Page Unit

1 Unit 1: Mechanics
39 Unit 2: Thermal physics
55 Unit 3: Waves
80 Unit 4: Electricity
105 Unit 5: Nuclear physics
116 Unit 6: Space physics
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Unit One

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Motion, forces
& Energy El
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* Physical quantities:
Quantity Mass Length Time
SI Unit Kilogram “kg” Meter “m” Second “s”

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* Measuring length:

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- Lengths greater than 1 meter is measured by using measuring tape.

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- Lengths smaller than 1 meter is measured by using Meter rule

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- Diameters (external or internal) using different types of calipers.

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* Very important conversions:
* 1 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 1 × 10−2 𝑚𝑚 1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 1 × 10−3 𝑚𝑚 1 𝜇𝜇 𝑚𝑚 = 1 × 10−6 𝑚𝑚

* The zero error:

Is the reading displayed when you know the true reading should be exactly zero.
e.g. The zero error is the reading that shows when the calipers are fully closed.
* The solution: Subtract the value of the error from the measured value.
Example:
From the figure:
The reading starts with 1.5 cm
& ends with 4.5 cm
The length = 4.5 – 1.5 = 3 cm.
* Micrometer screw gauge:
A device used to measure the diameters of small objects like wires.
* How to use it:
1. Put the object in the gap then.
2. Read the highest scale division that can be seen on the fixed scale.
3. Read the scale on the barrel –which meets the line of the fixed scale.
4. Add the two values.
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Example: - From the figure:

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1) The value of the fixed scale is 5.50 mm.

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2) Reading of the revolving scale is 0.32 mm.

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So the value = 5.50 + 0.32 = 5.82 mm.

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* Measuring the volume:

= It is measured in 𝑚𝑚3 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐3 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚3
* Very important conversions:
1 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐3 = 1 × 10−6 𝑚𝑚3 1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚3 = 1 × 10−9 𝑚𝑚3 1𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 1 × 10−3 𝑚𝑚3

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* Measuring the volume of Solid object:

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Shape Diagram Volume

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Rectangle 𝒍𝒍 × 𝒘𝒘 × 𝒕𝒕

𝑳𝑳 × 𝑳𝑳 × 𝑳𝑳
Cube

Cylinder 𝑨𝑨 × 𝒉𝒉
(𝑨𝑨 = 𝝅𝝅𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 )

Sphere 𝟒𝟒
𝝅𝝅 𝒓𝒓𝟑𝟑
𝟑𝟑
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* Measuring the volume of liquids:

* By using a measuring cylinder

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= Look perpendicular to the lower part of the meniscus to avoid parallax error.

* Measuring the volume of irregular solid shape:

= Put a suitable amount of water in the cylinder
And measure its volume V1.
= Put the stone in the cylinder
And measure the new volume V2.
V Stone = V2 – V1
= In the diagram:
26 – 18 = 8 cm3

* Measuring the mass:

1) Ordinary balance. 2) Sensitive balance. 3) Digital balance.

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* Very important conversions:

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* 1 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 1 × 10−3 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 1 Ton = 103 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

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* Measuring the time:

- Stop watch (stop clock)
* In the image the time is 1min. 23.25 s = 83.25 s.

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- To calculate the time period of the pendulum:

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= Measure the time “t” needed to make “N” oscillations.

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= Calculate the time period “T”

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𝒕𝒕

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𝑻𝑻 =
𝑵𝑵

* 1𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠 = 1 × 10−3 𝑠𝑠
* 1𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚. = 60 𝑠𝑠
* 1 ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 3600 𝑠𝑠

Example:
A pendulum makes 12 vibrations in 6s. Calculate the time of one vibration.
𝟔𝟔
𝑻𝑻 = = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟓𝟓 𝒔𝒔
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
* Very important prefixes:
Name Symbol Value
Centi c 10-2
Milli m 10-3
Micro µ 10-6

Kilo K 103
Mega M 106
Gega G 109

* Scalars and vector:

1st Scalar quantity: “Quantity that has a magnitude but has no direction”

2nd Vector quantity: “Quantity that has a magnitude and a direction”

Examples
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Scalars Mass – Length – Time – Speed – Energy – Power – Work – Pressure.

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Vectors Velocity – acceleration – Forces – Moments – Momentum – Impulse.

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* Vector diagram: A graphical method to calculate a resulted vector.

1) Parallelo gram method:
The vectors must be arranged tail to tail or tip to tip.
Example:

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A plane is moving with a velocity of 80 m/s due east. The wind blows with a velocity

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of 60 m/s due north. Draw a vector diagram to calculate the resulted velocity.

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* Answer:

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- 1st choose a scale (1 cm= 10 m/s)
- Draw two lines of 6 and 8 cm with an angle of
90o to each other’s.
- Use the compass or the protractor to complete the
parallelo gram.
- The diagonal from starting point will be the
resulted magnitude of the velocity.
- Relate the direction (angle) between the resulted velocity and any velocity.
** The length of the diagonal will be 10 cm
Magnitude of the resulted
velocity = 10 cm x 10 = 100 m/s
angle 1 (with north direction) = 53o
angle 2 (with east direction) = 37o.

** You can calculate the magnitude of

the resulted velocity mathematically
And the value of the angle from the
trigonometry.
In our case: 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 = √602 + 802 = 10 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
80
The direction from 60 m/s 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡−1 = 53𝑜𝑜
60
−1 60
Or the direction from 80 m/s 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 37𝑜𝑜
80

2nd Triangle method:

The vectors must be tip to tail.
(For the previous example):
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= Same steps but after drawing the two vectors

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Just draw the 3rd side; it will be the resulted

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velocity.
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Magnitude of the resulted

velocity = 10 cm x 10 = 100 m/s
angle 1 (with north direction) = 53o
angle 2 (with east direction) = 37o.

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Example 2:

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* Scale: 1 cm = 5000 N (20000 = 4 cm & 30000 = 6 cm)

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FR = 49500 N Angle 1 (with 20000 N) = 12o

Angle 2 (with 30000 N) = 8o

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Motion
- Speed:
- It is simply how fast something is going.
- It is a scalar quantity.

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- Its S.I. Base unit is m/s

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* Average speed:

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The speed of a car will vary hugely during a journey from town to town.
Sometimes the car will be stopped at traffic lights.
However, it's useful to be able to work out the average speed over the whole journey.
Total disance
Average speed =
total time taken
* Example:
- If a car travels 200m between A to B in 30sec., then it moves 300m from B to C in
a time of 20 sec.
200+300
Its average speed = = 10 m/s.
30+20
* Average speed can be calculated by the following rule:
𝑢𝑢+𝑣𝑣
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = ( u is the initial speed and v is the final speed)
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* Example:
An athlete runs with a speed of 6 m/s then he finished the race with a speed of 8 m/s
6+8
Calculate its av. Speed. Its average speed = = 7 m/s.
2

* Distance – time graph: Its gradient gives its speed

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* Examples:

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2nd Velocity:
- Is speed in a particular direction.
- It is a vector quantity (speed and direction)

* Velocity changes if the speed changed in a straight line

Or direction changed at constant speed.

* Acceleration:
“It is the rate of changing in velocity”
Or “It is the changing in velocity per unit time”
- Acceleration is measured in m/s
- Acceleration is a vector quantity.

* Very important:
- The body decelerates when its speed decreases
- Deceleration is called –ve acceleration.
- Acceleration = zero when:
1) The body is moving with a constant speed.
2) The body is stationary (at rest).
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Example 1:
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- A car moves with a speed of 18 m/s, after 4 seconds its speed becomes 30m/s.
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Calculate the acceleration of the car.

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Answer:
𝑣𝑣 − 𝑢𝑢 30 − 18
𝑎𝑎 = = = 3 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 2
𝑡𝑡 4

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Example 2:
A speed of a car was 20 m/s, brakes are applied with a deceleration of 2 m/s2.
Calculate its speed after 3s.
Answer:

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𝑣𝑣 − 20

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−2=

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𝑣𝑣 = 20 − 6 = 14 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠

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Speed – time graph:
Its gradient = its acceleration.
Area under graph = the distance moved by the object.

* Example 1:
1) From the shown diagram, find:
a) The acceleration of the body.
b) The traveled distance.
* The answers:
100
Gradient = = 20 ∴acceleration = 20 m / s 2
5
Distance traveled = area under line
1
= × 5 ×100 = 250 m
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Example 2:
The graph shows the relation between speed -
time for a motor cycle traveling along a road.
a) What is the maximum speed.
b) What is the acceleration during the 1st 5 s.
c) What is the deceleration during the last 10 s.
d) What is the total distance traveled.
e) What is the average speed.
* The answers:
a) 60 m/s.
v − u 60 − 0
b) a = = = 12 m / s 2
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v − u 0 − 60
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c) a = = = 6m / s2
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d) Total distance traveled = area under the graph =

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(0.5 × 5 × 60) + (60 × 10) + (0.5 × 10 × 60) = 1050 𝑚𝑚

1050
𝑒𝑒) 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴. 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = = 42 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
25

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* All (speed – time) graphs

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* Free fall
- Feather, lead & all objects fall downwards due to the gravity of the earth.
1) All objects fall downwards with the same acceleration if we neglect air resistance.
2) The acceleration due to gravity is called “free fall acceleration” g = 10 m/s2.
3) Speed of any object increases by going downwards until becomes maximum value
before touching the ground.

* 1st Free fall in the absence of air:

- No air resistance (drag), the weight is the
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only acting force (force of gravity).

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- Area under graph represents the height from which

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the object falls (distance).

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- The gradient is equal to 10 m/s2

- Speed of falling objects increases by
10 m/s each second.

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* 2nd Free fall in the presence of air resistance:

- Air resistance (drag) acts in opposite direction to the motion
(in free fall it acts upwards)

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- Air resistance increases when:

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1) Speed of the object increases.

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2) Volume (or exposed surface area increases),

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* Example:
* Free falling object of constant volume:
1) Initially, the body falls with a
constant acceleration = g = 10 m/s2
The weight is the only acting force.
No drag because the speed is not high
enough to cause drag.

2) When speed increases, drag increases,

resulted force and acceleration decreases.
But weight still greater than the drag.

3) The drag increases and becomes

equal to the weight So no resulted
force and acceleration = zero.
The body will move in a constant speed
called terminal velocity.
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*Parachutist free fall.

1) Initially, the body falls with a constant acceleration
= g = 10 m/s2

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The weight is the only acting force. No drag because

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the speed is not high enough to cause drag.

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2) When speed increases, drag increases, resulted force and
acceleration decreases. But weight still greater than the drag.

3) The drag increases and becomes equal to the weight So no

resulted force and acceleration = zero.
it moves with a constant speed called terminal velocity

4) When parachute is opened, the volume increases, drag increases and

becomes greater than the weight. The body will decelerate and speed
decreases.

5) When speed decreases, drag starts to decrease again until it becomes

equal to the weight of the parachutist so acceleration becomes zero.
it moves with a smaller constant speed called terminal velocity until
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Mass & weight

* Mass:
- A Quantity of matter in a stationary object.
- It has a constant value in all places and planets.

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- Its S.I. Unit is kilogram “Kg”.

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- It is a scalar quantity.

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- It is measured by using balances.

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* Weight:
- It is the gravitational force acting on the mass.
- Its S.I. Unit is Newton “N”.
- Its value varies from one place to the other due to the change in
gravitational field strength of the place.
- It is a vector quantity.
- It is measured by using Newton meter (spring balance).

* The relation between mass & weight:

Weight = Mass x gravitational field strength. W = m x g
* Gravitational field strength of earth at sea level is = 10 N/kg.

* Example:
- An object of a mass on earth's surface = 5 kg, calculate:
1) Its weight on earth's surface. (𝑊𝑊 = 𝑚𝑚 𝑔𝑔 = 5 × 10 = 50 𝑁𝑁)
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2) Its weight on the moon surface (g Moon = 1.6 N/Kg). (5 × 1.6 = 8𝑁𝑁)
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3) Its mass on the moon surface. (5Kg.)

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Density
“Is the mass per unit volume”
𝑚𝑚
𝜌𝜌 =
𝑉𝑉

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- Its unit is “kg/m3" or “g/cm3”

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- The factors affecting the density of the material are:

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1) Nature of material.

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2) Temperature.
(When the temp. increases, volume increases so
its density decreases and the vice – versa)

- If we put a solid inside a liquid:

If the density of the solid is smaller than the density of the liquid, the solid will float.
If the density of the solid is greater than the density of the liquid, the solid will sink.

* How to measure the density of a substance practically:

- For a regular solid you need a balance and a ruler.
- For an irregular solid you need a measuring cylinder and a balance.
- For an irregular solid floats on water, measuring cylinder, sinker and a balance.
- For a liquid, you need a measuring cylinder and a balance.
(Revise how to measure volumes of different objects in 1st lesson)

* Example:
- A cylinder its length 0.1 m and its diameter 0.4 m2, The density of the cylendre
material is 2400 kg/m3. Calculate:
𝜋𝜋𝑑𝑑 2 𝜋𝜋 ×0.42
1- Its volume. ( 𝑉𝑉 = ×ℎ = × 0.1 = 0.0126 𝑚𝑚3
4 4
2- The mass of the liquid.(𝑚𝑚 = 𝜌𝜌 𝑉𝑉 = 2400 × 0.0126 = 30.24 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾
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Forces
- Force is a vector quantity.
- It is measured by newton meter (spring balance).

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- Its unit is Newton “N”

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- Force can change:

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1. The speed of a body.

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2. The shape of an object.

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3. The direction of a moving body.
- Force can’t change:
1. The mass of an object.
2. The volume of a solid or liquid (gas only).

* Resulted force:
- The difference between forward and backward forces.
𝑭𝑭 = 𝑭𝑭𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇 − 𝑭𝑭𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃
- Resulted force causes the body to accelerate.
𝑭𝑭 = 𝒎𝒎 𝒂𝒂
- m is the mass of the body in Kg.
- a is the acceleration of the body.

Example:
1. An applied force of 50 N is used to accelerate an object to the right across a
frictional surface. The object encounters 10 N of friction. Calculate the resulted force
and the acceleration of the object.
* The answers:
F = 50 – 10 = 40N.
F=ma 40 = 5 a a = 8 m/s2

2. In the previous example if the initial velocity of the body was 1m/s. find its final
velocity after 3sec.
𝑣𝑣−𝑢𝑢 𝑣𝑣−1
𝑎𝑎 = 8= v = 25 m/s.
𝑡𝑡 3
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Types of Forces
* Some common forces:

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V.Imp.:
1. The previous forces do not act alone on the object but there are different forces
acting in the same time and the net force effect appears.

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2. If an object moves with a uniform speed, there is no acceleration so there is no

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force.

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* Forces acting on an object can be:

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1. Balanced forces. (No resulted force)
2. Unbalanced forces. (There is a resulted force.)

1st Balanced forces

2nd Unbalanced forces

* The direction of the acceleration is the same direction of the resulted force.
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* Momentum
lIt is product of the mass and velocity of an object.
𝑃𝑃 = 𝑚𝑚 𝑣𝑣
Where P is the momentum, m is the mass in kg and v is the velocity in m/s

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- Momentum is a vector quantity, its SI Units is kg.m/s or N.s.

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- If the velocity of the body changes, its momentum will be changed.

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ΔP = m (v – u)

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- To change the speed of a body, a force must be applied in a certain time.
This force causes an impulse.

* Impulse: - “The product of the applied force and time “

𝐼𝐼 = 𝐹𝐹 × 𝑡𝑡
- Impulse is a vector quantity, its unit is N.s
- The impulse = the change in momentum.
𝐼𝐼 = ∆𝑃𝑃
𝐹𝐹 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑚𝑚 ∆𝑣𝑣

Example:
- A 800 kg car moves with a speed of 20 m/s after 10 s its speed becomes 28 m/s.
Calculate:
1) Its changing in momentum (impulse).
2) The force needed to speed up the car from 20 m/s to 28 m/s in 10 s.
Answers:
1) I = m (v – u) = 800 (28 – 20) = 6400 N.s
2) I = F. t 6400 = F x 10
F = 640 N.

