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Design of Offshore Structures

Presentation · August 2021

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.31726.33605

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 Design of Offshore Structures

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2021-08-15 ACEN - Design Offshore Structures 1

 Design of Offshore Structures
Outline
• Offshore Overview
• Comparison between API and ISO
• Jacket Structures Members
• The Gulf of Mexico
• Definition of Deepwater
• Engineering-Market Trends
• Construction Sequence
• Example of Platform Overview
• Mechanical Equipment in Platform
• Historical Perspective
• Challenges

2021-08-15 ACEN - Design Offshore Structures 2

 Design of Offshore Structures
Typical offshore oil & Gas Platform

Semi-submersible Jacket Mono

2021-08-15 ACEN - Design Offshore Structures 3

 Design of Offshore Structures
Jacket Structures Members (1/5)
Jacket Structures Contains:
• Rig
• Decks
• Jackets
• Piles
• Wells

2021-08-15 ACEN - Design Offshore Structures 4

 Design of Offshore Structures
Jacket Structures Members (2/5) Jacket Structures Members:
• Columns
• Braces

2021-08-15 ACEN - Design Offshore Structures 5

 Design of Offshore Structures
Jacket Structures Members (3/5)
Jacket Structures Members:
• Truss

2021-08-15 ACEN - Design Offshore Structures 6

 Design of Offshore Structures
Jacket Structures Members (4/5) Jacket Structures Members:
• Columns
• Braces
• Links

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Jacket Structures Members (5/5) Jacket Structures Members:
• Piles
• Links

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Offshore Topsides Piping System

• Pigging operations are required from the fixed

platform topside piping operations. The
pigging generated slugs boarding the platform
may cause piping vibrations when they flow
through the bends.

Piping

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Wind Turbine Tower The benefit of use:
• Minimize hydrodynamic
• Cylindrical tubular members are extensively used in offshore structures forces
• Great torsional rigidity
• Offer great local strength
against impact loading
• Minimize outside surface
subject to corrosion
• Have the same significant
buckling strength in all
directions
However:
• Stress concentration in
joints of tubular members
may cause fatigue failure
due to cyclic wave loads
Jacket Piles Monopile Monopile

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Comparison between API and ISO (1/2)
A comparison of the API
documents corresponding to
the ISO mentioned above is
given in the table below.

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Comparison between API and ISO (2/2)
Background of Design
Code (WSD, LRFD, ISO)

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 Design of Offshore Structures
World’s Gas Fields
Fact (Estimates Vary)
• When was the first oil well drilled?
1859, drake well in northwestern Pennsylvania • Proven Reserves ( Total)
187,800,000,000,000 m3
• When was the first steel offshore platform installed?
1947 Kerr-McGee, 10 miles (16.1 km) offshore Louisiana • Consumption per year
3,000,000,000,000, m3
• What s the depth of the deepest fixed platform?
1754 feet 535 m water depth Texaco Petronius Compliant Tower • Approximately 60 years
Supply at Current
• What water depths are being explored today? Consumption rate
>10,000 feet 3048m
• 1/3 of World’s Gas
• What percentage of U.S. production is offshore? Production is Offshore
Approximately 28%
• 40 % of U.S. Gas Reserves
(incl. undiscovered) are
Offshore

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 Design of Offshore Structures
The Gulf of Mexico The Gulf of Mexico is
an ocean basin and a marginal
sea of the Atlantic
Ocean, surrounded by
the North
American continent.
Contains:
• 2800 Platforms
• 35,000 mile of pipelines
• 15,000 wells
• 1.2 Million BOPD
• 12 Billion SCFD
• 2nd
• Largest Source of income
U.S Guld Offshore Oil
Production: Moving into
Deeper Water Horizons

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Offshore oil and gas production in 2006
Presenting of oil & gas in next
Seas
• Caribbean Sea
• North Sea
• Mediterranean Sea
• Caspian Sea
• Persian Gulf
• West Africa
• South China Sea

