incorporation of granulated f~rmulationsinto the soil at or after
planting. An important advantage of using systemic pesticides when planting, is the
prolonged protection of the plants in the most vulnerable stage of their development
when the seeds and the seedlings may be destroyed very easily or greatly damaged by
pests.

SAQ 3
Fill in the blanks
i) The pesticides formulations are.. ..............., ..............and.. ............
ii) ............. ..chemicals are added to pesticide formulation to enhance their
performance.
iii) ........................ ........pesticide is formulated so that it is dispersed as fog.
iv) The dry formulation used for vertebrates, molluscs in such a form that it can be
ingested by them is called as.. ..............

12.6 PESTICIDE APPLICATION EQUIPNIPENTS

Most pesticides are not applied in their concentrated form, but are rather diluted in a
carrier. There are many kinds of pesticide application equipments, which have been
developed and adapted for different types of pest control problems. The information
will be confined to equipments used by agronomic and horticulture crop growers.

(i) Sprayers
Spraying is widely used way of applying pesticides in the form of solutions,
emulsions, or suspensions to a surface being treated. Special equipment -- sprayer
(hand- operated, tractor-driven, and also aerial) is used for spraying. Spraying is a
universal method of applying pesticides. Its advantages over other methods are:
a) Easy adaptability for various cropping systems,
b) Simple operation,
c) Easy calibration,.
d) Very low consumption of active ingredient per unit area,
e) Good coverage of the surfaces being treated,
f) Low investment cost.

The disadvantages of low-pressure boom sprayer include:

a) Inability to adequately penetrate and cover dense foliage because of its low
capacity (pressure and gallonage),
b) The tendency of certain materials to settle out and clog the sprayer - Some tractor
mounted sprayers do not provide for continuous agitation, without which,
suspension of wettable powders not only clog nozzles and lines, but the
application rate varies so that either too much or too little is applied with
unfavourable results. However if mechanical agitators, instead of hydraulic
agitators, are used the problem is solved.
High pressure-High volume Sprayers are used for pest control on fruit, shade and Pesticides: Resistance,
orwmental trees. They are operated with dilute sprays and changeable pressures (@ Resurgence and Replacen~ellt
8-85 gallonslminute at maximum pressure of 400-1000 psi) and are often called as
"hydraulic sprayer".

Advantages Psi is the measure of

pressure (pounds per
a) High pressure sprayers, have enough pressure to drive spray through heavy brush, square inch).
thick cow hair or to the tops of tall shade trees, -
b) They are strongly built, long labting and dependable,
c) Their mechanical agitators are standard and keep wettable powders well-mixed in
D r ~ f is
t the unintended ol'r
the tank, target movement of a
d) Drift, with high pressure sprayer, is of short duration and does not carry a long pesticide during or
way. following its application.

Disadvantages
a) It is hard to calibrate,
b) Excessive pesticide is to be used for full run-off (wetting),
c) Water requirement is high,
d) The heavy weight of the High-pressure sprayer causes soil compactation,
e) It is expensive to operate because of high fuel cost and more labours are required
for filling the tank and spraying.

There are other categories of spraying equipments like, Air-blast sprayers,

Concentrate sprayers, etc., which are used occasionally as per the requirements of pest
control program on different trees and the area of treatment.
Illustrations of some different kinds of sprayers are given in Fig. 12.1.
Methods of Pest
Management-I

Fig 12.1: Sprayers a) Hand compression b) Foot compression c) Compressed air sprayer d)
Low pressure sprayer r) Modified Oxford Precision Sprayer with boom f) Air blast
sprayer used for treating trees in orchards.
(ii) Llusters Pesticides: Resistance,
Kesurgence and Keplacement
Application of dust formulations. to the surface of plants or insects is done with the
aid of special apparatus called austers.

Advantages
a) It is simple and inexpensive way of pesticide application,
b) Light weight of dusters allows for great speed and mobility particularly in wet
fields,
c) Low power requirement,
d) L,ow phytotoxicity,
e) Good coverage or distributibn

Disadvantages
Dusters are being rarely used, except for truck crops, because of the followi~lg
reasons:
a) 1)usts are Connulated at low concentration (196, 5 % , etc.),
b) Dusts are expensive to use (need large quantities of carrier which also must be
packaged and stored).
c) Serious drift problems occur,
d) Opesiltor hazard,
el Many joba can not be accomplished with duster alone and need sprayer also,
f j Dust materials weather poorly.

(iii) Grar~ularApplicators
Spreaders are agents added to
Granular equipment is designed to apply coarse, dry particles that are uniform in size a to
t o soil, water, and in some cases foliage. Spreaders may work in several different enhance its abiliti to imcrease
ways including air blast (mist blowers), whirling discs (seeders, fertilizer spreaders), area of targel covered.
iuultiple gravity feed outlets (lawn spreaders, grain drills), soil injectors (furrow
treatments) and ram-air (agricultural aircraft).

Advantages
a) Cost of equipment is relatively low,
h) Power requirement is low,
c) Labour saving operations, can be combined in some cases,
d) Mixing is eliminated.
e) Problems of drift are minimized,
t Granules are less hazardous to the applicator.

Disadvantages
a) Granules will not adherc to most plants, so they have limited use,
b) Graraules are formulated in greater bulk, requiring more storage space and higher
transportation cost,
G) It is necessary to calibrate for each fornlulation used,
d) Poor lateral distribution is obtained, especially on slopes.