* Law of conservation of momentum:

“At any isolated collision (no external force) the total momenta before collision =
total momenta after collision.”
- When two moving bodies collide to each other’s.
- Although there speed might be changed, but their total momentum before collision
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equal to their total momentum after collision.

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m1 u1 + m2 u2 (before collision) = m1 v1 + m2 v2 (after collision)

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* Example:
1) From the figure, calculate the speed of the second car after collision.

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m1 u1 + m2 u2 (before collision) = m1 v1 + m2 v2 (after collision)
500 x 8 + 0 = 0 + 400 x v2
v2 = 10 m/s

2) A 4 kg ball moves with a speed of 3m/s towards a second ball of 2 kg mass

at rest. After collision they stick together and move to the right.

Calculate:
1) The total momentum before collision.
2) The speed of the group after collision.

Answers:
1) P = m1 u1 + 0 = 4x3 = 12 kg.m/s
2) P = (m1+m2) v 12 = (4+2) v v = 2 m/s

* V. Important note:
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- If the body moves in opposite direction after collision,

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the change in momentum will be calculated by:

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∆𝑃𝑃 = 𝑚𝑚 (𝑣𝑣 + 𝑢𝑢)

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* Circular motion
- Motion where the rotating body:
= Move with a constant speed but velocity s changed
because direction is changed.

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= There is an inward force called “Centripetal force”

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acting on the moving body to keep it on a circular

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path.

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= This force is perpendicular to the direction of

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motion.
= The direction of the centripetal force is always
towards the center of the path.

* If the centripetal force decreases, the body will leave the track in the direction
tangent to its path.

* The centripetal force is a resulted force.

Examples:
a) Stone attached to a thread: (The tension of the thread
provides the centripetal force).

b) A car moves in circular track: (the friction between the

wheels and the road provides the car with a force acts
towards the center of the path that keeps the car in the
track).
- When the speed of the car exceeds a certain value, the
inwards force becomes not enough to keep the car on the
track.
- The direction of motion is the direction of the tangent to
the circular orbit, perpendicular to the inwards force.

c) Also roller coaster depends on the idea of centripetal force.

d) The moon around the earth: (gravitational force causes the centripetal force).
e) The electron around the nucleus: (Electrostatic attraction forces cause the
centripetal force).
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* The effect of a force on the shape of a body

(Hook's law)
* When a load is hanged to a spring, the spring extends.
- The extension of the spring is directly proportional to the hanged weight until a

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certain point called proportional point (limit).

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- This is according to Hook’s law:

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“The extension is directly proportional to the affecting force”

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(until proportional point)

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𝑥𝑥 ∝ 𝐹𝐹
𝐹𝐹 = 𝑘𝑘 𝑥𝑥
(“k” is the spring constant – “x” the
extension – “F” the force)

- The extension is calculated from 𝐿𝐿 −

𝐿𝐿𝑂𝑂 = 𝑥𝑥
(L the loaded length, LO the unloaded
length.)

* Proportional limit:
- Point where beyond it
“x” is no longer directly to
“F”
- The force causes the
extension is the force of
gravity (in this case).

- “F” is directly prop. To “x” because the graph:

1) Starts from (0,0) (origin). 2) Straight line of constant gradient.
y

- “L” is not directly to “F”

nd
ge

- The intercept of the graph

El

gives the unloaded length of

af
hr

the spring.
As

Ashraf Elgendy
 Ashraf Elgendy 23

* V. imp. Notes:
- If two similar springs from the same material, are
connected in series with the same load, the extension
will be doubled.

y
nd
- If the same springs are connected in parallel with the

ge
same load, the extension will

El
Decrease to half of its value.

af
hr
- The extension decreases by increasing the radius of

As
the spring. (The extension of the broad spring is
smaller than that of the thin spring with the equal
loads).

y
nd
ge
El
af
hr
As

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 Ashraf Elgendy 24

The center of gravity

“Is the point at which the whole weight of the body seems to act.”
- The line of action of the weight of the body, passes by its center of gravity.
*To know the center of gravity (mass) of a body:

y
nd
ge
1st The center of gravity of regular objects:

El
af
is at their geometrical centers

hr
(made all of the same material and with

As
the same thickness).
The position of the center of gravity form some
bodies are shown in Fig.

2nd The center of gravity of an

irregularly shaped body:
Hang an irregularly shaped body from a nail &
hang a plumb-line from the same nail.
When the body settles, mark the vertical line on it. Repeat
from another point. The
intersection of the vertical lines from two points of
suspension will fix the centre of
gravity. Hanging from a third point can be used to check
that the correct position has
been found.

* Stability:
- Stability increases when:
1) Center of mass is very low.
2) Contact area with the ground is wider.

- The body will topple when the

line of action of the weight acts
out of the base area.
y
nd
ge
El
af
hr
As

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 Ashraf Elgendy 25

Moments
The turning effect of an applied force about a
pivotal point is defined as moment perpendicular
𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴 = 𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇 × 𝒅𝒅𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑 (𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑)

y
nd
ge
* Moment is a vector quantity.

El
af
It is measured in “N.m”

hr
As
* Examples from every day use:

* Equilibrium:
- When a group of forces acting on a pivoted body.
- It is said that, the body is in equilibrium if:
1) Moments C.W. = Moments A.C.W. (No resultant moment.)
2) All upward forces = all downward forces (No resultant force.)
y
nd
ge
El
af
hr
As

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 Ashraf Elgendy 26

*The turning effect is depends on:

- The size of the force. - Its distance from the pivot
In the image below, the mass provides a force some distance away from the pivot:

y
nd
ge
El
af
hr
As
- Force of pivot equals the difference between up wards force and downward forces
and its direction in the direction of the smaller forces.

Example:

𝟑𝟑 × (𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗 − 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓) = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝑵𝑵. 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄

𝟐𝟐 × (𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 − 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐) = 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 𝑵𝑵. 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄

y

𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 = 𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪

nd
ge
El

𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 + (𝑭𝑭 × (𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 − 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑) = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏

af
hr

𝑭𝑭 = 𝟑𝟑. 𝟎𝟎 𝑵𝑵
As

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 Ashraf Elgendy 27

Energy
* Energy is the ability to do work.
* Energy is a scalar quantity.
* The joule is the unit of energy of all kinds.

y
nd
* When work is done, energy is transferred.

ge
El
*Examples:

af
The work done in moving a car along a surface is converted into kinetic energy.

hr
As
The work done in rising a body to a certain height is converted into potential energy.
From the types of energy:

* Sources of energy:
= Renewable resources: “Resources that never run out”
Examples: – Sun – wind – Hydroelectric (water falls – dams – tidal energy)
– geothermal)

= Non-renewable resources:
“Resources that are found in limited amounts and will runout”.
Examples: – Fossil fuels (coal- petroleum – natural gas) – Nuclear energy

* How to produce electric energy from different sources:

1st Methods follow the following chain of energy changes:
𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 → 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 → 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

1) Electric power stations: (Fossil fuels are used)

- Coal is used to supply heat energy to the boiler.
- Water is heated (heat energy) in large reservoirs and converted into steam.
- Steam is pushed into narrow pipes gain high pressure.
- High pressure steam rotates turbines (K.E.).
- Turbines rotate generators (K.E.) to produce electricity (Electric energy).
- Electricity is transferred through transmission lines.
y
nd
ge
El
af
hr
As

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 Ashraf Elgendy 28

2) Geothermal power station:

- Heat energy from under earth’s crust is used to heat water inreservoires under water
surface converting into steam. (Heat energy).
- Steam is pushed into narrow pipes gain high pressure.

y
nd
- High pressure steam rotates turbines (K.E.).

ge
- Turbines rotate generators (K.E.) to produce electricity (Electric energy).

El
- Electricity is transferred through transmission lines.

af
hr
As
3) Nuclear energy: (Fission nuclear reactors)
- using energy from nuclear reactions to produce heat
energy
- Heat is used to convert water into steam.
- Steam is pushed into narrow pipes gain high pressure.
- High pressure steam rotates turbines (K.E.).
- Turbines rotate generators (K.E.) to produce
electricity (Electric energy).
- Electricity is transferred through transmission lines.
y
nd
ge
El

- Types of nuclear reactions:

af
hr

1- Fission reaction:
As

Large nucleus splits into small nuclei and large

amount of heat released.
(it is used to produce electricity in nuclear
reactors on earth)
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 Ashraf Elgendy 29

2- Fusion reaction:
Two Small nuclei of Hydrogen combine together
to form larger nucleus of Helium and huge amount
of energy released.

y
nd
- It takes place in the core of the stars like the sun.

ge
- We can’t use fusion reaction to produce

El
electricity on earth because the produced heat can

af
hr
melt any shield around any reactor.

As
2nd Methods follow the following chain:
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 → 𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲 𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆 → 𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬 𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆
(Hydroelectric resources)
1) Dams:
- Water level on the lake behind the dame is higher than its level on the river.
- Tunnels ion the dam allow water to move through it converting G.P.E. into K.E.
- Water rotates turbines in the tunnels (K.E.).
- Turbines rotate generators (K.E.) producing electricity (Electric energy).
- Electricity are transferred through cables.

2) Water falls:
- Water falls from a high place to rotate a turbine (G.P.E. to K.E.)
- Turbines rotate generators to produce electricity. (K.E. to electric energy)
y
nd

3) Tide energy:
ge

Water is kept in a small reservoir during

El
af

high tide and let water flow from it during

hr

low tide. Where G.P.E. is converted into

As

K.E. Water rotates turbines during its

flow; the turbines rotate generators to
generate electricity.

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 Ashraf Elgendy 30

* Wind energy:
- Wind males convert K.E. of wind into electric energy by rotating turbines which
rotate generator to produce electricity.

y
nd
ge
El
af
hr
As
* Solar energy:
- Solar cells or solar panels convert light energy into electricity.

* Very important note:

The sun is the main source of energy.
It is responsible for most types of energy resources.

* Examples:
- When fuels bum, they release energy originally radiated from the Sun.
- Green plants collect energy from sunlight.
- Coal, oil, & natural gas were formed from the decayed remains of plants & animals
- Wind energy is produced due to the heating effect of the sun on some parts on earth.
- Water behind dams due to floods.
- Floods happened due to rains.
- Rains due to the clouds.
- Clouds are formed due to the evaporation of water from seas and oceans.
y

- Evaporation happened due to the heat energy from the sun.

nd
ge
El

* The sun is not responsible for:

af
hr

- Geothermal energy.
As

- Nuclear energy.
- Tidal energy.

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 Ashraf Elgendy 31

The Source Advantages Disadvantages

Fossil fuels - Gives high amount of energy - Causes air pollution.
- Cheap source. - Increase the global worming by
- Available. increasing CO2 % in air.
- Non renewable.

y
nd
- Coal Miners Suffer Health Severe issues

ge
El
af
Dams - Clean source of energy. - Dangerous of failure.

hr
- Built to stay for long time. - Expensive to construct

As
- Renewable. - Land consumer.
- Independent Source. - Disruption to Wildlife
- Reservoirs protect inhabitants from
natural disasters.
Geothermal - Clean source of energy. - Expensive to construct
- Renewable. - Land consumer.
- Independent Source. - Not available in all places.
- Has different uses like warming
houses in winter.
Solar energy - Clean source of energy. - Solar panels Installation is Expensive
- Renewable.
- Solar Panel has low Maintenance. - Doesn’t Work during night.
- Solar Energy has multiple - Weather Dependency.
applications
- Uses a Lot of Space.
Nuclear energy - Reliable source of energy. - Non renewable
- Gives high energy. - Its radioactive pollution lasts for years.
- No CO2 emissions. - Use large areas of lands.
- Disposable radioactive wastes.
Wind energy - Clean source of energy. - Wind fluctuate, speed and direction.
- Renewable source. - Wind turbines causes noise pollution
- Wind turbines are expensive.
- Wind turbines danger on birds.

* Law of conservation of energy:

“Energy can’t be created nor destroyed, but it can be converted from one form to
another form of energy.”
* Examples:
- Chemical energy stored in fuel is converted into heat energy.
- Solar energy is converted into electric energy in solar cells.
y
nd

- Chemical energy is converted into electric energy in dry cells.

ge

- Electric energy is converted into light energy in light bulbs.

El

- K.E. is converted into electric energy in electric generators.

af
hr

- Electric energy is converted into K.E. in electric motors.

As

- In cars, chemical energy stored in fuel is converted into heat energy,

which is converted into K.E.

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 Ashraf Elgendy 32

Work, Energy and Power

* Work:
Work is done when:

y
nd
A force succeeds in moving a body, a certain distance in its direction.

ge
El
𝑊𝑊 = 𝐹𝐹 𝑑𝑑

af
- Work is a scalar quantity measured in Joule.

hr
As
* In case of moving vertically: 𝐹𝐹 = 𝑚𝑚 𝑔𝑔

* Power:
“It is the rate of doing work (energy).”
𝑊𝑊
𝑃𝑃 =
𝑡𝑡
- It is a scalar quantity measured in Watt. 1Watt = 1 J/s

* Very imp.:
1
- Power is inversely proportion to the time at a given work 𝑃𝑃 ∝
𝑡𝑡
- Power is directly proportion to the work at a given time. 𝑃𝑃 ∝ 𝑊𝑊

Example:
1- A person “X” carries 20 kg for a certain distance in 20s. While a person “Z”
carries the same load for the same distance in 12s.
* The power achieved by person “Z” is greater than that of person “X”

2- A person “A” carries 20 kg to the 2nd floor in 80s.

While a person “B” carries 30 kg to the same floor in the same time.
* The power achieved by person “B” is greater than that of person “A”

* Important types of energy:

1) Gravitational potential Energy (G.P.E):
“Energy stored in a body due to its height.”
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 = 𝑚𝑚 𝑔𝑔 ℎ
- Where “h” is its height, “m” is the mass in Kg.
y
nd
ge

2) Kinetic energy (K.E.):

El
af

“* It is the energy due to the motion of a body.”

hr

1
As

𝐾𝐾. 𝐸𝐸. = 𝑚𝑚 𝑣𝑣 2
2

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 Ashraf Elgendy 33

* In the absence of friction, no energy is lost, so:

- When a body is projected upwards, its K.E.
decreases and its G.P.E. increases.
- At max. Height, all K.E. is now converted into

y
nd
G.P.E.

ge
- When the body falls down, its G.P.E. decreases

El
and its K.E. increases.

af
hr
- Just before touching the ground, all G.P.E. is

As
now converted into K.E.
𝐺𝐺. 𝑃𝑃. 𝐸𝐸. 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 𝐾𝐾. 𝐸𝐸.𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
* If there is a friction:
- Some work is done to overcome the friction (lost
energy).
- By going up:
𝐾𝐾. 𝐸𝐸.𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 − 𝐸𝐸𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 𝐺𝐺. 𝑃𝑃. 𝐸𝐸. 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
- Falling down:
𝐺𝐺. 𝑃𝑃. 𝐸𝐸. 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 − 𝐸𝐸𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 𝐾𝐾. 𝐸𝐸.𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵

3) Elastic (strain) potential energy E.P.E.:

“It is energy stored in molecules of a body”.
- E.P.E. is stored when the body:
- Stretch, compress or bend.

y
nd
ge
El
af
hr
As

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 Ashraf Elgendy 34

* Efficiency:
"The ratio between useful output energy to the total input energy"
Or "The ratio between useful output power to the total input power"
Useful output energy

y
Efficiency = × 100

nd
Total input energy

ge
El
af
Useful output power

hr
As
Efficiency = × 100
Total input power

y
nd
ge
El
af
hr
As

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 Ashraf Elgendy 35

* Pressure:
"It is the force acting per unit area."
𝐹𝐹
𝑃𝑃 =
𝐴𝐴

y
nd
- It is a vector quantity.

ge
- Its measuring unit is N/m2 or Pascal “Pa”.

El
af
- Pressure is inversely proportional to the contact area of the body.

hr
1

As
𝑃𝑃 ∝
𝐴𝐴

- Pressure is directly proportional to the applied force on the body.