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Definition of Deepwater Definition of Deepwater
In U.S.
• Shallow < 400 m
• Deep 400-1300
• Ultradeep >1300

In U.K./Norway
• Shallow < 300 m
• Deep 300-2000
• Ultradeep >2000

In Brazil
U.S. U.K./Norway Brazil • Shallow < 400 m
• Deep 400-1300
• Ultradeep >1300
Shallow <400 <300 <400
Deep 400-1300 300-2000 400-1000
Ultradeep >1300 >2000 >1000

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Engineering Trends
Engineering Trends
• Record depth doubled
every 5-7 years

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Market Trends Market Trends
• Deep and Ultra-Deepwater
• Ultra-long Offset
• Arctic
• Low-Energy Reservoirs
• Heavy Oil
• Subsea Commingling with
different partners, different
royalty rates
• Prolific gas fields
• Mega-size West Africa oil
fields
• Marginal and Smaller
Fields

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Topside vs Subsea
Topside vs Subsea
• On an offshore oil platform,
topsides refer to the surface
hardware installed, includes
the oil production plant, the
accommodation block and
the drilling rig.
• Subsea s a general term
frequently used to refer to
equipment, technology, and
methods employed to
explore, drill, and develop oi
and gas fields that exist
below the ocean floors.

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Drilling Rig
Drilling rigs:
• Jack up rig
• Semi-submersible
• Ship

Jack-up rig Semi-submersible Drill Ship

Water Depth (feet) Surface Vessel Type of Mooring
<400 Jack-up Spud
400-4000 Semi-Submersible Mooring (Anchors)
>4000 Sem-Submersible Dynamically Positioned
>2000 Drill Ship Dynamically Positioned (Thrusters)

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Construction Sequence Construction Sequence

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Example of Platform Overview
Integrated production, drilling & living quarters Preliminary weight
platform estimates for assembled
• 52 well slots topsides
• Separation & stabilization process • Dry weight – 36,000 ton
equipment for heavy oil. (Approx.)
• Single drilling rig • Operating weight –
• Living quarters for normal POB of 234 63,000 ton (Approx.)
• Gravel packing equipment Provisions for future subsea
• Compression, dehydration, power tie-backs
generation & utilities • 2 x future modules attach
Element Nameplate Capacity to the process side of the
Total Oil Production 150 kbd 23,900 m3/d of the platform
• Each module up to 2,500
Total water production 283 kbd 45,000 m3/d ton
Total gas Handling 235 MSCFD 6,700 km3/d
Total water injection rate 360 kbd 57,300 m3/d

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Detailed Overview Topsides Platform
Detailed Overview Topsides
Platform
• Drilling Derrick
• Drilling Support Module
• Flare Boom
• Power Generators
• Living Quarters
• Helideck
• Gas Compressors
• Separation Process equipment
• Lifeboats
• Firewater Standby power
• Electrical Rooms
• Gravel pack equipment
• Well bay

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Equipment/Material item Delivery (Months)
ER 251 Man Power Generators 18 Procurement:
ED 252 Gas Compressors 18 • Long Lead Equipment
ED 441 Derrick Equipment Set 18
Need to identify and order as early
ER 325 Pedestal Cranes 14-16
as possible
EI 171 Integrated Con troll & safety System (ICSS) 15
ER 240 Plate Heat Exchangers (Titanium) 15
ED 450 High Pressure Mud Pumps 14
ED 457 BOP and Riser handling Tool 14
ER 254 Essential and Emergency Generator 14
ER 255 Sea Water Lift Pumps 12-14
ER 275 Water Injection Pumps 12-14
ER 302 Fire Water Pumps and Generator Sets 12-14
ER 306 Export Pumps 12-14
EI 190 Fiscal Metering Package 12
ER 241 Shell and Tube Heat Exchanges 12
ER 245 Separator 12