12.7 MERITS AND DEMERITS OF CHEMICAL

CONTROL
Advantages of Pesticides
Pest~cidesprovide rapid action against the target pest,
0 When used appropriately, provide a predictable level of control,
IJse of pesticides may require less knowledge of pest biology and agro ecosystem
and
Methods of Pest
Management-I
Pesticides provide control.of some pests where no other effective tactics are
available. ,

Disadvantages of pesticides
Effect on non target organisms,
Residual effect,
Toxicity,
Health hazard to workers and
Create pest problems viz. pesticide resistance, pest resurgence, secondary pest
outbreaks. You will study about these pest problems and their management in the
following sections.

12.8 PESTICIDE MANAGEMENT ISSUES

The chemical protection of plants is based on the use of various organic and inorganic
compounds, toxic to harmful organisms. The chemical means of plant protection
(pesticides) are distinguished by their high universality. These can be used to contro!
most pests, diseases and weeds on all agricultural crops and various lands, and also to
treat granaries, storage bins, green-houses, grain elevators and other structures. The
importance of fumigants for disinfesting various materials, food products, and fodder
is exceedingly great.

12.8.1 Inherent Toxicity

All pesticides are toxic Toxicity is the property of a pesticide which. when used in small amounts, upsets
(otherwise they would 1101
(disturbs) the normal vital activity of an organism and causes it to be poisoned, to
be used).
perish. The toxicity may cause acute or chronic poisoning. Acute poisoning of an
organism, by a pesticide, occurs when it acts at once, while chronic poisoning of an
Acute toxicity is the organism is the result of repeated action of relatively small amount of pesticide or its
response of an organism to persistence. The persistence is characterized by the property of pesticides to
a slngle exposure to a given
concentration of a toxicant .
withstand the decomposing action of physical, chemical and biological (biochemical
Chronic toxicity describes and micro-biological) processes. It manifests itself in slowly developing
the long term effects or1 an malfunctioning of normal vital activity of the pest. The toxicity of pesticides varies
organism of repeated and depends on several factors such as their amount, the ways of entrance, the
exposure to non lethal
duration of action, the state of the organism, the environment, etc. (Table 12.4)
toxicant doses.

LD50: The lethal dose 50% is the single-exposure dose that kills 50% of the
organisms when the toxic substance is ingested.

Residue: A residue is the portion of an applied chemical that remains on or in the

crop or the soil.

Table 12.4 Toxicity Values for Hun~ans

Toxicity Signal Acute dermal Acute oral *Probable lethal dose of

Chronic toxicity class word (pertaining to (if ingested) technical material for a
describes the long term
effects on an organism
skin)LD,, ( LDso 88kg human (oral)
of repeated exposure to - (Wk)
non lethal toxicant
I 0-50 A few drops- High
doses. 1teaspoonful
I1 5 1-500 1 teaspoonful - <30 rnl Moderate
111 Caution 2000-20,000 501-5,000 30 rnl - <0.5 litre Low
IV Caution >20,000 , >5,000 0.5 litre - llitre Very low 1
12.8.2 Pesticide Resistance in Pests Pesticides: Resistance,
Resurgence and Replacement
The resistance of an organism to a pesticide is a biological property of the
organism to withstand the poisoning action of the pesticide. A resistant organism
functions, develops, and reproduces norinally in a medium containing a poison. The
phenomenon of resistance and the reverse phenomenon of sensitivity are closely
related to the toxicity of the relevant poison, especially to its selective toxicity because
all the factors causing toxicity also act on the resistance or sensitivity of an organism.
The selective toxicity (selectivity) is defined as the ability. of a substance to
eradicate one species of living organisms without harming another one, even if
the two species are in close contact with each other. There are distinguished
natural resistance based on the biological and biochemical features of an organism,
and acquired, or specific resistance appearing only because of interaction with the
poison.

Pesticide Resistance: Resistance to pesticides signifies the ability of a harmful

organism to survive and reproduce in the presence of chemical substance that
previously suppressed its development. The first report on the appearance of races of
pests that resist the action of chemical formulations relate to 1915-1916, when a race
of red wild orange scale, resisting hydrocyanic acid, was discovered in Californ~a
(USA). Later, the appearance in other insects of a specific resistance to inorganic
co~npounds- Lead arsenate and Sulfur, and the pesticides of a vegetative origin -
Pyrethrum was noted. It has been established at present that the phenomenon of
specific resistance is based on the selection from genetically heterogenous populations
of specimens having an increased resistance. The selecting factor is the pesticide.

When resistance to a pesticide has been recognized, a new pesticide is applied and
then used until it, too, does not work. This scenario is referred to as the pesticide
treadmill (Fig. 12.2).

Apply new product

Pest no longer
controlled A
A

~ p p more
~ y 1
and at greater A
frequency A

Fig. 12.2 Graphic representation of the pesticide treadmill

The effectiveness of this selection depends on the initial material (insects, mites, etc.),
the number of treatments, the pesticide dose, and the genetic heterogeneity. Specific
resistance appears more rapidly when a harmful organism produces more generations
during a season, its heterogeneity is higher, and the dose of the pesticide is smaller.
Specific resistance may bC individual, group, and cross.
Methods of pest,
Management-I A
a) Individual Resistance (only to one pesticide) is encountered quite rarely and is
due to the activity of narrowly specialized enzymes causing decomposition to the
non toxic substance.
b) Group Resistance is to two or more pesticides that are related in their structure
and mechanism of action and that belong to one.group, appearing after the use of
a substance of this group.
c) Cross Resistance is resistance to two or more pesticides of different groups as
regards to both chemical structure and the mechanism of action that appears after
the use of one pesticide. This phenomenon is apparently explained by the fact
that a previously used insecticide increases the activity of the non-specific
e m y n e s of the endoplasmic reticulum of the fat body. Consequently, the new
insecticide is rapidly decomposed to non-toxic products. To manage resistant
races of harmful organisms and prevent the appearance of specific resistance to
pesticides, it is essential to strictly observe the rates of the use of formulations and
the periods of their application.