𝑃𝑃 ∝ 𝐹𝐹

* Atmospheric pressure

- It is the pressure which is produced

due to the weight of air column starts
from the sea level till the end of the
atmospheric envelope.
- Atmospheric pressure decreases
by going upwards.
- Atm. Pressure acts in all directios.
- It is measured in different units:
(Pa – Bar – cm.Hg – Torr (mm.Hg) – Atm.p.)
y
nd
ge

Pressure inside liquids: 𝑃𝑃𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 𝜌𝜌 𝑔𝑔 ℎ

El
af

- Where (“ρ” is the density of the liquid,

hr

“h” is the depth below the surface of the liquid,)

As

* V.i.notes:
1) Pressure inside the liquid doesn’t depend on the cross sec. area.
2) All points at same level inside the liquid having same pressure.

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 Ashraf Elgendy 36

*Examples on pressure a liquid:

“Communicated vessels”
- The pressure at the bottom of each base are the same although the vessels have
different cross sec. areas.

y
nd
ge
El
af
hr
As
- Pressure increases with depth like in the diagram.

* Example:
- A diver at 20 m depth under sea water of density 1030 kg/m3.
Knowing that, atm. Pressure = 1.0 x 105 pa. Calculate:
1- Pressure of water acting on the diver.
2- Total pressure acting on the diver.
3- Calculate the total force acting on the diver if the average
area of the diver is 0.96 m2
= Answers:
1- 𝑃𝑃𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = 𝜌𝜌 𝑔𝑔 ℎ = 1030 × 10 × 20 = 2.06 × 105 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝

2- 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎. + 𝑃𝑃𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 =

y
nd

(1.0 × 105 ) + (2.06 × 105 ) = 3.06 × 105 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝

ge
El
af

3- 𝐹𝐹 = 𝑃𝑃 × 𝐴𝐴 = 3.06 × 105 × 0.96 = 293760 𝑁𝑁

hr
As

𝐹𝐹 = 2.94 × 105 𝑁𝑁

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 Ashraf Elgendy 37

* Barometer:
- A device used to measure the atmospheric pressure.
- It consists of a tube filled with mercury is inserted in a

y
reservoir of mercury.

nd
ge
- There is nothing above mercury level in the tube

El
(space), so the pressure over mercury column is zero.

af
hr
- The pressure of mercury column above the mercury on

As
the basin is equal to the atm. Pressure.
- If the atm. pressure decreases, height of mercury
column decreases and the vice versa.
- Mercury only is used in barometer due to its high
density.
- The vertical height of mercury column is not affected by
the cross sec. area of the tube or its inclination.

* Manometer:
- Is a device used to calculate the pressure of a gas inside a closed container
- Its idea depends on:
“Points at the same level in the liquid having the same pressure.”
- It consists of a U shaped tube with a free tall branch & a small attached one.
The reservoir of the enclosed gas is connected to the attached tube & the free tube is
exposed to the atmospheric pressure.

1) If the pressure of the gas is greater 2) If the pressure of the gas is smaller
than the atm. Pressure. than the atm. Pressure.
The mercury in the free tube of the The mercury level in the free tube of the
manometer will be higher than the manometer will be lower than the
attached tube. attached tube. y
nd
ge
El
af
hr
As

𝑷𝑷𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈 = 𝑷𝑷𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 + 𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆 𝑷𝑷𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈 = 𝑷𝑷𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 − 𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆

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 Ashraf Elgendy 38

* V.imp. notes:
- In case of high difference in pressure between the pressure of the enclosed gas &
the atmospheric pressure, mercury is used.

y
nd
- In case of small difference in pressure between the pressure of the enclosed gas &

ge
the atmospheric pressure, water (or oil) is used.

El
af
hr
- Replacing the liquid with a lower dens liquid, the height difference will increase.

As
- Replacing the liquid with a higher dens liquid, the height difference will decrease.

- The height difference is not affected by the diameter of the tube.

y
nd
ge
El
af
hr
As

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Ashraf Elgendy
39

As As
hr hr
af af
El El
ge ge
nd
y nd
y
 40

* States of matter

y
nd
All matter can be classified as a solid, a liquid or a gas.

ge
El
Solid Liquid Gas

af
hr
As
Diagram

Arrangement of Regular pattern, Irregularly packed Irregularly, widely

particles closely packed together, particles able spaced, particles
together, particles to move past each able to move freely.
held in place. other.
Motion of particles Vibrate in place Slide over each other Random motion,
within the structure. in a random motion. faster movement
than the other states.
Inter molecular Very small Larger than in solids Very large
spaces
Intermolecular Strong Weaker than in solids Very weak
forces

* The motion of gas molecules:

- A scientist called Brown, made an experiment to
illustrate the motion of gas molecules.
by entering a tiny carbon particles from the smoke of a
lighted candle inside a dry, clean glass box and light it
with a strong light.
- He discovered that, the particle of carbon move in
y
nd

straight lines colliding with the molecules of air & with the
ge
El

wall of container (continuous, random motion).

af

* The molecule moves between collisions in straight lines.

hr
As

* This motion is called, Brownian motion.

- We can make the experiment with a pollen grains in water.
- The motion will be slower and can be observed easily.

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*Temperature and motion:

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nd
- As temperature increases, motion and k.e. of the gas molecules increases.

ge
- The k.e. of gas molecules reaches its lowest value at -273 oC (almost zero).

El
af
- -273 oC is equal to zero kelvin (absolute zero).

hr
As
* Temperature and pressure of a gas molecules:
- As temperature increases:
- ke and speed of gas molecules increases.
- They collide with walls of container more frequently.
- The rate of change in momentum increases.
- Force exerted on the wall increases.
- Pressure increases. (and the vice – versa)

* Temperature and volume of a gas:

- As temperature increases:
- ke and speed of gas molecules increases.
- The gas molecules move further a part.
- The volume of the gas increases. (and the vice – versa)

* Absolute scale of temperature:

- The temperature in kelvin scale is the international system of units of teprature.
Tkelvin = tCelsius + 273

* Pressure of a gas and its volume: (at constant temperature).

- If the pressure on a certain amount of gas increases,
the distances between gas molecules decrease, so the
volume of the gas decreases.

- If the pressure on a certain amount of gas decreases,

the gas molecules will go further & will be free to
move, so the distances between them increase, so the
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nd

volume increases.
ge
El
af

- Volume of a gas at constant temp. is inversely proportional to its pressure.

hr

1
As

𝑉 ∝
𝑃
𝑃 × 𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Or P1 V1 = P2 V2

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- Graphical relation between P,V:

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nd
ge
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hr
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* Examples:
- A gas its volume is 2 m3 its pressure = 80 cm.Hg. Find its pressure when the
volume becomes 3 m3.
* Answer:
𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐 90 x 2 = P2 x 3 P2 = 60 cm.Hg.

*Thermal expansion
- When an object is heated:
- Speed of the molecules increases.
- They moved further apart from each other’s.
- Their volume increases “Expands”.

- Different materials expand or contract at different rates.

- Gases have the most expansion.
- Because they have weak forces between molecules.

- Solids have the least expansion.

- Because they have a strong forces between molecules.
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nd
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hr
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* Subsequences of expansion in real life:

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- For this reason, bridges are built with metal expansion joints, so that they can expand and

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contract without causing faults in the overall structure of the bridge.

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hr
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- Other machines and structures likewise have built-in protection against the hazards of
thermal expansion. But thermal expansion can also be advantageous, making possible the
workings of thermometers and thermostats.
* Important applications:
1) Rivets:
Rivets are used to join metal plates. A red – hot rivet is passed through holes in two metal
plates and then hammered until the ends are rounded. As the rivet cools, it contracts and
pulls the two plates tightly together.

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nd

2) Bimetallic strip:
ge

- It is made of tow metals joined firmly

El

together.(like copper and invar)

af
hr

- One of them expands and bend more rapidly

As

than the other if they are exposed to the same

amount of heat energy.
- It is used in many devices like fire alarm or
thermostats
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* Specific heat capacity “c”:

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nd
“The quantity of heat energy needed to rise the temperature of 1kg of substance by 1oC."

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El
∆𝑬

af
𝒄=

hr
𝒎∆𝜽

As
(“c” is the specific heat capacity, “E” Heat energy, “m” is the mass of the body,
“Δθ” is the changing in temperature.)
- Its S.I. Unit is “J /kg.oc”
- It is a physical property of matter, depends on the type of material.
* V.Imp:
- The greater specific heat capacity, the slower gaining or losing energy.(water)
- The smaller specific heat capacity, the faster gaining or losing energy (sand).

* Example:
A piece of Aluminum its mass is 120 gm & its temperature was 10 C0 , it is raised to
60 C0. Calculate the quantity of heat gained. (sp. Heat cap. Of "Al" = 900 J/ kg. c0).

* Answers:
𝐸 = 𝑚 𝑐 ∆𝜃 = 120 × 10−3 × 900 × (60 − 10) = 5400 𝐽

* Thermal capacity:
“Heat energy needed to change the temperature of the whole body by 10C."
∆𝐸
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
∆𝜃
- Also 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑚 × 𝑐
* Experiment to calculate specific heat capacity of a solid:
1st Electrical method:
- Use a balance to measure the mass “m” of the solid.
- Use thermometer to measure initial temp. of solid.
- Insert a heater inside the solid and use joule meter to
measure amount of energy supplied to the solid during
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nd

the experiment.
ge

- Switch off the heater measure the final temp.

El

- Calculate the difference in temp. (final – initial).

af
hr

- Use the rule to calculate sp. Heat cap. Of the solid.

As

* V.imp.:
- Calculated “c” is greater than the actual “c”.
(because some energy is lost to the surrounding.)

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* To improve the experiment:

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nd
1) Use insulator around the solid.

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2) Use low power heater.

af
3) Reduce the time of the experiment.

hr
As
- Heat energy can be calculated by knowing the power of the heater and the time
of the experiment by using a stop watch. ∆𝐸 = 𝑃 × 𝑡

- You can calculate the power of the heater by connecting it with ammeter and
voltmeter and use 𝑃 = 𝑉 × 𝐼 “V is voltage, I is the electric current”

* Example:
In an experiment to determine specific heat capacity of a metal block.
The following results are recorded as follows:
mass of the metal block is 1.0 kg, power of the heater is 200W, time for which the
heater is switched on was 2.5 minutes. The temp. changed from 60 °C to 110 °C.
Calculate the specific heat capacity of metal block.
* Answers:
E = P × t = 200 × 2.5 × 60 = 30000 𝐽

30000
c= = 600 J /kg. oc
1.0 x (110−60)

2nd Mixtures method:

- Measure the mass of the object "m".

- Put a known mass of water in the
insulated beaker and measure its initial
temp."θ1”
- Put the object on the boiling water
and wait until its temperature becomes
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nd

100 oc.
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El

- Transfer the object quickly to the cub

af

and stir gently until the temperature of

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the mixture (water and object) becomes stable.

- Measure the final temp. of the mixture “θ2”
- Elost by metal = Egained by water
m c (100 –θ2) metal = m c (θ2 – θ1) water

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* Example:

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nd
A piece of metal is heated in boiling water until it has reached the temperature of

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El
the water. It is then transferred rapidly to some water in a well-insulated cup. A very

af
sensitive thermometer is used to measure the initial and final temperatures of the water

hr
As
in the cup. (specific heat capacity of water = 4200 J / (kg K), mass of metal = 0.05 kg
mass of water in cup = 0.2 kg, initial temperature of water in cup = 21.1 °C
final temperature of water in cup = 22.9 °C. Calculate the specific heat capacity of metal.
* Answers:
- Energy gained by water 𝐸𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 = 0.2 × 4200 × (22.9 − 21.1) = 1512 𝐽
- Energy lost by metal = 1512 J
1512
𝑐= = 392 J/kg.oc
0.05×(100−22.9)

* Change in state:
- Change in state takes place at constant temperature.
- Heat energy gained is converted into mechanical energy to weaken or break
bonds between molecules to change the state.

* Melting point:
“The point at which a solid is converted into liquid state at constant temperature”
- It is achieved by heating or giving energy to the solid.

*How does melting (fusion) takes place:

Heat energy is converted into mechanical energy to increase the ke of molecules.
- The distance between molecules increases, converting into liquid.

* Boiling point:
“The point at which a liquid is converted into gas at constant temperature”
- It is achieved by heating or giving energy to the solid.
*How does Boiling (vaporisation) takes place:
y

- Heat energy is converted into mechanical energy to break bonds between molecules.
nd
ge

- Work is done against atm. pressure to push free molecules up converting into gas.
El
af
hr

* Condensation:
As

- Is the change of a gas into liquid at constant temperature.

- Condensation occurs by cooling.
- The gas molecules lose a part of its energy.
- Their ke decreases and their speed decreases.
- Gas molecules become close enough to hold each other's converting into liquid.
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* Solidification:
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- Is the change of a liquid into solid at constant temperature.

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nd
- Solidification occurs by cooling.

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El
- The liquid molecules lose a part of its energy.

af
- Their ke decreases and their speed decreases.

hr
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- Gas molecules become close enough to hold each other's converting into solid.

* Evaporation
“The process where some of liquid molecules converted into gas at temperatures below the
boiling point”

- How does it work:

- Most energetic molecules at the surface
Gain heat energy, their k.e. increases, break their bonds and escape to air.

* Very imp. Notes:

- Evaporation causes a cooling effect on the liquid
- If a body in contact with evaporating liquid:
The liquid gain heat energy from the body to evaporate.
So internal energy of the body decreases and temperature decreases.
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nd
ge

* Examples from daily life:

El

- Feeling cold after having a bath and didn’t dry your body.
af
hr

- Reducing the temperature of a patient by using a wet cloth.

As

- Radiator in cars.

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* Factors affecting the rate of evaporation:

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nd
1) The exposed surface area of the liquid:

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El
- Increasing the surface area, increases the

af
number of most energetic molecules, so

hr
As
evaporation rate increases.
2) The temperature:
- As temperature increases, amount of heat
energy gained by the liquid increases so
evaporation rate increases.
3) Humidity: - When humidity increases (the amount of water vapour above the surface of
the liquid) , the number of water molecules can escape from the liquid decreases, so
evaporation rate decreases.
4) The presence of air current (blowing air or wind).
Wind removes water vapour above the surface of the liquid so evaporation rate increases.

* Boiling and Evaporations:

Evaporation Boiling
Takes place at wide range of temperature. Takes place at a certain temperature.
It happens at the surface of liquid only. It happens in all parts of the liquid.
No air bubbles The presence of air bubbles.

- One common property between boiling and evaporation, liquid is converting into gas.

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nd
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El
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hr
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Heat Transfer

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nd
ge
Heat is transferred naturally from a substance with a higher temperature to a substance

El
with a lower temperature.

af
hr
Heat can be transferred in three ways.

As
1. Conduction - by a substance which does not move (solids).
2. Convection - by a substance which moves (liquids and gasses).
3. Radiation - infra-red radiation is exchanged between all substances.

* Conduction.
- Heat can be transferred by conduction only in solids.
- If one end of a solid is heated, the particles of the solid gain kinetic energy.
- They move faster. Vibrate more and their amplitude increases.
- They collide with the neighboring molecules sharing a part of their energy.
- This process continue until the whole rod becomes hot.

- Poor conductors (Insulators):

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nd

like non-metals the conduction takes place by the molecules only.

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El

- The process takes a long time to pass on their heat. Non-metals are not good conductors.
af

They are good insulator.

hr
As

- Good conductors:
- Like metals, heat is transferred very quickly because they have free electrons.
- These free electrons can transfer the heat energy by colliding with other atoms &
electrons in the metal.
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* Convection.

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- Heat can be transferred by convection in liquids and gases.

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- When a fluid layer is heated, its volume increases and its density decreases so it rises up.

af
- And whenit is cooled, its volume decreases and its density increases so it goes down.

hr
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* Experiment to show convection:
- Bring a glass beaker containing water.
- Put a small amount of a red dye by a dropper in
the bottom of the beaker. Start to heat the water.

= Observation:
- The red dye start to circulate upwards showing
convection currents.
* Explanation:
- Hot water layers expand, its volume increases so
Its density decreases and move up.

* You may be asked to draw the convection currents.

2) Sea breeze:
- It takes place during day light.
- The sun heats sand faster than it heats water.
- Since hot air rises, this causes a low pressure
To fill the void, relatively ‘cooler’ air flows
over the waters blows onto the land.
This rush of ‘cooler’ air is called sea breeze,

2nd Land breeze:

- It takes place during night.
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- The sand cool faster than nearby water

ge

- So warm air above water rises, this causes a

El

low pressure region.