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Mechanical Equipment in Platform Mechanical Equipment in
Topsides Platform
Critical Utility Pumps,
Critical Utility Pumps Firewater Pumps, Pedestal
• The pumps used in the Critical Service in the Cranes, Bridge Cranes,
Platform. Mainly it includes Seawater Booster Process Vessels, Production
Pump, Transfer Pumps, Pig Launcher
• Firewater Jockey Pump, Cooling Medium and Receiver, Chemical
Pump, Heating Medium Pump etc. Pumps are Injection Package, Flare Tips,
designed as per API 610 and Mechanical seal & Gas Turbine Generators,
Flush Plans as per API 682. Emergency & Essential
• Other auxiliaries included are Baseplate, Motor, Gensets, Survival Craft,
Coupling , Coupling Guards, Spare Parts, Seawater Strainers, Nitrogen
Special Tools etc. Generation System, RO
(Reverse Osmosis Water
Maker), Hose Loading
Station, Freight Elevator,
Subsea System,
Topside/Subsea Interface

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Mechanical Equipment in Platform Mechanical Equipment in
Topsides Platform
Firewater Pumps Critical Utility Pumps,
• The fire water supply system for fire-fighting needs should be Firewater Pumps, Pedestal
designed to satisfy the most critical possible fire area requirements. Cranes, Bridge Cranes,
• The firewater loop will be designed to supply the fire monitors, Process Vessels, Production
hose reels, foam and deluge systems supplied with seawater. The Transfer Pumps, Pig Launcher
firewater system will be filled with seawater and maintained under and Receiver, Chemical
pressure. Injection Package, Flare Tips,
• The discharge rate of the fire pumps shall provide at least 100% Gas Turbine Generators,
capacity of the most demanding fire water area for fire cooling and Emergency & Essential
extinguishing purposes. Gensets, Survival Craft,
• Each diesel driven fire water pump unit shall be located in a Seawater Strainers, Nitrogen
separate fire-rated room protected with a fixed fire suppression Generation System, RO
system. (Reverse Osmosis Water
• The main firewater pumps will start automatically in sequence Maker), Hose Loading
when the pressure in the firewater ring main drops to pre-set Station, Freight Elevator,
pressures. Subsea System,
Topside/Subsea Interface

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Mechanical Equipment in Platform Mechanical Equipment in
Topsides Platform
Pedestal Cranes Critical Utility Pumps,
• They are designed as per API 2C Code. Firewater Pumps, Pedestal
• Used for Material Handling of cargoes in Cranes, Bridge Cranes,
containers or bags from the ship onto the Process Vessels, Production
platform and vice-versa. Transfer Pumps, Pig Launcher
• Handling of Heavy Equipment's, Pipes, and Receiver, Chemical
Instruments, Life Support Systems etc. Injection Package, Flare Tips,
Gas Turbine Generators,
Emergency & Essential
Gensets, Survival Craft,
Seawater Strainers, Nitrogen
Generation System, RO
(Reverse Osmosis Water
Maker), Hose Loading
Station, Freight Elevator,
Subsea System,
Pedestal Crane in Test Bed
Topside/Subsea Interface

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Mechanical Equipment in Platform Mechanical Equipment in
Topsides Platform
Bridge Cranes Critical Utility Pumps,
• They are used for material mainly Firewater Pumps, Pedestal
handling within the platform in the Cranes, Bridge Cranes,
workshop area or where Pedestal Cranes Process Vessels, Production
cannot reach. Transfer Pumps, Pig Launcher
• Cranes are around 100 Tonnes capacity and Receiver, Chemical
and come with a hook, hoists, pad eyes, Injection Package, Flare Tips,
crane controls, capital spares, lifting Gas Turbine Generators,
beam, sling, shackles, junction box, Emergency & Essential
motor starters, Special Tools, Runway Gensets, Survival Craft,
Trails etc. Seawater Strainers, Nitrogen
Generation System, RO
(Reverse Osmosis Water
Maker), Hose Loading
Station, Freight Elevator,
Subsea System,
Bridge Cranes Topside/Subsea Interface