The pesticide resistance in different pests is depicted in Table 12.5.

Table 12.5 Insecticide resistance in pests in India

Crop Pests Insecticide

1. Singhara beetle, Galeruecella HCH, DDT, Chlordane, Aldrin,
birmanica ( Dieldrin, Isodrin, Toxaphene
2. Tobacco caterpillar, Spodoptera ( HCH, DDT, Endosulfan,
1 litura 1 Carbaryl, Malathion, Pyrethrum, I
Lind ane
3. Diamond back moth, Plutella DDT, Endrin, HCH, parathion,
xylostella Fenitrothion, Malathion,
Cypermethrin, Fenvalerate,

4. Gram caterpillar, Helicoverpa Cypermethrin, & other synthetic

5. Mustard aphid, Lipaphis erysimi Malathion, Dimethoate,

1 Oxydemeton methyl
i
I Storage Pests
I
1. Flour beetle, Tribolium Malathion, DDT, Lindane, HCH,
castaneum DDVP
2. Rice weevil, Sitophilus oryzae Malathion, Lindane, Phosphine
3. Lesser grain borer, Malathion, Lindane, Phosphine
Rhizopertha dominica
4. Saw-toothed grain
- beetle, Malathion, Lindane
Oryzaephilus surinamensis
5 , Khapra beetle, I Phosphine
Trogoderma, granarium
6. Dermestes maculatus Lindane

12.8.3 Pest Resurgence and Outbreaks

Pest resurgence is a situation in which a population, after having been
suppressed, rebounds to attain a higher population density than was before
suppression occurred.
 Pesticides: Resistance,
Resurgence and Replacement

I
Time
r
Fig.12.3: Theoretical pest population recovery, called resurgence, following a pesticide application,
that kills the beneficial that were previously keeping the pest population under partial
control.

lndlscriminate use of pesticides reduces the species diversity. The application of

insecticide not only reduces the population of the pest, but also its competitors. If an
insect acquires resistance to an insecticide through genetic selection, the lack of
competition from other feeders for the food resource can lead to serious out-breaks of
the insecticide resistant pest (Fig. 12.3). Pest upsurges i.e., outbreaks, occur
occasionally. The unusual behaviour is in response to some disturbances in the general
1
physical environment complex. A careful analysis of the operating physical factors
, and their comparison with the physical factors operating in the normal years can help
in the isolation of the key factor. For example in Fiji, the outbreak of Brown plant
hopper, Nilapervata lugens and the White-back plant hopper, Sogatella furcifera was
found to be related to early outbreak of rainfall. The summer upsurge of corn leaf
aphid, Rhopalosiphum abietinurn is governed by the mildness of the winter. Insect
species is capable of survival within certain environmental limits, and when possible,
individuals. Within this "favourable" range, these environmental factors usually
influence rate responses of activities viz., feeding, dispersal, egg laying and
development. Of these environmental factors, temperature has the greatest effect on
insect developmeiltal rates. Migration is yet another important adaptive characteristic
of insects, which can strongly influence their population dynamics. Some insect pests
whose migration patterns are well known are the potato leaf hopper, black cutworm
(Anticarsia yemmatalis), fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) and spruce
I budworm. It is particularly important that we recognize this potential when predicting
, pest outbreaks, because rapid population increase may well be caused by migration
alone.
t
12.8.4 Pest Replacement
Pest replacement occurs when pesticide treatment kills the target pest, but the target is
replaced by a different species that was formerly a minor pest. This is also called as
upsurge. As shown in Fig. 12.4 the population of a target pest ( A )is reduced but a
minor pest (B) increases to utilize,the resource no longer being used by pest A. This
results in pest to becoming major pest.

Replacement is a potentially serious problem, because the released minor species may
cause more crop loss than the original target species.
 $ I ~ontm ~
actions vs. pest A
Pest A

aJ
.-N EIL
w
5
.-
u
-
m

Z ET
?3
Pest B

Fig. 12.4: Theoretical poplation numbers of two pest species as they might respond during pest
replacement. Original pest A was controlled by management tactics that do not control pest 8,
which is then able to increasr to a damaging level, replacing pest A as the problem

12.8.5 Destruction of Natural Enemies

The inltial groups in every ecosysteln are plant-killing (phytophags). Their number is
controlled by entomophags (insect-eaters) i.e. their predators and parasite\. The
perishing of beneficial insects IS the most noticeable when insecticides are used in
foresls arid orchards becduse here these Insects are represented by a lar gr number of
species and play an important role in controllirig the size of the pest populations. For
example, as a result of uverali aerial treatments of large areas of a forest with organo-
chlorine insecticides ro exterminate gypsy moths or pine loopers, the almost complete
killing ofthe entornopha~swas observed. 'File mass exterrninaljori of burrylng beetles,
European ground beetles, ~chn&lmrsnflies. carabids, wasp-flies, and other beneficial
species was observed. Thc nnfluence of pest~cideson entomophags in orchards is
especialty noticeable. 7'he extermination of' thesc insects upon the perennlal use of
organcchlorinzs and organophosphorus insecticides may lead to the mass reproduction
of harmful arthropods (insects and mites).

i2.8.6 Effect on Nowtarget Organism;

Persisteni (stable) pesticides, being biologic~llyactive substance, may negatively
affect not only invertebrates (e.g., honevbees, silkworm, ants, soil arid water micro-
flora aiid fauna, etc.) but alsc warm b ~ m d d
animals (including birds). Birds may
perish when tbey peck disinfected seed5 as a result of the careless handling of
disinfected grain. insectivorous birds may perish by feeding on poisoned insects.
Wflieu the environment is contarn~natedwith pesticide residues, fish eating and
carnivorous birds at the end of the toed chains may perish first of all. Persistent
orgno-chlorine toxicmts are the most dangerous to birds.