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hr

- To fill the void, relatively ‘cooler’ air flows

As

over the sand blows onto the water.

-This rush of ‘cooler’ air is called sea breeze,

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* Radiation:

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nd
- When a body is heated, it emits heat energy to the

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El
surrounding in the form of radiations.

af
- These radiations are electromagnetic radiations called

hr
As
Infra-red radiations.
Infra-red radiations transfer through vacuum and gases.
- They transfer in all directions.
* Example:
( Heat from the Sun reaches us through the space by
traveling as infra-red radiation).

* V.Imp.:
- Heat is transferred from hotter to colder objects.
- For an object to be at a constant temperature it needs to transfer energy away from the
object at the same rate that it receives energy.

* If the average energy radiated is:

1) less than that absorbed, the temperature of the object will rise.
2) more than that absorbed, the temperature of the object will fall.

- Absorbing, emitting and reflecting infra-red radiations at different rates depending on the
type of surface which the object has.

* The greenhouse effect:

- Radiations from the sun are mostly visible
light and short wavelength Infra-red.

- So it can penetrate glass sheets of the

Green House.

- These radiations are absorbed by the soil,

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nd

plants, etc., raising their temperature.

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El
af

- These in turn emit infrared of long wave

hr

length which are not transmitted by the

As

glass. The greenhouse thus acts as a ‘heat-

trap’ and its temperature rises.

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* Global worming:

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nd
- Heat radiations from the sun heat the earth.

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- Earth emits heat energy to the space.

af
- Average temperature of the Earth remains constant because there is a balance

hr
between the incoming radiation and the radiation emitted from the Earth’s surface.

As
- When Carbon dioxide and Methane percentage increase in atmosphere, they act like
the glass sheets in a grain house.
The balance will be disturbed and the temperature of earth increases.

* Good and bad absorbers:

- Some surfaces absorb radiation better than others.

* Experiment to distinguish between good and bad absorbers of infrared radiation

n- Bring two identical surfaces, one of them is dull
y

black and the other one is shiny silver.

nd
ge

- Fix a disc using a piece of wax to each plate.

El

- Put them at the same distance from a heater.

af
hr

* Observations:
As

- The wax on the dull black melts first.

* Conclusion:
- Matt (dull) Black surfaces are best absorbers
and poor reflector.
- Shiny silver surfaces are poor absorbers but
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 53

* Experiments to distinguish between good and bad emitters of infrared radiation

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nd
- Bring two identical bottles dull black and shiny silver.

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- Put equal amounts of hot water in both of them and

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close them with a stopper.

hr
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- Put a blackened thermometer next to each of them.
- After a certain time check their temperatures.
* Observation:
- Temperature in the thermometer next to the dull black
bottle is higher.
* Conclusion:
- Matt (dull) Black surfaces are best emitters (radiators).
- Shiny silver surfaces are poor emitters (radiators).

* Very important:
- Part of the space shuttle is covered in matt black tiles. These help the craft to lose heat
- Firemen wear shiny surface cloth to reflect heat radiations away from their bodies.
- Shiny metal foil can be placed behind a radiator in a room to increase its efficiency.

* Consequences of heat transfer:

1) Car radiator:
- Both conduction and radiation occur.
- Is used to dissipate heat generated in the engine.
- It contains a fluid which circulates between the
engine block and the radiator.
- Thermal energy is transferred to the fluid by
conduction as it passes over the engine block.
- When the fluid enters the radiator, thermal energy
is transferred by conduction to the radiator which
then radiates energy in the infrared to the
surroundings.
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- The metal radiator is black and has a large

El
af

surface so is a good emitter of radiation.

hr

- In this way the fluid is cooled before it circulates

As

back to the engine block.

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2) Wood or coal fire:
 54

- Radiation and convection occur when a room is heated by a wood- or coal-burning fire.

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nd
- Thermal energy is radiated from the burning wood or coal and heats up objects in the

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El
room which absorb it.

af
- Air in contact with the hot wood or coal is warmed and rises upwards because it is

hr
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less dense than the cold air above.
Cooler air is drawn down to take its place and a convection current is set up which also
serves to transfer heat into the room.

3) Vacuum flask (Thermos):

- Keeps hot liquids hot or cold liquids cold.
- It reduces heat transfer of thermal energy by conduction,
convection and radiation.
- Making the flask a double-walled glass vessel
with a vacuum between the walls reduces conduction.
- Painting wall on the vacuum side by silver paint
reduces radiation.
- The lid and stopper reduces convection.

4) Kitchen pans:
- Heat from a stove is quickly transferred to all parts of a
metal saucepan because metals are good conductors of
heat.
- A poor conductor, such as plastic, is often used for the
handle of a saucepan to keep it cool.

5) Heating a room by convection:

- The hot radiator transfers heat to the nearby air when
air molecules collide with the radiator surface.
- The hot air near to the radiator expands, its volume
increases its density decreases and it starts to rise.
- The colder air above it gets pushed and circulates.
y

- Finally the colder air circulates near to the radiator

nd
ge

where it is heated and the whole process repeats itself.

El
af
hr
As

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55

As As
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 56

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WAVES

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- A disturbance that propagates.

af
- This means that waves can move energy

hr
As
(or information) from one place to another without moving
any substance (stuff) from one place to another.

* Types of waves:
1st According to the nature of the wave:
Electromagnetic waves Mechanical waves
- They are produced due to the changing in - They are produced due to the vibration of
both electric field & magnetic field. the particles of the medium.
- They don’t need a medium to propagate - They need a medium to propagate
(They can travel through vacuum) (they can’t travel through vacuum)
- They are transverse waves. -They may be transverse or longitudinal.
*Example: *Examples:
Light waves. Water waves, sound waves.

2nd According to their propagation through medium:

1) Transverse Waves
- The particles of the medium vibrate
perpendicular to the direction of wave
propagation
- It consists of consecutive peaks (crest) and
troughs.
- Crest (max. displacement upwards)
- Trough (max. displacement downwards)
* Wavelength of the transverse wave:
“The distance between two successive crests
(peaks) or troughs.”
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nd
ge

- Examples:
El

Light waves and water waves.

af
hr
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2) Longitudinal waves:
- The particles of the medium vibrate
backwards and forth along the direction in
which the wave is traveling..

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- Compression:

El
The region where the particles of the medium are closed (high pressure.)

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- Rarefactions:
The region where the particles of the medium
are apart (low pressure).

* The wavelength of the longitudinal wave:

- The distance between the centers of two
successive compressions or the centers
of two successive rarefactions.
- Example:
Sound waves
* Very important definitions:
* Amplitude "A":
"the maximum displacement from the origin position".
- The amplitude of the wave is measured from the peak
(or trough) to the mid-point.
- It is a measure of how much energy the wave has.

* Frequency "f" :
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nd

- The number of complete cycles (complete waves) in one second.

ge

- Hertz is the unit of frequency (symbol Hz). =

El

( )
af

* The period of a wave "T":

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"the time taken for one complete cycle".

- Time period = 1/ Frequency

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* Speed of the wave:

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nd
It is calculated from the relation:

ge
V=fλ

El
af
Examples:

hr
As
1. A sound wave its frequency= 3250Hz & a wavelength of 0·1m. Calculate its velocity.
*Answer:
= ×
3250 x 0·1 = 325 m/s.

2. A body vibrates 600 vibrations per minuet. Calculate:

i) Its frequency.
ii) Its time period.
iii) Its wavelength if the wave speed is 20 m/s.
*Answers:
600
i) 𝑓 = = 10 𝐻𝑧
60
1 1
ii) 𝑇 = = = 0.1 𝑠
𝑓 10
𝑣 20
iii) 𝜆 = = = 2𝑚
𝑓 10

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Sound

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- Sounds are produced by vibrations of the particles of the medium.

af
hr
- Sound is a mechanical, longitudinal wave which can travel

As
through gases (air), Liquids or solids (the Earth).
- Sound travel faster through the solid than under water,
and faster under water than it will in air.
(Sound speed in air ranges between 300 m/s to 343 m/s)
- Sound cannot travel through a vacuum.
- When an object vibrates in air it produces sound waves.
- Sound speed in steel reaches 5120 m/s and in water in water
reaches 1484 m/s at 20 degrees Celsius.
- Sound travels much more slowly than light.
- Sound waves can be reflected, refracted or diffracted Sound - Loudness and Pitch.
N.B:
- The loudness of sound depends on the amplitude of the wave.
(The bigger the amplitude, the louder the sound.)
- The pitch of sound (how high the note is) depends on the frequency of the wave.
(The higher the frequency, the higher the pitch.)

Examples:
- Frequency of A = frequency of B
- Sound B is louder than sound A (Because the amplitude
of B is greater than A, so the intensity of B is greater than
the intensity of A.)

- Frequency of A is smaller than the frequency of B, so

the pitch of A is smaller than the pitch of B.
- Sound B has the same loudness of sound A (Because
they have the same amplitude and the same intensity.)
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nd

- Sound B is louder than sound A (Because its intensity

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El

is greater than that of A and also its amplitude is greater

af

than that of A.)

hr
As

- The pitch of B is higher than

that of A. (because its frequency
is greater than that of A.)

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nd
Sound Echo:

ge
- “It is the repetition of sound due to its reflection.

El
- Its conditions:

af
hr
1. The presence of large reflecting surfaces.

As
2. The distance between the sound source & the ear =
17m or more.
N.B:
- Materials which are soft and uneven (like curtains,
carpets and cushions) absorb sound much more than
they reflect it, and decrease reverberation.
- Reflected ultrasound is used for range and direction
finding, scanning and cleaning.

Sound Human Hearing (Sonic waves):

- Sound frequencies between 20 and 20,000 Hz can be heard by people.
- As people get older, the higher frequencies become more difficult to hear.
- Hearing can be damaged by being close to very loud sounds over a long period of time.
-Unwanted sound is sometimes called noise pollution.
- Noise pollution can cause serious distress.
N.B:
- Sound propagates in air in the form of successive compressions and rarefactions.
- Compression is a higher than normal air-pressure.
- Rarefaction is lower than normal air-pressure.
- Together these two elements make up a sound wave, which is what we hear when
something is hit or played.
- If you look at any normal visual representation of a sound wave, the humps above the
middle line are called compression, the humps below, rarefaction.

* Experiment to show that sound waves (mechanical waves)

require a material medium for its propagation
- Electric bell suspended inside an airtight glass bell jar
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nd

- An electric bell is suspended inside an airtight glass bell jar

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El

connected with a vacuum pump.

af

- As the electric bell circuit is completed, the sound is heard.

hr
As

- Now if the air is slowly removed from the bell jar by using a
vacuum pump, the intensity of sound goes on decreasing and
finally no sound is heard when all the air is drawn out.
- We would be seeing the hammer striking the gong repeatedly. This clearly proves that
sound requires a material for its propagation.
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nd
* An exp. To calculate speed of sound in air:

ge
- Tools: Stop watch, meter tape and flash gun

El
- Procedures:

af
hr
- Measure the distance “d” between the

As
experimenter and the observer by using the
meter tape (not less than 300 m)
- The experimenter shots the flash gun
And the observer measures the time
between seeing the flash and hearing the
sound “t”
- Calculations: speed = distance / time to
calculate the speed of sound in air.
- Precautions: - The distance ≈ 300 m
- Repeat the experiment and take average.
- Make the experiment in the absence of
strong winds.
N.B: Assume that light of flash reaches the observer in 0 second.
- Ignore weak winds direction.

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Water waves

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- We can study water waves by using “Ripple tank”

hr
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- Transverse waves travel on the water surface.
- Water waves shown as a series of parallel lines.
- each line is called wave front.
- The distance between two wave fronts = 1 wavelength.
- Transverse water waves can be used to show reflection,
refraction and diffraction.

Water reflection
Water waves are reflected from hard flat surfaces as shown below.
- After reflection, a wave has the same speed,
frequency and wavelength, it is only the direction of
the wave that has changed.
y
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El
af
hr
As

Ashraf Elgendy
 63

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nd
N.B:

ge
- The part of the wave which hits the wall in the above two pictures is reflected straight

El
af
back on itself.

hr
- Upon reaching the barrier placed within the water, these waves bounce off the water

As
and head in a different direction.
- Regardless of the angle at which the wave fronts approach the barrier, one general law
of reflection holds true: the angle at which they approach the barrier equals the angle
at which they reflect off the barrier. (This is known as the law of reflection.)

* Water refraction
- When water waves travel from deep water (fast) to
shallow water (slow) the change in speed of the wave
causes refraction.

N.B:
- After refraction, the wave has the same frequency but
a different speed, wavelength and direction.
- If the wave enters the new medium at any angle other than normal to the boundary,
then the change in the wave's speed will also change its direction.
y

- The most significant property of water which would affect the speed of waves
nd
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traveling on its surface is the depth of the water.

El

- If water waves travels from deep water into shallow water, they will slow down.
af
hr
As

Ashraf Elgendy
 64

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*Water Diffraction

ge
El
"It is the spreading of a wave if it passes through a narrow slit or an edge."

af
- Total diffraction occurs, when the gap is narrow, while it is partial diffraction occurs

hr
As
when the gap is wide.

- After diffraction in the same medium, the diffracted wave will have the same speed,
same wavelength and same frequency.

N.B:
To increase the diffraction,:
- Decrease the gap width.
- Increase the wave length by decreasing the wave frequency.
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Ashraf Elgendy
 65

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Electromagnetic waves

ge
El
af
hr
- Electromagnetic waves which have both an electric & a magnetic effect.

As
- Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves.
- Electromagnetic waves are sometimes called rays or radiation.
(these words are also used for radioactivity).
- All electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed (in a vacuum).
- Their speed is 300,000,000 m/s (3x108m/s) in a vacuum (that is 300 million m/sec.).
- They have a varied wavelengths & frequencies which form electromagnetic spectrum.
- They do not need a medium to propagate; they can travel through a vacuum.

N.B:
- You need to know the order of the regions shown above.
y

- The wavelength increases from Gamma rays to Radio waves. (radio waves have the
nd
ge

longest wavelength while gamma rays have the shortest wavelength.)

El

- The frequency decreases from Gamma rays to Radio waves. (radio waves have the
af
hr

smallest frequency, while gamma rays have the greatest frequency)

As

- All types of electromagnetic waves have the same speed in space or in air.
- Electromagnetic waves can transmit energy and information but can't transmit matter.

Ashraf Elgendy
 66

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nd
Uses of Electromagnetic Waves:

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El
1) Radio Waves.

af
- Radio waves are used for broadcasting radio and TV programs.

hr
As
- The transmitted information may be analogue or digital.
- Radio wave are used as a carrier.

2) Microwaves.
- Microwaves have wavelengths shorter than radio waves.
- Some of these wavelengths are used to transmit information to satellites.
- Mobile phone networks use microwaves.
- Microwave cookers use these waves which give energy to the water molecules in food,
causing it to get hot.
N.B:
- Microwaves have some bad effects; some types of the human body cells may be
damaged or killed by the heating effect of the waves.

3) Infra-red.
- Often called infra-red radiation.
- The energy of the wave causes the material to get hot.
- Ordinary ovens, grills and toasters use infra-red radiation to cook food
- Infra-red waves can transmit information through the air to operate TV's and VCR's by
remote control.
- Information can also be sent through optical fibers.
N.B:
- Infra red radiations some bad effects; they damage or kill living cells (such as skin
cells) by burning them.

4) Visible light rays

- It ranges from Red light of low frequency and long wavelength (just beside I.R.)
y
nd

to the violet light which has a large frequency & small wavelength (just beside U.V.)
ge
El

- Visible light rays are used in our daily life.

af

- Also they are required for some devices like Cameras, copiers & other optical devices.
hr
As

5) Ultraviolet.
- Ultraviolet waves are often called ultraviolet light or ultraviolet radiation.
- Ultraviolet waves are used for fluorescent lighting and security marking.
- Ultraviolet light can be used to start chemical reactions.
Ashrafwaves
- Ultraviolet Elgendy
are used in sterilizing food.
 67

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ge
N.B:- Ultraviolet waves have some bad

El
af
effects; (Ultraviolet light from the Sun causes

hr
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skin to tan.)
(Intense ultraviolet light in strong sunlight can damage cells which are deep
inside skin tissue. This type of damage can result in skin cancer.)
(Darker skin is more resistant to ultraviolet light than lighter skin.)
- Very intense Ultra Violet rays cause blindness.
- To be safe, avoid strong sunlight or use a skin block.