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Mechanical Equipment in Platform Mechanical Equipment in
Topsides Platform
Critical Utility Pumps,
Process Vessels
Firewater Pumps, Pedestal
• A process vessel is a tank or container Cranes, Bridge Cranes,
designed and equipped with the controls Process Vessels, Production
and accessories to complete a sub-process Transfer Pumps, Pig Launcher
as part of an overall process. The material and Receiver, Chemical
that the process vessel is made of, as well Injection Package, Flare Tips,
as its accessories and controls, depend on Gas Turbine Generators,
its intended use. Emergency & Essential
Gensets, Survival Craft,
Seawater Strainers, Nitrogen
Generation System, RO
(Reverse Osmosis Water
Process Vessels Maker), Hose Loading
Station, Freight Elevator,
Subsea System,
Topside/Subsea Interface

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Mechanical Equipment in Platform Mechanical Equipment in
Topsides Platform
Critical Utility Pumps,
Production Transfer Pumps
Firewater Pumps, Pedestal
• The production booster pumps will pump Cranes, Bridge Cranes,
the liquids from the production separator Process Vessels, Production
and then through the production transfer Transfer Pumps, Pig
pumps to flow to the entire well stream Launcher and Receiver,
(FWS) flowline to the well site. Excess Chemical Injection Package,
gas not needed for the gas lift will be Flare Tips, Gas Turbine
combined with the liquids downstream of Generators, Emergency &
the transport pumps. Essential Gensets, Survival
• Generally, depending on the liquids Craft, Seawater Strainers,
handled, 2/3 production transfer pumps Nitrogen Generation System,
come with the pump, motor and RO (Reverse Osmosis Water
coupling. Maker), Hose Loading
Production Transfer Pumps Station, Freight Elevator,
Subsea System,
Topside/Subsea Interface

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Mechanical Equipment in Platform Mechanical Equipment in
Topsides Platform
Critical Utility Pumps,
Pig Launcher and Receiver Firewater Pumps, Pedestal
• A pig launcher will be provided on the Cranes, Bridge Cranes,
platform for the FWS line. Process Vessels, Production
• Pigging will be used periodically for Transfer Pumps, Pig
cleaning, clearing, and solids removal Launcher and Receiver,
from the pipeline. Chemical Injection Package,
• The pig launcher will be designed to Flare Tips, Gas Turbine
handle intelligent pigs for pipeline Generators, Emergency &
inspection. Essential Gensets, Survival
Craft, Seawater Strainers,
Nitrogen Generation System,
RO (Reverse Osmosis Water
Maker), Hose Loading
Station, Freight Elevator,
Subsea System,
Pig Launcher and Receiver
Topside/Subsea Interface

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Mechanical Equipment in Platform Mechanical Equipment in
Topsides Platform
Critical Utility Pumps,
Chemical Injection Package Firewater Pumps, Pedestal
• It consists of API 675 Metering Pumps, Cranes, Bridge Cranes,
Chemical Storage Tanks and necessary Process Vessels, Production
Piping, Instrumentation, Junction Box in Transfer Pumps, Pig Launcher
the skid. and Receiver, Chemical
• The primary purpose of the package is to Injection Package, Flare Tips,
inject different chemicals for Scale Gas Turbine Generators,
Inhibitor, Liquid Corrosion Inhibitor, Emergency & Essential
H2S Scavenger, Emulsion Breaker, Gensets, Survival Craft,
Defoamer, Biocide and Oxygen Seawater Strainers, Nitrogen
Scavenger. Generation System, RO
(Reverse Osmosis Water
Maker), Hose Loading
Station, Freight Elevator,
Chemical Injection Package Subsea System,
Topside/Subsea Interface