SAQ 4
ii Write one differencz between acute and chronic toxicity.
 ................................................................................................... Pesticides: Resistance,
Resurgence and Replacement
iii) What is the difference between pest resurgence and pest replacement.

12.9 PESTICIDE MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES

An important role in eliminating the harmful action of chemical means of plant
protection on the environment is assigned to the rational application of pesticides in
integrated plant protection systems. The latter are based on the greatest possible
utilization of environmental factors causing harmful organisms to perish or limiting
their vital activity. The main task of such systems is keeping the number of harmful
i ~ s e c t sat a level when they do not cause perceptible harm by using a collection of
measures instead of a single one (e.g. insecticides). There are four main ways of
improving the safety of the chemical method of protecting plants.
a) Improving the assortment of pesticides with the aim of diminishing their toxicity
to human and beneficial organisms, lowering their persistence and increasing
their selectivity.
b) Using optimal ways of pesticide application such as pre-planting treatment of
seeds, band and strip treatments, and the use of granulakd formulations.
c) Optimizing the use of pesticides with a view to the economical suitability and
necessity of employing pesticides for suppressing populations (considering the
economical threshold of harm for each species of pest in a zonal aspect).
d) The strictest regulation of the use of pesticide in agriculture and other branches on
the basis of comprehensive study of their sanity and hygienic characteristics and
the conditions for ensuring safety while working with them.

At present, compounds that are highly toxic and persistent in nature are being replaced
with ones having a lower toxicity and persistence.

12.9.1 Integration of Man-made and Natural Pest Control Agents

An important role in eliminating the harmful action of chemical means of plant
protection on environment, is the rational application of pesticides in integrated plant
protecting systems. This is based on the maximum possible utilization of
environmental factors causing harmful organisms to perish or limiting their vital
activity. The main task of such systems, is keeping the number of harmful insects at a
level when they do not cause perceptible harm by using collective measures instead of
?
a single one.
a) The fundamental principle of rational chemical control consists in taking complete
b.
account of the ecological situation on agricultural lands, having exact knowledge
of the criteria of the strength of harmful species and also the number of beneficial
organisms suppressing the development of the pests.
b) To preserve beneficial insects, highly selective pesticides must be used for
chemical treatment that are poisonous only to definite targets and are not a hazard
to the natural enemies of the pests.
c) When using insecticides, it is safest to employ systemic substances particularly as
seed treatment or as soil application at the time of planting.
d) aancorporation of pesticides with fertilizer into the soil at the time of planting, not

I only comb'ines the two operations, but also facilitates the protection of useful
organisms and increase in crop yield.
e) Low volume and ultra low volume spraying are most productive and make it
possible to complete treatments in very short time before the pests manage to
cause significant harm.
Methods of Pest
Management-I r) In a number of parameters, evenirlg and especially night spraying is very
promising as nights are usually windless, which noticeably diminishes the danger
of drift and improves the setti~lgand uniform covering of the plants with the
pesticide. At nights some pests are more active (cutworms, mosquitoes, etc.)
which ensures greater contact with the pesticides.
g) The majority of entornophags, especially predators are most resistant to the action
of insecticides in their inactive phase of development (eggs, pupae). In this
colinection, the most acceptable time is early spring and autumn for pest
eradicating treatments.
h) Selective use of pesticides at the beginning of a growth, in a number of pests in
isolated locations, is one of the most important methods of efficient use of
insecticides.
i) Boundary treatments of fields are rational with respect to pests that migrate in the
spring, froni the sites they wintered, to crops. This facilitates the saving of
pesticides and labour, and the beneficial insects (at the middle of the filed) are
preserved.
j) It is most promising to control insects and mites,'that have developed resistance to
certain pesticides by altering pesticides from different classes with a different
mechanism of action.
(k) Persistent substances must be used in the conditions of multiple crop rotation,
where rotation of the crop is attended by alteration of various pesticides, thus
preventing their accumulation in the soil. During a single season, it is good
practice to use different insecticides, even if they are sirnilar in their spectrum of
action, so that they will be able to decon~poseas much as possible during the
vegetative season.
(1) The en~ploymentof toxicant rothtion with the observation of two or three year
intervals between repetitions of the same pesticides or the alternation with the
different ones during one season is an essential condition for the organization of
the chemical protection of plants in perennial plantings and also the specialized
farms with a high degree of rotation of the same crop.