6) X-rays.
- Electromagnetic waves with a short wavelength are called X-rays (not X waves).
- X-ray photographs are used to show the image of bones against a black
background. (These photographs can show if bones are broken or
damaged.)
- X-ray diffraction can give information about the arrangement of atoms in
materials.
- Low intensity X-rays can damage living cells and cause cancer.
N.B:
- People who work with X-rays take measures to protect themselves from exposure.
- They wear a film badge & stand behind special screens.
- High intensity X-rays will kill living cells.

7) Gamma rays.
- Electromagnetic waves with a shorter wave length in the electromagnetic spectra.
- Are called gamma rays or gamma radiation (not gamma waves).
- Gamma rays may be emitted from radioactive materials.
- It is used in a technique called radiotherapy which aims to kill the cancer cells.
- Gamma radiation is used to kill microorganisms, which is called sterilizing.
y

- It is used to sterilize food and hospital equipment such as surgical instruments.

nd
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N.B:
El

- Low intensity gamma radiation can damage living cells and cause cancer.
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hr

- High intensity gamma radiation will kill cells.

As

Ashraf Elgendy
 68

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nd
* Communication system:

ge
- Electromagnetic waves are the basis of many communication systems:

El
af
1st Microwaves:

hr
As
- Only need short aerials for transmission and reception of signals,
- They can penetrate the walls of most buildings, so are used for mobile phones, Satellite
broad casting and wireless internet.
2nd Radio waves:
- Are weakened when passing through walls, but are suitable for
short-range applications such as Bluetooth.
3rd Visible light:
- High-speed broadband internet and cable television signals are carried by optical fibers.
- Because glass is transparent to visible light and some infrared.
- Visible light and shortwave infrared have higher frequencies than radio waves so can
transmit data at a higher rate.
* Very important:
- Information is sent in digital form or in analogue form.
1st Analogue:
- voltages can have any value within a certain
range over which they can be varied
smoothly and continuously, as shown in
- So all values of frequencies are available.
* Advantages:
- Simple technology, cheap, can cover large area.
* Disadvantages:
- Low rate of data transmission, low security.
And pick up large electrical noise.

* 2nd Digital signals:

- Signals has two values only:
- High or One (high voltage). - Low or Zero (low or
y

near 0 V).
nd
ge

* Advantages:
El

- Transmit information are transmitted at a faster rate.

af
hr

- High security. - Less affected by noise.

As

- Less distortion because they can be regenerated

more accurately.
* Disadvantages:
- Complicated technology. - More expensive than analogue.
- Have a low range of coverage so they need repeaters to regenerate the signal.
Ashraf Elgendy
 69

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nd
Light

ge
El
- Light is an electromagnetic, transverse wave.

af
hr
- It is one part (region) of the electromagnetic spectrum.

As
- Light is the visible region, it is the part used by our eyes to see.
- Like any electromagnetic wave, light can travel through a vacuum.
- Light travels very quickly. There is nothing which can travel faster.
- The speed of light is 3x108 m/s in space or air.

* Properties of light waves:

1st Light reflection:
- Reflection occurs when light rays incidence
on a glazed or semi glazed surfaces.
- The light ray which hits the mirror is called
the incident ray.
- The light ray which bounces off the mirror is
called the reflected ray.
- The angle of incidence:
The angle between the incident ray and the
normal.
- The angle of reflection:
The angle between the reflected ray and the normal.
- The angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection, i = r.
- If the light ray incident normally, it will reflect on its self.
* Properties of images formed by a plan mirror:
- The formed image is virtual.
- The image at the same distance behind the mirror
as the object is in front of it.
- The image has the same size as the object.
- The image is laterally reversed.
y

- The image is up right.

nd
ge

*Formation of image
El

by a plane mirror:
af
hr

The incidents rays reflect

As

diverge to each other’s.

The extensions of the
reflected rays intersected
inside the mirror forming
a virtual image.
Ashraf Elgendy
 70

y
2nd Light refraction:

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ge
- A change in the direction of the light ray when it passes from one transparent medium

El
to another transparent medium due to the change in its speed.

af
hr
- The higher the density, the slower the speed of the travelling light.

As
- Light travels fastest in space (a vacuum) and a little slower in air.
.

- A line drawn at right angles to the boundary

between the two media is called a normal.
- Light which enters a glass block along a
normal does not change direction but it does
travel more slowly through the glass and so
its wavelength is smaller.
- When a ray of light enters a glass block at
an angle other than the normal it changes
speed, wavelength and direction as shown
below.
- In going from a less dense medium (air) to a
more dense medium (glass) light bends
towards the normal.
- This means that i > r
y

- In going from a more dense to a less

nd
ge

dense medium (glass to air), light bends away from the normal. r > i
El
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Ashraf Elgendy
 71

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* Refractive index of a medium n:

ge
"The ratio between the speed of light in air to the speed of light in the medium"

El
af
hr
speed of light in air

As
n
speed of light in the medium
N.B:
- The refractive index is always greater than unit (one), because the speed of light in air
is always greater than the speed of light at any medium.
- The refractive index of light in air =1.
- The refractive index can be defined as:
"The ratio between sin the angle in air to sin the angle in the medium.
N.B:
sin iair
- If the light travels from “air” to the medium n 
medium 
sin rmedium

n  sin rair
- If the light travels from the medium to “air” medium sin i
medium

* Example:
- Light travels at 3x108 m/s in air and 2.25 x108 m/s in water. Calculate:
a) The refractive index of water.
b) The angle of refraction for a ray approaching water with an angle of incidence of 550.
* Answers:
3 108
a) n   1.33
2.25 108

sin i
b) n 
sin r
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sin i sin 550 0.819

sin r     0.616
ge

r  38.00
El

n 1.33 1.33
af
hr

N.B:
As

We can drive a relation between wavelength and refractive index

in air
nmedium  
in medium
Ashraf Elgendy
 72

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Total Internal Reflection

ge
- When a light ray emerges from a medium – denser than denser than air– into air, it

El
af
refracts away from the normal,

hr
As
- As angle of incidence increases, the refracted ray gets closer the separating surface.
- At a certain angle of incidence (Critical angle “C”), light ray refracts on the separating
surface between the medium and air, makes an angle of refraction = 90o in air.
- Critical angle depends on the medium at which light ray travels from it to air.
- If angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle, the light ray reflects again to the
medium with the same angle of incidence. (Total Internal Reflection)

* Critical angle:
“It is the acute angle of
incident in the more optical
dense medium which opposes
an angle = 90o in air or in the
less optical dens medium.
N.B:
- The critical angle is different
for different materials.
- For glass it is about 42
degrees.
- Total internal reflection
happens when i > C (critical
angle).

N.B:
1
n
sin C
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Ashraf Elgendy
 73

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Application on total internal reflection

ge
1) Fiber optics:

El
af
- It is a flexible, transparent fiber made of high

hr
quality glass or plastic, slightly thicker than a human hair.

As
- It transmits light between the two ends of the fiber.

- It is used in:
1) Medical surgeries (endoscope)

.* How does it work?

- When light enters one end of the fiber it incidence with
an angle greater than critical angle of the material of the
fiber so light experiences total internal reflections until it
emerges from the other side.

N.B:
- In endoscope, image is formed due to reflection of light
back again from investigated object or organ.
- Optical fiber is divided into thousands of small pipes to
increase the resolution of the formed image or increase the
efficiency of transferring information.

2) Reflecting prism:
- A right angle (45 – 90 – 45) triangular prism.
- Its refractive index is approximately 1.49
And its critical angle is about 420.
- It is used to reflect light rays by 900 or 1800
- In some devices like periscope in submarines.
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* How does it work?

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- Light ray inters perpendicular to one side of the prism so it

hr

passes without refraction.

As

- The incident light ray strikes the internal side of the prism
with an angle > critical angle of the prism so it experiences a
total internal reflection until it emerges perpendicular from the
prism.
Ashraf Elgendy
 74

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* Very important cases:

ge
1) Semicircular lens:

El
- Part of incident ray is reflected and the other part is refracted to air.

af
hr
- incident ray and refracted ray pass without refraction because they incidence normal to

As
the glass surface with an angle of incidence = 0 o

2) Glass block:
- Emergent ray is parallel to
the incident ray
- Angle of incidence “1” =
angle of emergent “4”
- Angle of “2” = angle “3”

Dispersion (Refraction of Colours).

y
nd

- A glass prism of angle 60 degrees

ge
El

can disperse white light into its

af

different colours (called a spectrum).

hr
As

- The seven colours of light are

Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue,
Indigo and violet.
- You can remember the colours and
order by remembering:
(Richard Of York
Ashraf Gave Battle In
Elgendy
Vain.)
 75

y
- Different colours of light have each a different frequency and wavelength.

nd
ge
- The different colours are refracted by different amounts.

El
- Red light has the longest wavelength and is refracted least.

af
hr
- Violet light has the shortest wavelength and is refracted most.

As
- Speed decreases from red to violet in glass
(red is the fastest spectrum while violet is the slowest spectrum)
- The source of light may also emit infra-red and ultraviolet light.
- Infra-red light is heat radiation with a longer wavelength than red light.
- A thermometer placed at IR will show a rise in temperature.
- Ultraviolet light has a shorter wavelength than violet light.
- A fluorescent material will glow when placed at UV.

* Monochromatic spectrum:
- The light which has a single wavelength or single frequency.
- Monochromatic spectrum can be obtained by optical filters.

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Ashraf Elgendy
 76

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Convex Lens

ge
A converging glass piece, thick from the middle and thin from the terminals.

El
af
hr
As
* The optical Centre of the lens:
A point in the med point of the
lens at which any ray passes
through it will not refract.

* Principle focus:
The point at which all the refracted rays (which
incident parallel to the axis) are intersected.

* Focal length:
The distance between the principle focus of and the optical centre of the lens.

* Very important paths of light rays:

1) If the ray incident parallel to the principle axes, it refracts passing with the focus.
y

2) If the ray incident passing with the focus, it refracts parallel to the principle axes.
nd
ge

3) If the ray incident passing with the optical centre, it will pass without deviation.
El
af
hr
As

Ashraf Elgendy
 77

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nd
N.B:

ge
- If the object at a distance greater than the

El
focal length, the image will be real

af
hr
,inverted.

As
- When the object moved a small distance
towards the lens, the image will be larger
and at a greater distance from the lens.

- When the object moved a small distance

away from the lens, the image will be
smaller and closer to the lens.

- If the object positioned between the focus and the lens, the image will be virtual
,upright and magnified.

* Magnifying glass:
- Object is put between the focus and the lens.
- The formed image is virtual, upright and magnified.

* Its uses:
- Reading, Examining finger prints, Examining stamps of golden and silver jewelry
And examining small parts of devices and watches.

y
nd
ge
El

Real image Virtual image

af

It is formed due to the intersection of It is formed due to the intersection of the

hr
As

the refracted rays extensions of the refracted rays.

It is always inverted It is always upright.
It is received on a screen. It is can’t be received on a screen.
Example: Example:
Image on cinema screen and projectors Image in plane mirrors and in microscopes.
Ashraf Elgendy
 78

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nd
* Diverging (concave) lens:

ge
El
- A piece of glass then from its middle and thick edges.

af
- It diverges the light rays.

hr
As
- Its used to fix short sight.
- It forms a diminished virtual image

* Human eye and formation of images:

- The human eye gathers light from objects.
- In a healthy eye, a smaller, inverted, real
image of an object is created on the retina at
the back of the eye.
- Electrical impulses from the eye travel
through the optic nerve to the brain.
-The brain Takes inverted image from the
retina and flips it so that the image we “see”
appears upright

* Long sight and short sight:

1st Long sight:
- A long-sighted person sees distant objects clearly but
close objects appear blurred.
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nd

- The image of a near object is focused behind the retina

ge
El

because the eyeball is too

af

short or because the eye lens cannot be made thick

hr
As

enough.
- A converging spectacle lens (or contact lens) corrects
the problem.
- It converges the light before it enters the eye, to give
an image on the retina.
Ashraf Elgendy
 79

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nd
2nd Short sight:

ge
El
A short-sighted person sees near objects clearly but

af
distant objects appear blurred.

hr
As
- The image of a distant object is formed in front of the
retina because the eyeball is
too long or because the eye lens cannot be made thin
enough.
- The problem is corrected by a diverging spectacle lens
(or contact lens).
- It diverges the light before it enters the eye, to give an
image on the retina.

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ge
El
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hr
As

Ashraf Elgendy
 80
Unit Four “Electricity and Magnetism”

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ge
El
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hr
As

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El
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hr
As

Ashraf Elgendy
Ashraf Elgendy
 81
Unit Four “Electricity and Magnetism”

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nd
Static Electricity

ge
El
Conductors and Insulators:

af
The behavior of an object which has been charged is

hr
As
dependent upon whether the object is made of a conductive
or a nonconductive material.
1.) Conductors:
- Conductors are materials which have free electrons.
- The particles of the conductor permit the free flow of electrons.

2) Insulators:
- Insulators are materials which don’t have free electrons.
- If charge is transferred to an insulator at a given location,
the excess charge will remain at the initial location of charging.
- The particles of the insulator do not permit the flow of electrons.

- Electrostatic Shock.
- If a high amount of charge builds up on an
insulator, it can escape through a small distance in
air to a neutral or oppositely charged object.
- Notice that pulling off a jumper or shirt over
your head can cause crackling.
If the clothing is made from a synthetic fiber (a
plastic material which is a good insulator) then
charge is transferred as it rubs against your hair.
- Touching a car door or a radiator can sometimes
give you a shock.
- If both the car seat and your clothing are made from a synthetic fiber, then one rubs
against the other transferring charge as you step out of the car.
- Similarly, if both the carpet and your shoes are made from synthetic materials,
then charge is transferred as you walk around.
y
nd

- Lightning is a natural example of a huge charge jumping across a very large air gap,
ge
El

and we know how dangerous lightning can be.

af

N.B:
hr
As

You walk across the rug, reach for the doorknob & ..........ZAP!!!
You get a static shock.
Or, you come inside from the cold, pull off your hat
and......BOING!!! Static hair - that static electricity makes your
hair stand straight out from your head. What is going on here?
And why is static
Ashraf more of a problem in the winter?
Elgendy
Ashraf Elgendy
 82
Unit Four “Electricity and Magnetism”

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ge
El
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Electric charges:

hr
As
1) +ve charge: When an object losses electrons.
2) –ve charge: When an object gains electrons.
Attraction and repulsion:
- Like charges repel and unlike charges attract.

* Electrostatic field:
- Area around a charge at which another charge experiences a force.

y
nd
ge
El

N.B:
af
hr

- Electric charge is measured in

As

"Coulomb" Q  N e
(“Q “quantity of charges,” N "number of charges, “e " the charge of a single electron)
- Neutrons have no charge, they are neutral.
- The charge of one proton is equal in strength to the charge of one electron.
Ashraf Elgendy
- Atom is neutrally charged, because number of +ve protons = number of –ve electrons.
Ashraf Elgendy
 83
Unit Four “Electricity and Magnetism”

y
nd
- Electrons can move and transfer from material to another one.

ge
El
af
hr
* Methods of electrification:

As
1) Friction (Rubbing) method:
- One way to do this is by rubbing two different materials together.
- During rubbing, one of them will lose electrons and becomes +ve charge.
The 2nd material will gain these electrons and becomes –ve charge.
Example:
- Rub a piece of ebonite (very hard, black rubber) across a piece of wool.
* Explain what happens.
- Wool will be positively charged and ebonite will be negatively charged.
- Explanation”
- Wool lost some electrons to ebonite rod

2) Induction method:
1st To charge a copper sphere with a -ve charge:
1) Put a neutral copper sphere on a plastic baes.
2) Bring a negative rod nearby. This will cause a separation of charges in the sphere.
Those electrons will move to the side of the sphere near the rod, leaving the +ve charges
on the other side.
3) Earth the sphere by connecting a metal wire to the sphere. The free electron will
move from the earth to the sphere via the wire.
4) Remove the wire, and then remove the rod,
5) The –ve charges will distribute evenly on the sphere.

y
nd
ge
El
af
hr
As

Ashraf Elgendy
Ashraf Elgendy
 84
Unit Four “Electricity and Magnetism”

y
2nd To charge a copper sphere with a -ve charge:

nd
ge
1) Put a neutral copper sphere on a plastic baes.