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Mechanical Equipment in Platform Mechanical Equipment in
Topsides Platform
Critical Utility Pumps,
Flare Tips Firewater Pumps, Pedestal
• The flare system will consist of a High Cranes, Bridge Cranes,
Pressure (HP) flare, and a Low Pressure Process Vessels, Production
(LP) flare combined with the closed Transfer Pumps, Pig Launcher
drainage system that will be designed to and Receiver, Chemical
collect and dispose of dry and potentially Injection Package, Flare Tips,
wet gaseous/liquid hydrocarbons from Gas Turbine Generators,
the processing system during Emergency & Essential
maintenance, upset and emergency Gensets, Survival Craft,
conditions. Seawater Strainers, Nitrogen
• All flare headers will be constantly Generation System, RO
purged with LP fuel gas or nitrogen to (Reverse Osmosis Water
prevent air ingress into the flare stacks. Maker), Hose Loading
Station, Freight Elevator,
Subsea System,
Flare Tips
Topside/Subsea Interface

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Mechanical Equipment in Platform Mechanical Equipment in
Topsides Platform

Gas Turbine Generators Critical Utility Pumps,

Firewater Pumps, Pedestal
• The power requirements for the platform will be
Cranes, Bridge Cranes,
provided by gas-turbine driven generator units which
Process Vessels, Production
will generate power at 10kV. In order to reliably provide
Transfer Pumps, Pig Launcher
power for drilling production and utility services, one
and Receiver, Chemical
additional unit will be provided as a spare, which can be
Injection Package, Flare Tips,
started if one of the other units is down for maintenance
Gas Turbine Generators,
or repairs.
Emergency & Essential
• The main generators will be dual-fueled, capable of
Gensets, Survival Craft,
running on both diesel and fuel gas. Several of the main
Seawater Strainers, Nitrogen
generators will be outfitted with waste heat recovery
Generation System, RO
units (WHRUs) as required to provide all heat necessary
(Reverse Osmosis Water
to heat the equipment area enclosures provided for
Maker), Hose Loading
platform winterization.
Station, Freight Elevator,
• Power will be distributed at 10kV, 6kV (for large
Gas Turbine Generators Subsea System,
motors), and 380V.
Topside/Subsea Interface

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Mechanical Equipment in Platform Mechanical Equipment in
Topsides Platform
Critical Utility Pumps,
Emergency & Essential Gensets
Firewater Pumps, Pedestal
• Emergency and essential power generation will Cranes, Bridge Cranes,
provide power during an emergency event and Process Vessels, Production
initiate a restart after losing main power (black Transfer Pumps, Pig Launcher
start). and Receiver, Chemical
• These units will be diesel-powered and may have Injection Package, Flare Tips,
redundant starting systems. Gas Turbine Generators,
Emergency & Essential
Gensets, Survival Craft,
Seawater Strainers, Nitrogen
Generation System, RO
(Reverse Osmosis Water
Emergency & Essential Gensets Maker), Hose Loading
Station, Freight Elevator,
Subsea System,
Topside/Subsea Interface

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Mechanical Equipment in Platform Mechanical Equipment in
Topsides Platform
Critical Utility Pumps,
Survival Craft Firewater Pumps, Pedestal
• They are used during emergencies on the Cranes, Bridge Cranes,
platform, such as fire or any explosion for Process Vessels, Production
personnel evacuation. Transfer Pumps, Pig Launcher
• It’s an enclosed capsule with a winch, motor, and Receiver, Chemical
gearbox and launching platform, which can Injection Package, Flare Tips,
accommodate 60/90 people per craft and are Gas Turbine Generators,
generally 3 / 4 per platform depending on the Emergency & Essential
number of personnel at any time working on Gensets, Survival Craft,
the platform. Seawater Strainers, Nitrogen
Generation System, RO
(Reverse Osmosis Water
Survival Craft
Maker), Hose Loading
Station, Freight Elevator,
Subsea System,
Topside/Subsea Interface