12.9.2 Use of Selective and High Potency Chemicals

The selective toxiciry (selectivityj is defined the ability of a substance to eradicate
one specits of living organisms without harming another one, even if the two
species are in close contact with each other. Since. the early 1960's, much activity
has been focused on the search for safer and more effective insecticides. With the
increasing use of more persistent pesticides, the problem of residues on crops and
co~nmoditiesis becoming.mnol-eacute, specially on crops like vegetables and fruits
which are consumed mostly as such. The goal has been to further discover and
develop compouilds that are trulyselective i.e., to find a means of effectively curing
an insect problem without exposing to applicators to hazards or causing undue harm to
nun-target organisms in the environment. The search for new insecticidal compounds
has caused investigators to indulge deeply into insect physiology for innovative ways
to upset normal life processes. Most conventional insecticides affect the insect
nervous systen~which functions similarly to our own and that of other animals. This
characteristic gives these cheniicals broad powers to poison and. consequently,
presents important safely risks.

To obtain selectivity, disruption of processes that are unique to Insecta (or at least to
thc AI-thropuda)seem to offer the greatest potential. PresentIy, the unique life
processes receiving tht: rnrlst attention invdve growth and development as well-as
behaveour. These chemicals pnrer~iiallyprovide new means of reducing an insect
population. The mode of action of some of these chemicals is to cause pre-mature
death from abrlormal molting or rnetamorphosjs. Yet, others may be used to repel
insecis from a source or attract them for our advantage. Because, these chemicals
operate on systems that are different from those of warm-blooded animals, they are
belie.v.ed safe to use in most situations.
 12.10 MANAGEMENT OF PESTICIDE RESISTANCE Pesticides: ~esistance,
Resurgence and Keplacenlent

Resistance of pests to pesticides may occur after exposure of several generations to an

itisecticide, applied at a given rate that renders the insecticide ineffective in
subsequent applications at that dose. It is the ability of certain individuals to tolerate
or avoid factors that would prove lethal or reproductively degrading to the majority of
individuals in a normal population. The most basic management routine is use of
combined tactics to achieve suppression. Multiple tactics place diverse pressures on
the pest population, making it more difficult for the species to overconle the effects of
any one tactic. Further, if resistance is developed to one tactic in the integrated .
scheme (viz., insecticide resistance), its effects will be reduced because of other tactics
will still contribute to suppression. Most practical approach to slowing resistance,
particularly with insecticides, is to modify use patterns known as "chemical strategier
of 1 esistance management", and can be summarized as follows:
a) Use low dosages,
b) Use less frequent applications,
c) Use chemicals of short environmental persistence,
d) Avoid slow - release formulations,
e) Make local, rather than area-wide, applications,
Leave some generations or population segments untreated,
g) IJtilize higher econonlic thresholds for insecticides application leading to less
fiecluent application of pesticides.

12.11 MANAGEMENT OF RESURGENCE

The basic principle in dealing with resurgence is to integrate various pest management
tactics to reduce the insecticide applications. The required applications can be
lnodified in a way so as to avoid hol-moligosis (i.e.,reproductive stimulation by sub-
lethal doses of pesticides) and destruction of natural enemies after insecticide
treatments is the other way of resurgence management. The following practices may
be adopted for avoiding the pest resurgences.
a) Avoid Horrnoligosis: Eliminate or rninirnize application of sub-lethal doses of
pesticides particularly in those areas where this problem has occurred or is
expected. For reduction of application of sub-lethal doses, apply insecticide on
target and avoid drift and also follow rules of good pesticide practices including
proper chemical and formulation selection.
b) Avoid ~VuturulEnemy Destruction: Reduction in destruction of natural enemies is
mostly based on pesticide selectivity which ranges between insects and warm-
blooded animals or between species of arthropods. Use of selective chemicals that
affects the pest population hormoligosis more than the natural enemies is termed
r as Plzysiologicul selectivity. Another way is to use otherwise non-selective
chemicals in a selective manner and is termed as Ecological selecti~lity.The
$ ecological selectivity approaches include:
i) Monitoring pest population and follow recommended economic threshold,
ii) Treat with the lowest pesticide rates possible,
iii) Avoid treating broad areas,
iv) Adopt timely treatments to avoid natural enemy destruction, and
V) USCthc most-selcctivc insecticide formulations or change to another
insecticide formulation.
C) I~locitlutiveRelease cfNut~iralEnemies: .This approach is being used to prevent
pest upsets and to repopulate the area with inoculative releases of natural enemies
after insecticide application. When insecticide residues have declined and pest
populations are recovering, releases of insectry-reared natural enemies are made,
which affect natural control once more.
I
Methods of Pest
Management-I 12.12 INTEGRATION OF PESTICIDES WITH OTHER
METHODS OF CONTROL
Control of pests by the use of pesticides has been widely recognized and used because
the results are quicker and usually certain at a reasonably low cost. However, the use
of pesticides, specially the highly poisonous and persistent ones, is associated with
dangers to human and animal health.and is likely to create problems like the residues
on crops and crop produce, poisoning of soil and pollution of waters and the
development of resistant races of pests.

Since we have started using highly dangerous and persistent pesticides, it is just the
right time to emphasize the need for following the cultural and natural methods of
control also rather than to use only pesticides. Pesticide should be used only to
supplement the cultural and natural control measures. For this, the biology and
ecology of pests, diseases and weeds in relation to crops, cultural practices and
climatic conditions and the biology and ecology of natural enemies in relation to the
host and their inter-relationships should be studied. The pesticides, specially the more
dangerous and persistent ones, should be used judiciously and only as complimentary
to the cultural, natural and other methods of control, instead of as substitutes. There is
an urgent need for developing a regular reporting, forecasting and warning service for
at least some important insect pests and diseases.