El
2) Bring a positive rod nearby. This will cause a separation of charges in the sphere.

af
hr
Those electrons will move to the far side of the sphere away from the rod, leaving the

As
+ve charges on side near the rod.
3) Earth the sphere by connecting a metal wire to the sphere. The free electron will
move from the sphere to the earth via the wire.
4) Remove the wire, and then remove the rod.
5) The +ve charges will distribute evenly on the sphere.

N.B:
- Think of the earth as a huge reservoir of charge… it can either gain or give electrons as
needed. (Depending on what the situation is, either electrons will travel up the
grounding wire to the object being charged, or travel down to the ground.)

Uses of static electricity:

- Electrostatic charge is used in paint spraying, inkjet printers, photocopiers
and the removal of pollution from industrial chimneys.

* Dangers of static electricity:

- When charge jumps across an air gap it causes a spark. The spark can ignite flammable
y
nd

liquid vapors and powders in pipes.

ge

- Care must be taken to avoid sparks when putting fuel in cars or aircraft.
El

- The fuel itself is an insulator (a hydrocarbon) and charge can be transferred as it flows
af
hr

through a pipe if the pipe is also an insulator.

As

- The solution is the same.

- Use earthling straps between the pipe and earth.

Ashraf Elgendy
Ashraf Elgendy
 Ashraf Elgendy 85
”Unit 4 “Electricity and Magnetism

2nd Dynamic electricity

Very important symbols:

y
nd
ge
El
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hr
As

* The Electric Current:

“It is the flow of charges through a conductor”
- The direction of the conventional electric
current opposes the direction of the charges.
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nd
ge

* The Electric current Intensity “I” :

El

(It is the rate of flow of charge)

af
hr

Q
As

I
t
- The S.I. unit of measuring the electric current
intensity is the Ampere “A”
- Ammeter:
“ is theAshraf
device Elgendy
which is used to measure the electric current intensity.”
- Ammeter is connected in electric circuits in series.
Ashraf Elgendy
 Ashraf Elgendy 86
”Unit 4 “Electricity and Magnetism

* Potential difference (voltage):

- It is the energy per unit charge or the
E

y
V

nd
ge
Q

El
- The S.I. unit of voltage is the Volt “V”.

af
hr
* Electromotive force (emf):

As
- Total work done to drive a unit charge through the
whole circuit.
- Voltmeter:
It is the device which is used to measure the electric
potential difference.
- Voltmeter is connected in electric circuits in
parallel.

* The electric resistance

It is a measure of the difficulty of passing an electric current through that
conductor. It explains the relationship between voltage the current intensity
With more resistance in a circuit, less electricity will flow through the circuit.
R = V/I
- The S.I. unit of electric resistance is “Ohm” Ω. (1 Ω = 1V/A.)

* Factors affecting the resistance of a resistor

1- The length of the conductor.
RαL
(The resistance is directly proportional to the length
of the resistor).

2- The cross – sectional area of the resistor.

R α 1/A
(The resistance is inversely proportional to the
cross - sectional area of the resistor).
y
nd

N.B:
ge
El

- The previous relations take place at constant temperature.

af

- Cross sec. area of a resistor “A” = π d2/ 4 or π r2

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As

3- The type of the resistor.

Iron wires have an electric resistance greater than copper wires of same dimensions
of iron wires. This is attributed to the type of material.

* Types of resistors:
Ashraf Elgendy
1) Fixed resistors.
Ashraf Elgendy
 Ashraf Elgendy 87
”Unit 4 “Electricity and Magnetism

2) Variable resistor.

* Variable resistor is used to:

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nd
1) Controls current intensity.

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2) Controls potential difference.

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2) Controls the resistance of the circuit.

hr
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* Ohm’s law circuit:
- If we use the variable resistor the circuit
shown to vary the voltage across the fixed
resistor, hence varies the current intensity
in the circuit and plot a graph between
current and voltage , we will find that,
Vα I
* Ohm’s Law:
"The potential difference across a resistor is
directly proportional to the current intensity
passes through it"

* Very important graphs:

(I – V) graphs:
Metal wire Filament lamp

- Resistance is constant.
nd

- When temp. increases, resistance

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(constant gradient) increases. (Gradient decreases)

El
af
hr

*N.B:
As

To calculate the resistance of the resistor from the graphs, choose one value of the
potential difference and take the current value which corresponding it and apply the
relation; R = V/I

Ashraf Elgendy
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 Ashraf Elgendy 88
”Unit 4 “Electricity and Magnetism

* Electrical power:
"It is rate at which electric work "or energy" is dissipated. P = W/t

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nd
* Very important rules:

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P = VI P = I2 R P= V2/R

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af
* Example:

hr
As
- A lamb is labeled (100W – 200 V). Calculate:
i) The electric current intensity passing through the lamb/
ii) The resistance of the lamp.
iii) The electric energy consumed by the lamb in 2 minutes.
* Answers:
i) I = P/V = 100/200 = 0.5A
ii) R=V/I = 200/0.5 = 400Ω
iii) E = P t = 100 x 2 x 60 = 12000 J = 12K.J.

Electric circuits
* Types of connection:
Series Parallel

1 1 1
- Total resistance: - Total resistance: R  
total R1 R2
Rtot = R1 + R2
- Current intensity: - Current intensity:
Is the same in all parts of the circuit. - Is distributed between the branches.
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nd

- potential difference: I = I1 + I2
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- greater resistance branch, takes smaller

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- is divided between the resistors,

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Vtot = V1 + V2 + V3 current I α 1/R

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As

- The larger resistance takes larger part * potential difference:

of the voltage V α R. Is the same in all branches each branch.

Ashraf Elgendy
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 Ashraf Elgendy 89
”Unit 4 “Electricity and Magnetism

* Advantages of parallel connection:

- We can control each device independently.
- Each device got the same voltage as the source.

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nd
- Decreases the total resistance in the circuit.

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- If one of the devices is damaged, other devices still working.

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hr
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* N.B:
R1  R2
If we have only two resistors in parallel: Rtot 
R1  R2
* Examples:
1) From the figure, calculate:
i) Total resistance
ii) Current intensity in the circuit.
iii) Potential difference across each resistor.
* Answers:
i) Rtot = 2 + 1 = 3Ω ii) I = V/ R = 6/3= 2A
iii) V1 = I R1 = 2 x 2 = 4V
V2 = I R2 = 2 x 1 = 2V Or V2 = 6 – 4 = 2V

2) From the figure, calculate:

i) Total resistance
ii) Total current in the circuit.
iii) The value of Current in each branch.
.
* Answers:
1 1 1 1 1
i)     R = 2Ω
R 3 6 2
3 6
R
Or tot   2  ii) I = V/R = 12/2 = 6A
3 6
iii) I1 = 12/6 = 2A I2 = 12/3 = 4A
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nd
ge
El
af
hr
As

Ashraf Elgendy
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 Ashraf Elgendy 90
”Unit 4 “Electricity and Magnetism

Action and use of circuit components

1) Potential Divider:

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nd
- By moving the sliding contact along A-B the

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Output voltage changes by changing output resistor.

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- If the contact is moved towards "B" the output

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voltage increases.

As
- If the contact is moved towards "A" the output
voltage decreases.
- If the contact is held at "A" the output voltage
will be zero.

* N.B:
Potential divider can be made up of two resistors.
- The output voltage from a potential divider will be a
proportion of the input voltage and is determined by
the resistor values.
- If R1 > R2 so V1 > V2 and the vice – versa.

2) Thermoster:
- A thermistor is a special type of resistor
which has been manufactured so that its resistance
decreases as its temperature increases.
- A plot of resistance against temperature
is given below.
It shows high resistance at very low
temperature, and shows
low resistance at high temperature.
- The thermistor is used as a heat sensor
in some devices like ovens and electric heaters.

3) Light dependent resistor (LDR):

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nd

- All you need to know, that the

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resistance of LDR goes down as the

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amount of light goes up and resistance

hr

decreases as light intensity increases,

As

- The LDR can be used in street

lightning to switch lights on at night
automatically.

Ashraf Elgendy
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 Ashraf Elgendy 91
”Unit 4 “Electricity and Magnetism

4) Diode:

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- It is made of a semi – conductor material.

nd
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- A diode only allows current to flow in one direction through it, the direction in

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which the arrow is pointing.

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hr
- This property is used in the conversion of a.c. to d.c. (a.c. rectification).

As
N.B:
There is a type of diodes
called LED or light
emitted diode

5) Fuse
- A fuse is a thin piece of wire which is manufactured to melt
when a certain current (called its rating) passes
through it.
- In this way the fuse protects the rest of the circuit
from the damage caused by too high a current.
- A fuse is a safety device which switches off an
appliance if too large a current flows through the Live wire.
- The fuse is connected between the live pin and the Live
wire of a plug.
- The fuse has a rating printed on the outside in amps.
- If the current going through the fuse rises above its rated value, then the fuse
"blows" (it melts) which turns off the appliance.
y

- For example:
nd

If the fuse says 5 amps, then a current greater than 5 amps will blow the fuse.
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- To understand how a fuse works in more detail, we must look at the Heating Effect
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of Current.
hr
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- The wires of the circuit get hotter with increasing current.

- The more current passing through the wire, the hotter it gets.
- A very hot wire might melt or set fire to the insulation which covers it.

Ashraf Elgendy
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 Ashraf Elgendy 92
”Unit 4 “Electricity and Magnetism

Dangerous of electricity
- Major Dangers:

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nd
Electric Shock or fire Hazard.

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Causes:

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1) Damage Insulation:

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- Live wire exposed due to poor insulation.
- It can cause a severe electric shock to the
user if he touches it accidentally.
- May lead to serious injury and even death.
2) Overheating of cables:
- Conditions like short circuits or overloading.
i) A short circuit:
- When the live wire makes contact with the neutral
wire due to a damaged insulation between them. Thus,
a large current is produced and the amount of heat
generated can melt the insulation and start a fire.
ii) Overloading:
- Too many electrical appliances are plugged into the same power outlet, through the
use of multi-way adaptors and are used at the same time.
- Current that flows through the adaptor will be excessively large.
- The wire becomes overloaded and overheated. FIRE!!!
3) Damp Condition:
- Under damp condition, the electrical resistance of the body is reduced greatly.
- Thus any electric shock that occurs will be fatal as the current passing through the
body will be high.
Safe Use of Electricity
- Prevent the use of wrong power rating.
- Preventing overloading of power outlet.
* N.B:
From time to time you will need to change fuses in electrical plugs, or simply replace
the entire plug on your appliance. Many people don’t realise that this is something
you can do yourself and all you need is a
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nd

phillips-head screwdriver!
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Your electrical cable should have 3 wires inside

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of it – live, neutral and earth. They will be

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coloured to indicate which one is which.

The live wire will be coloured
either brown or red. The neutral will be blue
The earth will be green and yellow.
Sometimes the earth wire may not be present,
this might meanElgendy
Ashraf that the appliance is double
insulated. If in doubt, contact an electrician.
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 Ashraf Elgendy 93
”Unit 4 “Electricity and Magnetism

Magnetism
Magnetism is the phenomenon where objects are attracted

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nd
or repelled to one another. Usually these objects are

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metals such as iron.

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hr
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Magnetic Materials
- Magnets only attract strongly certain materials such as
iron, steel, nickel and cobalt – Magnets are made of iron or steel (ferrous materials).
- Materials which are not attracted to magnet are called non ferrous materials.

[Pick the date]

Magnetic Poles.
- Every magnet has two poles, where most of its magnetic strength is most powerful.
-These poles are called north and south or north-seeking and south seeking poles.
- The poles are called this as when a magnet is hung or suspended the magnet lines up
in a north - south direction.

* Law of magnetism:
(Like poles repel, unlike poles attract.)
- When two similar poles are placed near
each others, they are repelled.
- When two different poles are placed
near each others, they are attracted.
- The attraction repelling of two magnets
depends on the distance between the two
magnets and the strength of them.
- When a magnet is broken into little pieces,
a north pole will appear at one of the broken
faces and a south pole. Each piece, regardless
of how big or small, has its own north and south poles.

* Magnetic field:
“The space surrounding a magnet where its forces
y
nd

appear or act."
ge

- The direction of magnetic field at any point fro.

El

north – pole to south – pole

af
hr

- To show the direction of the field, arrows are put

As

on the lines of force.

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 Ashraf Elgendy 94
”Unit 4 “Electricity and Magnetism

- Plotting lines of magnetic forces:

a) Compass method:
- Lay a bar magnet on a sheet of paper.

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nd
- Place a plotting compass at a point near one

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pole of a magnet such as A.

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- Mark the position of the pole n of the compass

hr
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by pencil dots B.
- Move the compass exactly over B, Mark the
new position n by dot C.
- Continue this process until the pole s of the bar

[Pick the date]

magnet is reached.
- Join the dots

b) Iron filling method:

- Place a sheet of paper on top of a bar magnet and
sprinkle iron fillings thinly and evenly on to the paper
from a pepper pot.
- Tape the paper gently with a pencil and the fillings
turns into the direction of the field when the paper is
tapped.

* Methods of magnetisation
1) Rubbing method:
- Based on induced method.
- Starting with any unmagnetized piece
of iron and steel, stroke it against a magnet.
- It is necessary to always keep the motion
in ONE direction.
(This means that on the back-stroke the
iron must be lifted free of the magnet.)
- Many times, mere contact between an unmagnetized object and a magnet will
produce induced magnetism.
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nd
ge

3) Electric method:
El
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- Coil a wire around a bar of steel and

hr
As

pass a direct current through the coil.

- Switch on the electric current for few seconds,
then switch off.
- Repeat the last step many times.
- The steel bar will become a magnet.
Ashraf Elgendy

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 Ashraf Elgendy 95
”Unit 4 “Electricity and Magnetism

Methods of demagnetisation:
1) Heating the Magnet

y
Heating the magnet with naked flame will demagnetise the magnet quickly due to the

nd
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increased vibrations of the magnetic particles in the magnet and thus causes them to

El
lose their alignment, and thus demagnetised.

af
hr
As
2) Hammering the Magnet
Like heating, hammering causes the magnetic particles in the magnet to lose
alignment thus its magnetism.

[Pick the date]

3) Using Alternating Current (AC).
- This is by the far the most
effective way of demagnetisation.
- Place the magnet in a solenoid
connected to and alternating
current source and remove the
magnet slowly will demagnetise
the piece magnet.

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nd
ge
El
af
hr
As

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 Ashraf Elgendy 96
”Unit 4 “Electricity and Magnetism

Electromagnetism
Magnetic effect of electric current

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nd
- When a current flows through a conductor, it produces a magnetic field.

ge
- The shape of the magnetic field depends on the shape of the conductor.

El
af
- You need to know the shape of the magnetic field for a straight wire

hr
(shown below) and a coil.

As
- The magnetic field around a straight wire is
circular, at right angles to the wire.
- You can work out the direction of the field
using your right clenched fist. (right hand grip)

[Pick the date]

Point your thumb upwards in the same
direction as the current. The direction of the
field is the same direction in which your fingers
curl.
N.B:
- Reversing the direction of the current will
reverse the magnetic field direction.
- To determine the direction of the magnetic
field of a wire carrying current we use the
right hand grip rule:
(grasp the wire with your right hand, so that
the thumb indicates the direction of the
current, so the rotation of the rotation of the
fingers indicates the direction of the magnetic
field.)

* Magnetic field inside a solenoid carrying current:

long straight coil of wire can be used to generate a
nearly uniform magnetic field similar to that of a bar
magnet. Such coils, called solenoids, have an enormous
number of practical applications. The field can be
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nd

greatly strengthened by the addition of an iron core.