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Mechanical Equipment in Platform Mechanical Equipment in
Topsides Platform
Critical Utility Pumps,
Seawater Strainers Firewater Pumps, Pedestal
• The seawater system will lift seawater for Cranes, Bridge Cranes,
indirect process cooling, drilling and supply Process Vessels, Production
the firewater jockey pumps. Transfer Pumps, Pig Launcher
• Each seawater system will consist of a and Receiver, Chemical
seawater lift pump and a seawater lift strainer; Injection Package, Flare Tips,
one train will be provided as a spare. Gas Turbine Generators,
• Warm seawater, along with saltwater rejection Emergency & Essential
from the reverse osmosis unit and freshwater Gensets, Survival Craft,
overflow from the freshwater system, will be Seawater Strainers, Nitrogen
discharged to the sea via a discharge overboard Generation System, RO
caisson. (Reverse Osmosis Water
Maker), Hose Loading
Station, Freight Elevator,
Subsea System,
Seawater Strainers Topside/Subsea Interface

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Mechanical Equipment in Platform Mechanical Equipment in
Topsides Platform
Nitrogen Generation System Critical Utility Pumps,
• A low-pressure nitrogen generation and Firewater Pumps, Pedestal
distribution system will be provided on the Cranes, Bridge Cranes,
platform to supply gaseous nitrogen to Process Vessels, Production
different sections for process and maintenance Transfer Pumps, Pig Launcher
purposes such as: and Receiver, Chemical
• Purging of systems/equipment at start-up and Injection Package, Flare Tips,
shutdowns Gas Turbine Generators,
• Providing buffer gas to the gas compressor Emergency & Essential
seals Gensets, Survival Craft,
• Purging miscellaneous instruments and Seawater Strainers, Nitrogen
analytical equipment Generation System, RO
• Providing an inert atmosphere or acting as (Reverse Osmosis Water
blanket gas for various equipment. Maker), Hose Loading
• The nitrogen system will consist of one Station, Freight Elevator,
packaged nitrogen generation (membrane) Subsea System,
unit and one nitrogen receiver. Nitrogen Generation System Topside/Subsea Interface

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Mechanical Equipment in Platform Mechanical Equipment in
Topsides Platform
RO (Reverse Osmosis Water Maker (1/2) Critical Utility Pumps,
• Freshwater for the platform will be provided by two reverse osmosis (RO) water maker Firewater Pumps, Pedestal
packages that produce water from seawater for potable and drilling service water use. The Cranes, Bridge Cranes,
seawater lift system will water to the reverse osmosis packages. Process Vessels, Production
• The package consists of Pre-Water Maker Skid (multi-media filters, particle filters, carbon Transfer Pumps, Pig Launcher
cartridge filters, Anti-scalant tank & Pump with Motor), Feed Water Heater, RO Skid (High- and Receiver, Chemical
Pressure Pumps & Motors, Membrane Vessels with Membrane Elements, Caustic Injection Injection Package, Flare Tips,
system consists of Tank & Pump with Motor, Integral Cleaning & Flushing System, Permeate Gas Turbine Generators,
Polishing De-ionizing bottles), Post Chlorination Injection Skid (Tank and Educator), De- Emergency & Essential
ionized Water Storage Tank, Local Control Panel, Junction Box, Baseplate, drip tray, Gensets, Survival Craft,
Spreader Beam for Installation etc. Seawater Strainers, Nitrogen
Generation System, RO
(Reverse Osmosis Water
Maker), Hose Loading
Station, Freight Elevator,
Subsea System,
Topside/Subsea Interface

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Mechanical Equipment in Platform Mechanical Equipment in
Topsides Platform
Critical Utility Pumps,
Firewater Pumps, Pedestal
RO (Reverse Osmosis Water Maker) (2/2)
Cranes, Bridge Cranes,
Process Vessels, Production
Transfer Pumps, Pig Launcher
and Receiver, Chemical
Injection Package, Flare Tips,
Gas Turbine Generators,
Emergency & Essential
Gensets, Survival Craft,
Seawater Strainers, Nitrogen
Generation System, RO
Injection System Multi-media Filters Reverse Osmosis (Reverse Osmosis Water
Maker), Hose Loading
Station, Freight Elevator,
Subsea System,
Topside/Subsea Interface