12.13 SUMMARY
Chemical control occupies the key position in pest control programmes as it is
traditional method of controlling pests, though in IPM judicious and minimum use
of chemical control is stressed upon.
Depending on the mode of entry and action of insecticides, insecticides can be
classified as stomach poisons, fumigants and contact poisons. These may be
inorganic or organic compounds.
Most of the inorganic compounds are stomach poisons. Organic compounds can
be classified as botanicals, synthetic or biorational compounds. (IGR)
Neem, Pyrethrum, rotenone, and nicotine are compounds of plant origin.
Chlorinated compounds, organophosphous compounds, carbonates, synthetic
pyrethroids are synthetic organic compounds Microbial agents i.e. bacteria, virus
are used as biopesticides. Bt arid NPV formulations are being used commercially.
IGRs are third generation insecticides that disrupt the normal activity of endocrine
system of insects. lGRs comprise JH mimics, moulting hormone, chitin synthesis
inhibitors.
Pesticides are registered by Federal Agency responsible for regulating pesticides.
The registrant writes the label and submits it for approval at the time of requesting
registration.
The pesticides are formulated as dry, liquid or gas.
Pesticides can be applied by dusters, sprayers or granular applicators.
Though pesticides provide a rapid action against target pests but they have
residual effects and cause effects on non target organisms.
Pesticide resistance, pest resurgence and secondary pest outbreaks are the major
problems created by prolo,~geduse of pesticides.
Integration of man-made and natural pest control agents IS the need of the hour.
Resurgence of pests can be managed by inocutative release of natural enemies and
avoiding natural enemy destruction.
 Pesticides: Resistance,
12.14 TERMINAL QUESTIONS Resurgence and Replacement

1. What is the difference between activity of moulting hormone agonist and

moulting hormone antagonist?
..............................................................................................

.................................................................................................
2. Write short note on acaricides.
.................................................................................................

3. What information should be provided on a pesticide label?

...................................................................................................
4. Why sprayer is considered better than duster? . -
...................................................................................................

5. How pesticide resistance and pesticide resurgence are caused?

...................................................................................................

..................................................................................................
6. Why use of chemical control is being minimized in integrated pest management?
...................................................................................................
I Methods of Pest
Management-I 12.15 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions
1. i) Paris Green
i i ) a) Chrysanllzenzum ctneral-iacfolium
h) Ilerris
c ) Nicotiunn tobncum

2. i) DDT, Aldrin
ii) Denleton
iii) Propoxm
i v ) Permethrin. decamethrin
C ) a) L,epidopterm larvae
b) Heliorhis
c) Diflubenzuron
v 1 1 (B) (1111, (C) (111, (Dl (1)

3. i) Liquid, dry and gas

ii) Adjuvants
iij) Aerosol
iv) bait

4. i) Acute toxicity is the response of an organism to a single exposure to a given

concentration of a toxicant. Chronic toxicity describes the long term effect on
an organism of repeated exposure to non lethal toxicant doses.
ii) Lethal dose of an insecticide to kill 50% of the organism is called LDSO.
iii) Pest resurgertce is a situation in \vhich a population, after having bcen
suppresoed reboul~dsto attain a higher population density than was before
scppr-essionoccurrrd. /Pest replacement occurs when pesticide treatment kills
that target pest, but the target ir replaced by different species that was
formerly a minor pest.

Terminal Questions
1. Refer Sec. 12.2.1

3. Refer Sec. 12.4

4. Refer Sec. 12.6
5. Refer Sec. 12.8.2 and 12.8.3
 ANNEXURE-I

LIST 01' PESTICIDES REGISTEKED ON REGULAR BASIS UNDER SECTION

9(3) OF THE INSECTICIDES ACT, 1968

Aluminium Phosphide*" Dichloro Diphenyl

Trichloroethane { DDT)**
Aniloplios Dichloropropene
- - and

1 !1 I Atrazine 1 I
1 55 1
Dichloropropane mixture (DD
Mixture)
Dichlorvos (DDVP) * 1
1'2 1 Aureofunyin -
56 Diclofop-methyl
Azddirachtin (neern proGts) 57 Dicofol
1 14
1 15 (
thmriizgiensis (B .t.)
Barium Carbonate
58
59
Dieldrin**
--
Difenoconit~ole 1
1 17 - Benonlyl*
Benthiocarb (Thiobencarb)
--- 60
61
Diflubenzuron
--

Dimethoate
18 Bitertanol 62 ~inocap
19
- I Brornadiolone* 1 63 / Dithianon .
1
Butachlor / 64 Diuron*
1 65 Dodine 1
- -

Carbendazirn -- Ethe hot~_

25 Carbofuran 69 Ethion
-26 Carbosulfan 70 Ethofenprox (Etofenprox)
Carboxin 71 Ethoxysulfuron
- 2 w y d r o c h 1 0 r i d e
-- 72 Ethylene Dibromide (EDB)**
Chlorimuron ethyl 7- Dibrolnide and Carbon
~etiachloridemixture (EDCT
Mixture 3:1!
30 / Chlorfenvinphos* 1 74 1 Fenarirnol* I
31 / Chlormeauat Chloride (CCC) / 75 1 Fenazaauin
32 Chlorobenzilate** 1 76 1 Fenitrothion
1 33 i Chlorothalonil 1 77 / Fenobucarb (BPMC) 1
Chlorpyriphos 78 Fenoxaprop-p-ethy l
1 35 Cinmetylene 79 Fenpropathrin
1 1
-
I
(36 Clamazone ( 80 Fenthion*
137
Copper Hydroxide 1 81 1 Fenvalerate
1 38 Copper Oxychloride [ 82 I Ferbam
39 Copper Sulphate 83 Fipronil
40 Cournachlor* 84 Fluchloralin
41 Cournatetralyl* 85 Flufenoxyron
42 Cuprous Oxide 86 Fluvalinate
43 Cyfluthrin 87 Formothion
44 Cyhalofop-butyl 88 Fosetyl-A1
 --
89 Gibberellic Acid 135 Permethrin
I 90 Glufosinate Am~nonium
Glyphosate
Hexaconazole
1 136
137
133
Phenthoate
Phoratr
Phosalone
11 ~ 93 Hydrogen cynamid 1 139 Phosphamidon
1 94 Imazethapyr Pirilniphos-methy 1' I