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El

Such cores are typical in electromagnets.

af

N.B:
hr
As

- To determine the direction of the magnetic field of a loop or a solenoid carrying

current we use the right hand grip rule:
(Use your right hand, rotation of the fingers indicates the direction of the electric
current, so that the thumb indicates the direction of the magnetic field.

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 Ashraf Elgendy 97
”Unit 4 “Electricity and Magnetism

* The strength of the magnetic field around the coil can be increased by:
1. Using a soft iron core (core means middle bit).
2. Using more turns of wire on the coil.

y
nd
3. Using a bigger current.

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* Electric devices depends on the electromagnetism:

af
1) Relay

hr
As
- The relay consists of two circuits.
Circuit 1: Is a simple electromagnet which
requires only a small current.
Circuit 2: - A high current flowing through it,

[Pick the date]

to operate powerful motor or very bright lights.
* Operation:
- When the switch is closed, current flows &
the iron rocker arm is attracted to the
electromagnet. The arm rotates about the
central pivot and pushes the contacts together.
- Circuit 2 is now switched on.
- When the switch is opened the electromagnet
releases the rocker arm and the spring moves
the contacts apart.
- Circuit 2 is now switched off.
N.B:
The advantage of using a relay is that a small current (circuit 1) can be used to switch
on and off a circuit with a large current (circuit 2).
- This is useful for two reasons:
- Circuit 1 may contain a component such as an LDR, which only uses small currents.
- Only the high current circuit needs to be made from thick wire.
- Relay is used to operate starter motors in cars & heating circuit in diesel engines.
* Circuit breaker
- A circuit breaker is safety device.
- It works automatically to protect an electrical circuit from
damage caused by overload or short circuit.
- When the live wire carries a usual operating current,
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nd

the electromagnet is not strong to separate the contacts.

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- If something goes wrong with the appliance and a large

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current flow the electromagnet will pull hard enough to

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As

attract the contacts and break the circuit.

- The spring then keeps the contacts apart.
- After the fault is repaired, the contacts can then be pushed
back together by pressing a button on the outside of the
circuit breaker box.
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 Ashraf Elgendy 98
”Unit 4 “Electricity and Magnetism

Motor effect
- If you put a wire carrying current perpendicular to poles

y
nd
of a strong magnet, it will be affected by a force in a

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El
certain direction perpendicular to both directions of the

af
current & the magnetic field of the magnet.

hr
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- The wire is pushed in the opposite direction
if the direction of the current is reversed or the poles of
the magnet are reversed.

[Pick the date]

* To indicate the direction of the motion:
“Fleming's left hand rule.”
Form your left hand fingers as follows:
Pointer finger perpendicular on thumb & both of
them are perpendicular on the rest of the fingers.
" Let the pointer points to the magnetic field
direction, the middle finger points to the direction
of electric current direction, the thumb will point
to the direction of motion.

N.B:
- Motor effect is used to make a simple electric motor.
* D.C. Electric motor
- It is used to convert the electric energy into kinetic energy
- Structure:
1) Curved poles of a strong magnet:
- To provide a radial magnetic field.
- This helps to keep the coil in a constant
magnetic field.
2) The wire is wound around a central block
called an armature.
3) Commutator
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nd

- It is made from two round pieces of copper,

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El

one on each side of the spindle.

af

- This keeps the continuity of the rotation of

hr
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the coil.
4) Brushes:
Made of a piece of carbon (graphite) is lightly
pushed against the copper to conduct the
electricity to the armature.
5) DC Ashraf
source: Elgendy
To provides the coil with electricity.

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 Ashraf Elgendy 99
”Unit 4 “Electricity and Magnetism

* Operation:
- The current flows in opposite directions on each side of the armature,
so one side is pushed while the other is pulled. This makes the armature rotate.

y
nd
- The importance of the commutator:

ge
El
- Is a simple and clever device for

af
reversing the current direction through

hr
As
an armature every half turn.
- This reverse the force acting on each
side of the coil, so the coil will keep
rotating in the same direction.

[Pick the date]

- Without the commutator, the coil will
move back and fourth.

- To increase the speed of the coil rotation:

1. Increase its number of turns.
2. Increase the current intensity.
3. Increase the strength of the magnetic field.

- To reverse the direction of the motion:

1. Reverse the direction of the current.
2. Reverse the position of the north and south poles.

y
nd
ge
El
af
hr
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 Ashraf Elgendy 100
”Unit 4 “Electricity and Magnetism

Electromagnetic induction

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nd
- When a magnet is moved towards

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El
and inside a coil of wire, a current is

af
induced inside the wire. This can be

hr
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shown by connecting the coil to a
sensitive ammeter called a
galvanometer.

[Pick the date]

* Practical work:
1- Insert a bar magnet quickly inside a coil
connected to a central zero ammeter, the pointer
deflects momentary in a certain direction.
2- Keep the magnet inside the coil, you will find
that, no deflection in ammeter.
3- On removing the bar magnet quickly
outside the coil, the pointer deflects momentary
in a direction opposed the first direction.
4- Move the magnet and the coil together in the
same direction, you will find that, no deflection in
ammeter.
* Conclusion :
"An induced current & e.m.f. are produced
in the moment of cutting (changing)the magnetic
field lines by a conductor. (during the movement
of the magnet or the conductor)

* To indicate the direction of the AC:

“Fleming's right hand rule.”
Form your left hand fingers as follows:
Pointer finger perpendicular on thumb & both of
y
nd

them are perpendicular on the rest of the fingers.

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El

" Let the pointer points to the magnetic field

af

direction, the thumb points to the direction of

hr
As

motion the middle finger will point to the direction

of electric current direction.

Ashraf Elgendy

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 Ashraf Elgendy 101
”Unit 4 “Electricity and Magnetism

AC generator
* Construction:

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nd
- A strong magnet - copper coil - metallic slip rings

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- Graphite (carbon) brushes.

El
af
* How does it work:

hr
- When we rotate the coil, the coil cuts the

As
magnetic field lines of the magnet, so induced
current (AC) and induced voltage are produce in
the coil.
- When the coil completes 1/2 cycle the direction

[Pick the date]

of the AC changes in opposite direction to first half
cycle direction (reverse the electric polarity).

* N.B:
- When the coil is perpendicular to
the magnetic field, there is no AC
(zero position).
- AC reaches its maximum value
when the coil is parallel to the
magnetic field.

* The size of the induced current

can be made bigger by:
1. Increase the strength of the
magnetic field by using a stronger
magnet or putting an iron core in
the coile. .
2. Moving the magnet at a faster speed.
3. Using more turns of wire on the coil.

* The direction of the current can be reversed by:

1. Moving the magnet in the opposite direction.
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nd

2. Using a magnet facing the opposite way round (with North becoming South).
ge
El
af
hr
As

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 Ashraf Elgendy 102
”Unit 4 “Electricity and Magnetism

* AC rectification:
"Converting AC (alternating current) of into DC

y
(direct current)"

nd
ge
- Diode is used to convert AC into DC.

El
* Types of rectifications:

af
hr
1) Half wave rectification:

As
- By using only one diode.
- If the connection between the diode and the AC
source is forward (direct), current will pass in the
circuit (zero output voltage).

[Pick the date]

- When the direction of the AC changes the
connection between the diode and the AC source
will be backward (reversed), so no output current.
(zero output voltage).

2) Complete rectification:
- By using 4 diodes or (Bridge).
- From the figure:
- If current passes in a clockwise direction, it will pass through diode "B"
(because diode "A" here is in reverse – biased while diode "B" is forward – biased)
So current will pass from X to Y in the external load.
- If current passes in anti- clock wise direction, it will pass through diode "D"
(because diode "C" here is in reverse – biased while diode "D" is forward – biased)
So current will pass from X to Y in the external load.

y
nd
ge
El
af
hr
As

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 Ashraf Elgendy 103
”Unit 4 “Electricity and Magnetism

Electric transformer
* Construction:

y
nd
ge
- A transformer is made from two coils, one on each side of a soft iron core.

El
- The coil which is connected to the AC voltage is called “primary coil”

af
hr
- The other coil is called" secondary coil”.

As
* Uses:
- It is used to step up or down the
out put AC voltage.
* Operation:

[Pick the date]

- The alternating input voltage
produces an alternating current in
the primary coil.
- This current causes a changing
magnetic field in the iron core.
- The changing magnetic filed will
be transmitted through the core and
induces an
ac emf in the secondary coil.
- The magnitude of the out put
voltage depends on the ratio between the numbers of turns in both coils.

* Types of transformers:
1) Step down transformer.
- It is used in step down the out put voltage.
- It is used in the consumers areas to
increase the current intensity.
- Number of turns of the primary coil is
greater than the number of turns of the
secondary coil.
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nd
ge

2) Step up transformer.
El
af

- It is used in step up the out put voltage.

hr

- It is used in the electric power stations to

As

decrease the current intensity and the

power lost in the electric cables.
- Number of turns of the primary coil is
smaller than the number of turns of the
secondary coil.
Ashraf Elgendy

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 Ashraf Elgendy 104
”Unit 4 “Electricity and Magnetism

Step up Transformer Step down Transformer

VS > VP VS < VP

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nd
IS < IP IS > IP

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NS > NP NS < NP

El
af
hr
As
4) It is used to step up the A.C. voltage 4) It is used to increase the A.C. current
producing from electric power stations. at consumers areas (houses& factories.)

* The mathematical formula of transformers:

[Pick the date]

Input power  Outpot power
VP N P
VP I P  VS I S ---------------------- (1)  ----------------------- (2)
VS N S
- Where:
- Vp is the voltage across the primary coil (input).
- Vs is the voltage across the secondary coil (outpot).
- Ip is the voltage across the primary coil (input).
- Is is the voltage across the secondary coil (outpot).
- Np is the number of turns of wire on the primary coil.
- Ns is the number of turns of wire on the secondary coil.

N.B:
There are two points to remember:
1. Transformers only work with alternating current (A.C.), It will not give an output
voltage in case of using direct current (D.C.).

2. Using a step up transformer to increase the voltage does not give you something
for nothing. (As the voltage goes up, the current goes down by the same proportion.)
The power equation shows that the overall power remains the same,
P = V x I Power = Voltage x Current.(for reading only)
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nd

Example:
ge
El

1) A transformer connected to a 200 V AC power source gives 800 V output emf

af

with current intensity 4A. What is the intensity of the source current assuming that
hr
As

the efficiency of the transformer is 100%. Then find the number of primary coil turns
if that of the secondary coil = 1000 turns.
*Solution: VP I P  VS I S 200  I P  800  4 IP = 16 A
VP N P 200 N P
  NP = 250 turns.
VS Ashraf
N S 800 1000
Elgendy

Ashraf Elgendy
 105
Unit Five “Nuclear Physics”

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hr
As

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El
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As

Ashraf Elgendy

Ashraf Elgendy
 106
Unit Five “Nuclear Physics”

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nd
ge
Nuclear physics

El
af
hr
As
* Nuclear model:
- The atom smallest building unit in the matter.
- It consists of central nucleus contains positive
protons & neutral neutron.
- Negative charged particles called electrons
orbiting the nucleus in a specific orbits or shells.
- The atom is neutral, because the number of
+ve protons = number of –ve electrons.

* Nucleon number (Mass number) "A" :

"Is the sum of protons and neutrons inside nucleus"
* Atomic number (Proton number) "Z":
"Is the number of protons inside nucleus"
N.B:
- Nucleus is positively charged.
- Number of Neutrons = nucleon number – proton number.
A
Z X
- A is the nucleon number, Z the atomic number and X the symbol of the element.

* Isotopes of an element:
Different forms of the same element having the same atomic number but different mass
numbers due to the difference in the number of neutrons in each of them.
16
8 O 178O 188O 1
1 H 12H 13H
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- The greater the number of neutrons, the less stability of the isotope.
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- The unstable nucleus will decay and emit radioactivity.

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- Particles or waves which are emitted from a nucleus during decay are called radiations
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- Radioactive nuclei are also called radioactive isotopes.

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- After the decay, the nucleus will have changed into a more stable form.
- The atomic number will have changed and a new element is formed.

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Unit Five “Nuclear Physics”

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* Types of radiations:

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4
1st Alpha particle α ( 2 He ):

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- Is the same as the nucleus of a helium nucleus, It consists of 2 protons and 2 neutrons.
- It has by far the most mass of the three types of radiation.
- It is the most likely to collide with other atoms which means that, it has the least
penetrating ability and are easily absorbed by paper, skin or a few centimeters of air.
- Alpha particles are the most ionising of the three types of radiation.
- Alpha particles are likely to be emitted during the decay of heavy nuclei which have
a large number of protons and neutrons-
- On losing alpha particle, mass number decreases by 4 and the atomic number
decreases by 2 and a new element is formed.
0
2nd Beta ( 1 e )
- A β-particle is the same as an electron.
- It is often called a high energy electron because it is very fast moving.
- A β-particle comes from the nucleus of an atom!
- It has a charge of -1 and very little mass (only 1 ÷ 1840 as big as a proton), so it is
given a mass number of zero because the mass is very small.
- A β-particles have more penetrating ability than α-particles but may be absorbed by a
few millimeters of aluminum.
- A β-particles are less ionising than α-particles but more ionising than γ-rays.
- A β-particles may be emitted during the decay of either big or small nuclei.
- - On losing beta particle, mass number stays the same & atomic number goes up by 1.
- A neutron in the nucleus has changed into a proton plus an electron.
- The proton stays inside the nucleus but the electron is given out as a β-particle.

3rd Gamma rays :

- A γ-ray is an electromagnetic wave.
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- It is at the small wavelength end of the electromagnetic spectrum.

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A γ -ray has no mass and no charge.

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- Emitting a γ-ray makes no difference to the mass number or the atomic number but
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will make the nucleus more stable.

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- Many centimeters of lead or a few meters of concrete will absorb most γ-rays.
- γ-rays are the least ionising of the three types of radiation.

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Unit Five “Nuclear Physics”

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* comparison between the three types of radioactivity.

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Point of 4 0
Alpha α( 2 He ) Beta β ( 1 e ) Gamma rays

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comparison

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Nature helium nucleus Electron comes electromagnetic
2p+2n from the nucleus wave
Charge +2 -1 0
Mass 4 Units * ≈1/2000 unit 0
Speed 1/10 C * ”fast” 9/10 C very fast 1C extremely fast
Penetration power “Week” Stopped by “moderate” “strong”
a thick cardboard Stopped by a thick Stopped by a thick
“4 – 10 cm in air” Aluminum sheet Lead sheet

Ionising power “Strong” “moderate” “Week”

In electric field Small deviation Large deviation No deviation
towards–ve plate towards +ve plate
* Deflecting under the effect of electric field:

In magnetic fielg Curved path Curved path

perpendicular to the perpendicular to the No deviation
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magnetic field magnetic field

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opposite to beta opposite to alpha

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* Deflecting under the effect of magnetic field:

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Unit Five “Nuclear Physics”

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* Back ground radiations:

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- A small amount of radiation around us all the time.

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- Occurs naturally, due to some sources like: (rocks, cosmic rays, soil, building

As
materials, air and even space.)
Half lifetime
- It is the time taken for half of the radioactive nuclei to decay.
Or "The time taken for the count rate to fall to half of its
original reading."
- A radioactive material will have some stable nuclei and
some unstable nuclei.
- The stable nuclei don't change, that's what stable means.
- The unstable nuclei will change into stable nuclei and
emit radioactivity.
- Different materials have different of values half-life.
- Some do it very quickly “few seconds”
- Some do it very slowly” Millions of years.
- A graph showing how the count rate decreases as time goes by will have a curve like
the one below.
For any particular radioisotope the count rate and time will be different but the shape of
the curve will be the same.

N.B:
- The easiest way to measure the
half-life from the graph is to
1. Read the original count rate at
zero days.
2. Go down to half the original count
rate and draw a horizontal line to the
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curve. Then draw a vertical line

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down from the curve.

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3. You can read off the half-life

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where the line crosses the time axis.

(On our graph the half-life is 20
days.)

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Unit Five “Nuclear Physics”

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* Example:

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- The half-life of a material is 3 hours.