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Mechanical Equipment in Platform Mechanical Equipment in
Topsides Platform
Critical Utility Pumps,
Hose Loading Station Firewater Pumps, Pedestal
• Hose Loading Stations are used to transfer diesel oil, Cranes, Bridge Cranes,
base oil, drilling mud & powders from supply boats to Process Vessels, Production
the topsides to support drilling & production Transfer Pumps, Pig Launcher
operations. and Receiver, Chemical
Injection Package, Flare Tips,
• Stations come with Hoses (80/100 m length), Hose Gas Turbine Generators,
Reels, Fittings, Break-away Coupling, HPU (Hydraulic Emergency & Essential
Pump Unit), Hydraulic Reel Drives, Control Panels, Gensets, Survival Craft,
Common Skid supporting structures and necessary Seawater Strainers, Nitrogen
electrical & instrumentation etc. Generation System, RO
(Reverse Osmosis Water
Maker), Hose Loading
Station, Freight Elevator,
Subsea System,
Hose Loading Station Topside/Subsea Interface

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Mechanical Equipment in Platform Mechanical Equipment in
Topsides Platform
Critical Utility Pumps,
Freight Elevator Firewater Pumps, Pedestal
• Freight Elevators are used for moving heavy items Cranes, Bridge Cranes,
between the decks. Generally, a platform consists of Process Vessels, Production
Cellar Deck, Lower Mezzanine Deck, Production Transfer Pumps, Pig Launcher
Deck, Upper Mezzanine Deck, Weather Deck and and Receiver, Chemical
Helideck. Injection Package, Flare Tips,
• Elevators are generally designed for 7/10 tonnes. Gas Turbine Generators,
Therefore, it should safely transport personnel, cargo Emergency & Essential
and types of machinery within the platform. Gensets, Survival Craft,
• They are Electric Rack and Pinion Elevators with Seawater Strainers, Nitrogen
necessary auxiliaries and controls. Generation System, RO
(Reverse Osmosis Water
Maker), Hose Loading
Station, Freight Elevator,
Subsea System,
Freight Elevator
Topside/Subsea Interface

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Mechanical Equipment in Platform Mechanical Equipment in
Topsides Platform
Critical Utility Pumps,
Subsea System Firewater Pumps, Pedestal
• Retrievable Cranes, Bridge Cranes,
• Flowline jumpers connection Process Vessels, Production
• Flexibility of installation sequence is Transfer Pumps, Pig Launcher
increased and Receiver, Chemical
Injection Package, Flare Tips,
Gas Turbine Generators,
Emergency & Essential
Gensets, Survival Craft,
Seawater Strainers, Nitrogen
Generation System, RO
(Reverse Osmosis Water
Maker), Hose Loading
Station, Freight Elevator,
Subsea System,
Subsea System
Topside/Subsea Interface

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Mechanical Equipment in Platform Mechanical Equipment in
Platform
Critical Utility Pumps,
Firewater Pumps, Pedestal
Cranes, Bridge Cranes,
Process Vessels, Production
Transfer Pumps, Pig Launcher
and Receiver, Chemical
Injection Package, Flare Tips,
Gas Turbine Generators,
Emergency & Essential
Gensets, Survival Craft,
Seawater Strainers, Nitrogen
Generation System, RO
(Reverse Osmosis Water
Maker), Hose Loading
Station, Freight Elevator,
Subsea System,
Topside/Subsea Interface Topside/Subsea Interface

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Historical Perspective
Offshore Structures:
• The earliest offshore structure of wood material for oil drilling was built in 1887 near Santa
Barbara, CA;
• Wood structures were soon after replaced (due to marine organism attacks) with reinforced
concrete up to the late 1940s;
• Over the next 50 years, about 12,000 platform structures were built of steel material (more
recently, precast concrete).
Offshore Mooring Systems:
• Function of a mooring system is to keep the buoy, ship, or platform structure at a relatively
fixed location during engineering operations;
• Recent efforts have focused on new anchor configurations with higher pullout loads, larger
capacity, and lower installation costs for more profound water applications.