1 95 Imidacloprid Proxofop-propanyl (clodinafop-

'
i
propanyl)
96 Imi@ril? 142 Prallethrin
97 ~rldoxcarb
- 143 Pretilachlor
98 Iprodidne 144 Profenophos
( 99 1 Isoprothiolane / 145 [ Propanil d

1
146 Propetamphos*
147 Propiconazole 1
Kita7,in 148 Propineb
I
Lan~bdacyhalothrin
-- 149 Propoxur
Lime Sulphur 150 Pyrethrins
I 105 Lindane*" 151 Quinalphos
106
107
Linuron
--
Malathion
k z d r a z i d e (MH)
152
153
i1 Sinlazine
Sirmate

110 Metalaxyl
1 izi 1 :;uZfuron
156
-I
Stre tom cin + Tetrac cline

1 Methoxy Ethyl Mercury Cliloride

(
1
159
160
161
1 Tebuconazole
Temephos
Thiodicarb
-
(MEMC) - --
116 , Methyl Bromide** 162 Thiamethoxam -

1 117 j Methyl Chlorophenoxy ~ c e t i Acid

c 1 163 1 Thiometon*

1 18 / Methyl Parathion** 1
164 ( Thiophanate-Methyl - 1
9 1 Metolachlor ] 165 1 Thiram -- __1
1 166 1 Transfluthrin
-- 1 167 1 TI-iadimefon
1 122 1 Monocrotophos*. ( 168 1 Triallate
1 123 1 Myclobutanil
Nickel Chlor~de
-
169
170
-
Triazoqhos*
Trichlorofon
.-

1 :;; 1 Oxadiaron
--

Oxvcarboxin
A c l
171
a z
Trichloroacetic acid (TCA)
o l
/ 173 1 Tridemor~h*
e

128 Oxydemeton-methyl * 174 Trifluralin

129 Oxyfluorfen* 175 Validamxn
130 Paclobutrazol 176 Warfarin*
131 1 Paradichlorobenzene~PDCR~
Paraquat dichloride 178 1 Zineb *
179 Ziram * 1
1
- -

134 Pendimethalin 1
* Pesticide under review; **restricted in use (use of D.D.T. and chlorbenzilate in
agriculture is banned)
a
PESTICIDES UNDER REVIEW

Alachlor
Benomyl
Diuron
Fenarimol
Methomyl
Oxyfluorfen
Thiometon
Triazophos
Tridemorph
Ziram
Monocrotophos
Zineb
Bromadiolone
Coumatetralyl
Chlorfen vinphos
Coumachlor
Dichlorvos
Ediphenphos
Fenthion
Oxydemeton methyl
Propetamphos
Warfarin
 ANNEXURE-111 '
LIST OF PESTICIDES BANNED FOR USE IN INDIA
A. Pesticides banned for manufacture, import and use (24 Nos.)

S.No. Name of Pesticide

1. Aldrjn
2. Benzene Hexachloride (BHC)
3. Calcium Cyanide
4. Chlordane
5. Cbpper Acetoarsenite
6. Dibromochloropropane (DBCP)
7. Endrin
8. Ethyl Mercury Chloride
9. Ethyl Parathion
10. Heptachlor
11. Menazon
12. Nitrofen
13. Paraquate dimethyl sulphate
14. Pentachloro nitrobenzene (PCNB)
15. Pentachlorophenol(PCP)
16. Sodium Methane Arsonate (MSMA)
17. Tetradifon
18. Toxaphene
19.
20
21.
22.
23.
24.
Aldicarb
Chlorbenzilate
Dieldrin
Maleic Hydrazide
Ethylene Dibromide
TCA (Trichloro acetic acid)I Use banned
w.e.f. 17.7.2003

B. PesticideJPesticideformulations banned for use but their manufacture is

allowed for export (3 Nos.)

25. Nicotine Sulfate

26. Phenyl Mercury Acetate (PMA)
27.
-
Captafol 80% Powder (use banned w.e.f. 17.7.2003)

C. Pesticide formulations banned for import, manufacture and use (4 Nos.)

1. Methornyl24% L
2. . Methomyl 12.5% L (w.e.f. 26.3.2002)
3. Phosphamidon 85% SL (w.e.f. 26.3.2002)
4. Carbofuron 50% SP
 ANNEXURE-IV