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- The initial count rate is 544 Bq,

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- What will the count rate be after 15 hours?
Answer:
- Put the count rate in boxes and use arrows to represent the half-life.
In 15 hours there are 15 ÷ 3 half-lives = 5 half-lives.
- After each half-life the count rate is halved.
- After five half-lives the count rate is 17.

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Unit Five “Nuclear Physics”

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Rutherford Experiment

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- Early in the 20th century scientists realised that all

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matter is made up of atoms.

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- As a result of an experiment carried out by his
assistants, Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden, Ernest
Rutherford suggested a model for the atom.
- The experiment is known as Rutherford's alpha particle
scattering experiment.
- A beam of alpha particles is aimed at a thin foil of gold.
- Results:
1- Most of the alpha particles pass straight through the
foil without deviations.
2- Some alpha particles are deviated through the golden
foil with a small angle (smaller than 900)
3- A very small number of alpha particles rebound off the
gold foil (deviate with an angle greater than 900)
* Conclusion:
1- The nucleus of an atom has a very small volume
compared with the volume of the whole atom. (most of the atom is space)
2- Nucleus is a positively charged.
3- Most of the mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus

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Unit Five “Nuclear Physics”

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Uses of radioisotopes

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There are many practical applications to the use of radioactivity/radiation. Radioactive

hr
sources are used to study living organisms, to diagnose and treat diseases, to sterilize

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medical instruments and food, to produce energy for heat and electric power, and to
monitor various steps in all types of industrial
processes.
1. Discover the leakage of water:
To detect leaking pipe, a small amount of a
radioactive compound produces beta is
injected into the pipe. It is then detected with a
GM counter above ground.

2. Sheet thickness control:

- In paper mills, the thickness of the paper can be controlled by measuring how much
beta radiation passes through the paper to a Geiger counter.
- The counter controls the pressure of the rollers to give the correct thickness.
- With paper, plastic or aluminium foil, βeta rays are used, because Alpha will not go
through the paper.
- We choose a source with a long half-life so that it does not need to be replaced often.

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3. Medical tracer”
- A tracer is a radioactive element whose pathway can be followed.
- Radioactive Iodine-131 can be used to study the function of the thyroid gland assisting
in detecting
Ashrafdisease.
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- It has a small half-life but not too small.

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Unit Five “Nuclear Physics”

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4. Cancer treatment:

El
Because Gamma rays can kill living cells, they are used to kill cancer cells without

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having to resort to difficult surgery. This is called "Radiotherapy", and works because

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cancer cells can't repair themselves when damaged by gamma rays, as healthy cells can.
It's vital to get the dose correct - too much and you'll damage too many healthy cells, too
little and you won't stop the cancer from spreading in time.
Some cancers are easier to treat with radiotherapy than others - it's not too difficult to
aim gamma rays at a breast tumour, but for lung cancer it's much harder to avoid
damaging healthy cells. Also, lungs are more easily damaged by gamma rays, therefore
other treatments may be used.

5. Smoke detector
Smoke alarms contain a weak source made of Americium-241.
Alpha particles are emitted from here, which ionise the air, so
that the air conducts electricity and a small current flows.
If smoke enters the alarm, this absorbs the a particles, the
current reduces, and the alarm sounds.
Am-241 has a half-life of 460 years.

6. Sterilizing:
- Gamma rays can be used to kill bacteria, mould
and insects in food. This process prolongs the shelf-
life of the food, but sometimes changes the taste.
Gamma rays are also used to sterilise hospital
equipment, especially plastic syringes that would be
damaged if heated.

6. Checking Welds
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If a gamma source is placed on one side of the welded metal, and a photographic film on
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the other side, weak points or air bubbles will show up on the film, like an X-ray.
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7. Carbon dating:
As

- Animals and plants have a known proportion of Carbon-14 in their tissues.

- When they die they stop taking Carbon in, then the amount of Carbon-14 goes down at
a known rate. (Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5700 years).
- The age of the ancient organic materials can be found by measuring the amount of
Carbon-14 that is left.
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Dangers of Radioactivity

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1) Alpha:

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- Alpha particles are slow, and can be stopped by a sheet of paper.
- Whilst they cannot penetrate your skin, you could easily eat or drink something
contaminated with an Alpha source.
- This put a source of alpha particles inside your body, ionising atoms in nearby cells.
- The cell may turn cancerous and start multiplying uncontrollably.
- Thus alpha particles, whilst they have a low penetrating power, can be the most
dangerous because they ionise so strongly.
- Alpha particles cannot penetrate through body tissue and so will be absorbed and cause
damage to the internal organs of the body which are near to the radioactive source.
Sometimes granite rock contains radium-224 which decays to form the gas radon-220.
- Radon-220 is an alpha -emitter and can be present in some buildings
which have been built on granite. People in the buildings will breath in radioactive
radon-220 which emits alpha -particles within their lungs.
- This increases their risk of getting lung cancer.

2) Beta:
- Beta particles have a longer range than alphas, but ionise much less strongly, they do
around 1/20th of the damage done by the same dose of alpha particles.
- However, they do have more penetrating power, which means that they can get through
your skin and affect cells inside you.

3) Gamma rays:
- Hardly ionise atoms at all, so they do not cause damage directly in this way.
- However, gamma rays are very difficult to stop.
- When they are absorbed by an atom, that atom gains quite a bit of energy, and may
then emit other particles.
- If that atom is in one of your cells, this is not good!
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N.B:
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- Both beta -particles and gamma rays will penetrate through all body tissue and are less
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likely to cause damage than alpha -particles.

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beta -particles are more ionising than gamma -rays and will cause more damage
for the same exposure and intensity.
- Isotopes with a short half-life are the most suitable for use as medical tracers.

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Safety precautions:

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- Damage to Living Cells - Internal Radiation.

hr
Radiation which has come from radioactive sources inside of the body is called internal

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radiation. All three types of radioactivity are harmful and safety precautions must
always be taken.
- Alpha particles are the most harmful form of internal radiation.
- Alpha particles cannot penetrate through body tissue and so will be absorbed and cause
damage to the internal organs of the body which are near to the radioactive source.
Sometimes granite rock contains radium-224 which decays to form the gas radon-220.

- Radon-220 is an alpha -emitter and can be present in some buildings

which have been built on granite. People in the buildings will breath in radioactive
radon-220 which emits alpha -particles within their lungs.
- This increases their risk of getting lung cancer.

- Both beta -particles and gamma rays will penetrate through all body tissue and are less
likely to cause damage than alpha -particles.
beta -particles are more ionising than gamma -rays and will cause more damage
for the same exposure and intensity.
N.B:
Isotopes with a short half-life are the most suitable for use as medical tracers.
* Sign of radioactive danger.

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Space physics

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* Earth and solar system:

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1st The Earth:

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- The Earth is a planet rotates around the Sun in almost circular orbit.
- The Moon orbits the Earth as a satellite.
* Motion of Earth:
1st It rotates (spinning) around its axis in the front of the sun.
* This causes:
1) Day and night phenomena:
- In the ½ of earth facing the sun (day).
- In the ½ of the sun away from the sun (night).
2) Apparent rising and setting of the sun:
- The daily journey from east to west.
* In the northern hemisphere:
- In summer it rises north of east and sets north of
west.
- It rises exactly in the east and sets exactly in the
west only at the equinoxes
(Around 20 March and 23September).

2nd Motion of earth around the sun:

- It rotates with a tilting of 23.5o about its axis:
- It causes the phenomenon of seasons.
- From (21st of June to 21st of September) the northern hemisphere is closer to the sun it causes
summer in this part and winter in the southern hemisphere .
- From (21st of September to 21st of December, the two hemispheres are at the same distance
from the sun causes Autumn in Northern hemisphere and Spring in the Southern one.
- From (21st of December to 221st of March) the southern hemisphere is closer to the sun it
causes summer in this part and winter in the northern hemisphere
- From (21st d of March to 21st of June) the two hemispheres are at the same distance from the sun
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causes Spring in Northern hemisphere and Autumn in

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the Southern one.

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- In winter it rises south of east & sets south of west.

hr

- Day light is longer than night during summer.

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- Day light is shorter than night during winter.

- Day light is equal to night during spring & autumn.

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* The Moon:

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- It is the satellite of Earth.

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- It rotates around the Earth in a circular orbit.

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- It has two motions:
1) Motion around the Earth
- It takes approximately one month to complete one
rotation around the Earth.
- average distance away of about 400 000 km.
2) Revolving around its axis:
- It takes also approximately one month.
- It is always has the same side facing the Earth, so that we never see
the ‘dark side of the Moon.

- The Moon reflects sunlight so we can see it.

- It does not have an atmosphere.
- Its gravitational field strength is almost 1/6th that of earth ≈ 1.6 N/kg.
- Because of its small gravity, astronauts can move in wide steps like jumping.
- It appears to rise from east and set in the west.
* Orbital speed of the moon:
2𝜋𝑟
- It rotates in a circle its circumference = 2 π r 𝑣𝑜 = - Where “T” is the time period.
𝑇

*Phases of the Moon:

1) New moon:
- The Moon is between Sun and the Earth.
- It is lighted by sun so it is not visible to us.
2) Waxing thin crescent moon (new crescent):
- It appears along one edge.
3) 1st quarter moon:
- Half of the Moon’s surface can be seen.
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4) Waxing gibbous moon:

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- It appears like part of a circle.

El

5) Full Moon:
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- In the middle of the month (at the end of the 2 nd quarter).

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- Moon is on the opposite side of the Earth from the Sun and appears as a complete circle.
6) Waning gibbous moon: The lighted area starts to decrease.
7) Last quarter moon: - Half of the Moon’s surface can be seen
8) Waning thin crescent moon (old crescent):
- It appears along one edge as it travels in its orbit.
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The solar system

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- It consists of:

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* The sun:

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- The greatest body in the solar system.
- Contains most of the mass of the solar system.
- Provide the solar system with the needed gravity
to rotate around it.

* Planets:
They rotate around the sun in elliptical orbits.
- These planets can be classified into two groups:

1) The inner planets:

(Mercury – Venus – Earth – Mars)
- They all are:
(Small in size - High density - Solid consists
of rocks - consists of different layers).
- Some of the have moons.

2) The outer planets:

(Jupiter – Saturn – Uranus – Neptune)
- They all are:
(large sizes – colder - consist solidified gases – low
density)
- They have many moons and other natural satellites
(icy materials).

* Minor (dwarf) planets and asteroid belt:

- The asteroids are pieces of rock orbit the
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Sun between Mars and Jupiter.

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- their density is similar to the inner planets.

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- Some of asteroids enter the Earth’s

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atmosphere they burn up and fall to Earth.

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- Then it is called meteors or shooting stars.

- Asteroids are presently classified as minor
planets.

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* Minor planet:

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(Any object that orbits a star that does not have a large enough mass

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for gravitational attraction to have pulled it into a spherical shape.)

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* Dwarf planets:
(They have enough mass and a gravitational field
strength high enough to have formed a spherical
shape, but not enough to attract and clear the area
around them of smaller objects.)
- Ceres, Pluto are classified as a dwarf planet.

* Comets:
- Consist of dust embedded in ice made from
water and methane.
- Sometimes called ‘dirty snowballs’.
- Their density is similar to the outer planets.
- They orbit the Sun in highly elliptical orbits.
- On approaching the Sun, the dust and gas are
blown backwards by
radiation pressure from the Sun and the comet
develops a bright head and long
tail pointing away from the Sun.
- One of the most famous is Halley’s Comet which visits the inner Solar System
about every 76 years, (the last occasion being 1986).
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* Origin of the Solar System

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- Sun is thought to have formed when gravitational attraction pulled together swirling

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clouds of hydrogen gas and dust (nebulae) in a region of space where their density was high.

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- The Solar System may well have been formed at the same time, about 4500 million years
ago, with the planets being created from the disc of matter left over from the nebula that
formed the Sun.

- As this material rotated around the Sun, gravitational attraction between small particles
caused them to join together and grow in size in an accretion process.
- A rotating accretion disc is thought to have formed from which the planets emerged.

* Evidence for accretion model:

- The approximate age of the Earth, this has been found by the radioactive dating
of minerals in rocks.
- Further confirmation was provided by rocks brought back from the Moon,
found to be 4500 million years old.

* Galaxies:
- Galaxy is a collection of billions of stars.
- Our solar system is a part of a galaxy called
“Milky Way”
- The stars of the Milky way are further from
each other’s.
- The distance between the stars and the Earth
is at a greater distance between the Earth and
the Sun.

- Astronomical distances is measured by units like “Light year”.

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* The light year:

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“Is the distance covered by light in vacuum in one year’

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- Calculating the light year:

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1 light year = 3 x 108x 365 x24 x 60 x 60 =9.5 x 1015 m.

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* Stars life cycle:

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- Any star start with a cloud of dust and Hydrogen gas called Nebula.

af
- The Nebula collapse under the force of gravitational to form a protostar.

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- The mass of the protostar increases, its core temperature increases.
- When the core is hot enough, nuclear fusion starts the protostar converts into a young
stable star (main sequence star. (In fusion reaction, Hydrogen is converted into
Helium and large amount of energy produced)
- In a stable star, inward forces due to gravity is balanced with the outward force due to high
temperature of the core.
- When the star starts to run out of fuel, it changes according to its mass:

*
Small mass star:
- Will expand converting into red giant star.
- The core collapses due to weak pressure and greater gravitational force and outer layers of
Helium expelled.
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- The small core becomes a white dwarf at the centre of a glowing shell of ionised gas known as
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a planetary nebula.
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- Planetary nebulae distribute elements formed in the star into the interstellar medium.
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- The temperature rises again and the fusion starts again convert the red giant into a white dwarf.
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- The white dwarf cools into black dwarf.

- This will be the fate of our Sun.

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* High mass stars:

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- Their fuel of hydrogen is used more quickly so they have shorter stable stage.

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- The core then collapses into a red super giant.

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-The core collapses further under gravity and it becomes hot enough for the nuclear fusion of
carbon into oxygen, nitrogen and finally iron to occur.
- The energy of the star is released in a supernova explosion.
- Material, including these heavy elements, is thrown into space as a nebula, and becomes
available for the formation of new stars and their associated planetary systems.
- The centre of the supernova collapses to a very dense neutron star, which spins rapidly and acts
as a pulsar, sending out pulses of radio waves.
- If the red giant is very massive, the remnant at the centre of the supernova has such a large
density that its gravitational field stops anything escaping from its surface, even light; this is a
black hole.

* The expansion of the universe:

- Galaxies are moving away from each
other’s, so the universe expands.
- It is called “The Big Bang Theory”.
* Evidences of the expansion of the
universe:
1) The red shift:
- The wavelengths coming from the distant
stars appear to have longer wavelength
than its original one .
- We call it “Red Shift”.
- This is according to very known effect called “Doppler effect”
- It says that, if the body is moving away from us, the coming wavelength apparently increases
and when the body is moving towards us the wavelength apparently decreases.
2) CMBR (cosmic microwaves background radiations):
- The Big Bang produced radiation energy of short wavelengths.
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- As the universe expands, these radiations will be stretched to long wavelength (Microwaves).
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- All telescopes provides data about that, microwaves are present in all parts of the Universe.
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* Age of the Universe

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- Edwin Hubble in 1920s, discovered that the speed of recession v of a galaxy is directly

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proportional to its distance away d.

hr
This is called Hubble’s law “Ho = v/d”

As
- Hubble constant, Ho
(The ratio of the speed at which the galaxy is
moving away from the Earth to its distance from
the Earth)

* We can calculate the speed of a moving galaxy

from the red shift:
∆𝜆 𝑣
=
𝜆 𝑐
(Δ𝜆 the shift in wavelength. – v speed of the
galaxy. – c light speed in vacuum)
* Distance of the galaxy can be calculated from
brightness measurements of a supernova in
the same galaxy.
- The maximum brightness of a of supernova can be calculated and compared with its
measured (apparent) value.
- The apparent brightness decreases as the inverse square of our distance from the supernova,
enabling the distance of the galaxy to be determined.
Considerable difficulties are
* Example:
- If we have a galaxy 1 million lightyears away, we can calculate its receding /s.
Ho = 2.2 × 10-18/s 2.2 × 10-18 x 106 = 2.2 × 10-12 light year/s
v = 2.2 × 10-12 x 9.5 x 1012 = 21 km/s.
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