LIST OF PESTICIDES FOR RESTRlCTED USE IN INDIA

Name of Pesticide Types of restriction(s) imposed

Aluminium The tablet of Aluminium Phosphide 3 qm each is 'open for
Phosphide sale' provided, it is packed in cige packaging and the
Aluminium Phosphide powder in'pouch-in-pouch packing,
for its use in rat burrows. The tablets of 10.20 or 30 No.
(3gm each) or 50 tabletslpellets of 0.6 gm each packed in
Aluminium tube is to be sold only to Government,
Government Undertakings1 Organisations and to be used
under the strict supervision of Government Expert or Pest
Control Operators whose expertise is approved by the Plant
Protection Adviser to the Government of India.
Captafol Shall be used only as seed dresser. Its use as foliar spray is
' banned
Chlorbenzilate Use in agriculture is banned. If required it can be imported
by Government I Semi-Government Organisations and
prepared folbex strips for making it available to bee keepers
forcontrolling mites of honeybeis.
4 D.D.T Use of DDT in agriculture is banned. In very special
circumstances warranting the use of DDT for Plant
Protection, the State or Central Government may purchase
it directly from M s . Hindustan Insecticides Ltd. to be used
under expert Government supervision.
Use of DDT for the public health programme upto 10,000
MTs per annum except in case of any major outbreak is
restricted.
5 Dieldrin Use of Dieldrin shall be restricted for Locust control in
desert areas by Plant Protection Advisor to the Government
of India.
6 Ethylene Dibromide Use of EDB shall be restricted as a (EDB) Fumigant for
Food grains through Central Government, State
Government, Government Undertakings, Government
Organisations, such as Food Corporation of India, Central
Warehousing Corporation, State Warehousing Corporation
and Pest Control operators whose expertise is approved by
1 Plant Protection Adviser to the Govt. of India.
7 Lindane Use of Lindane formulation generating smoke for indoor
use is prohibited in India, that Lindane may be
continued to be produced in the country for use for the
control of insect pests of field crops and subject to the
modification in the Certificate of Registration to this effect.
8 Methyl Bromide It is to be sold only to Government, Government
UndertakingslOrganisations and to be used under the strict
supervision of Government Expert or Pest Control
Operators whose expertise is approved by the Plant
Protection Adviser to the Government of India.
Methyl Parathion Use of Methyl Parathion is permitted only on those crops
where honey bees are not acting as pollinators and Methyl
Parathion may continue to be produced in the country for
use in other crops and subject to the modification in the
Certificate of Registration to this effect
Sodium Cyanide Use of Sodium Cyanide shall be restricted for fumigation of
cotton bales by Plant Protection Adviser to the Govt. of
India under expert supervision
 ANNEXURE-V

1,IST OF PESTICIDES PROVISIONALLY REGISTERED UNDER SECTION

9 (3B FOR DATA GENERATIONILARGE SCALE TRIAL AS ON 1.12.200

S.No. -
- Name of Pesticide
1. Azadirachtin (Neem products)
2. Bacillus tlturingiensis (Bt.)
3. Benfuracsrb
4. Cinmethylin
5. Hydrogen Cynarmde
6. Indoxacarb
7. Neem Seed Kernel
8. Quizalfop ethyl
9. Tebuconazole
10. Trichoder~naviridi
11. Tricointanol

ANNEXURE-VI

LIST OF PESTICIDES REFUSED REGISTRATION

--
~ . N O .Name of Pesticide
1. Ammonium Sulphamate
2. Azinphos Ethyl
3. Azinphos Methyl
4. Binapacryl
5. Calcium Arsenate
6. Carbophenothion
7. Chinomethionate (Moresthan)
8. Dicrotophos
9. EYN
10. Fentin Acetate
11. Fentin Hydroxide
12. Lead Arsenate
13. Leptophos (Phosvel)
14. Mephosfolan
15. Mevinphos (Phosdrin)
16. 2,4,5-T
17. Thiodemeton/Disulfc~to~a
18.
p-
Vamidothion --
 ANNEXURE-VII
INDIGENOUSLY MANUFACTURED PESTICIDES

S.No. Name of Pesticide

Acephate Malathion
Alphacypermethin Metaldehyde
Bacillus thuringiensis Methyl Parathion
Chlorpyriphos Monocrotophos
Cypermethrin Neem Based Insecticides
D.D.T. Nicotine Sulphate
Decamethrin Oxydemeton-Methyl
Dichlorvos Paradichloro Benzene
Dicofol Phorate
Dimethoate Phosalone
Endosulfan Phosphamidon
Ethion Pyrethrum
Fenitrothion Quinalphos
Fenthion Sevidol
Fenvalerate Ternephos (ABATE)
Lindane Triazophos
FUNGICIDIES
Aureofungin MEMC
Captafol Nickel Chloride
Captan PMA
Carbendazim Paris Green
Copper Oxychloride Streptocycline
Copper Sulphate Sulphur
Cuprous Oxide Tridemorph
Ethyl Mercury Chloride Thiram
Ferbam Zineb
Lime Sulphur Ziram
Mancozeb
C. WEEDICIDES
53. Alachlor 61. Glyphosate
55. Anilophos 62. Isoproturon
56. Atrazine 63. Paraquat Dichloride
57. Butachlor ' 64. Propanil
58. Dalapon 65. 2,4-D (sodium amine ester salt)
59. Diuron 66. TCA
60. Fluchloralin
D. RODENTICIDES Bi FUMIGANTS
67. Aluminium Phosphide 72. Methyl-bromide
68. Barium Carbonate 73. Methyl bromide tr Ethylene
69. Coumachlor dibromide
70. Ethylene-dibromide 74. Warfarin
7 1. EDCT Mixture 75. Zinc Phosphide
E. PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS
76. Chlormequate Chloride 77. Alphanepthyl acetic acid

Source: Shashpa, 9 (2): 101-107 (September, 2002)

Additional Source: Souvenir, International Conference on Pesticides, Environment.
Food Security held at Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi from 19-23
November, 200 1