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Historical Perspective
Pipelines
• First laid offshore pipelines were in shallow water and of small diameter and made of
relatively ductile steel;
• During the 1960s, engineers developed new designs and refined methods of analysis and
deployment of pipelines for deeper waters;
• Pipeline systems evolved into the seafloor and vertical configurations. In addition to
transporting oil and gas, vertical systems also include risers, electric power lines, dredge
pipes for deep-sea mining, and cold water pipes (CWP) for ocean thermal energy conversion;
• At present, ~80,000 km of marine pipelines in the world. Since 1986, the rate of building
new marine pipelines has been about 1000 km/year;
• 7 to 152 cm (~2.8 to 60 in.) diameter variations in seafloor pipelines. Smaller diameter
pipelines are used to transport oil and gas from wellheads, while larger diameter pipelines
load and unload oil from tankers moored at offshore terminals.

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Historical Perspective

Grand Lake, St Mary's, Ohio, c. 1890 South Louisiana – 1930s

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Historical Perspective

Gulf of Mexico -1930s Drop Hammer – In Place Fabrication Template Jacket - 1947
Creole Field 26’ WD

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Historical Perspective

Dual barge jacket lift, 1960s – Rotating Cranes Steady Progress to Deep Water 1947 - 1998

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Historical Perspective

Deepwater Jacket Loadout - 1979 Jacket Launch - 1979

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Historical Perspective
Platforms – Offshore Platforms at their Maximum Depths

Fixed Platform Movable Platform

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Historical Perspective
Platforms – Fixed-Bottom Platforms
• Used for exploratory oil-drilling operations;
• Typically supported by three to six legs;
• In soft soils, legs pass through mat to depths of
up to 70 m;
• Steel saucer or spud can is attached to bottom
of leg for stability and to minimize leg
penetration to soil;
• Height of platform above seafloor can be up to
100 m.

Mat-type Jack up rig

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Historical Perspective
Steel truss or jacket template
• Steel truss or jacket template:
• More frequently used among permanent, fixed-bottom
structures;
• The first structure was operational in 1955 in 30 m water
depth;
• By 1999, approximately 6,500 jacket structures. The
tallest jacket structure is Bullwinkle in GOM;
• Common characteristics:
• Tubular legs reinforced with tubular braces in K or X
patterns;
• Piles are driven through tubular legs, and a cluster of
piles around legs maintain structural stability.
Steel truss or jacket template

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Historical Perspective
Compliant Tower
• Pile-supported steel truss structure designed to comply or
flex with waves;
• For water depths from 300 to 800 m;
• May or may not have mooring lines;
• The first compliant tower, Lena, was built in the early
1980s in GOM and reached a total height of 400 m. In
normal or small storm conditions, anchor cables act as
stiff springs. At severe storms or hurricanes, the cable
restraints become softer or compliant;
• Compliant towers have natural frequencies in bending or
sway near 0.03 Hz (below the 0.05 Hz frequency of the
highest waves in GOM).
Compliant Tower

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Historical Perspective
Two storm wave height spectra in the Gulf of Mexico

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Historical Perspective
Buoyant Platforms Semisubmersible Platform
• Moorings – Temporary Anchor Moorings
• Used for ships in relatively shallow water;
• Six to eight cables of wire rope or chain are unreeled Spread mooring configuration
symmetrically;
• Attached directly to drag embedded anchor in the seabed
or to a buoy;
• At present, temporary systems for semisubmersible
drilling rigs and construction barges are used in water
depths of up to 2000 m;
• An early and successful anchoring example is the Ocean
Victory rig: Suction anchor showing water
• Installed at 450 m water depth flow during embedment
• 12 anchors, each withholding power of 200 kN
• Each catenary line was about 2500 m long with two
equal segments (one 8.9 cm diameter steel wire
cable, the other 8.3 cm diameter chain)

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Historical Perspective
Moorings – Platform Pile and Single-Point Moorings
• Derrick barges may use hydraulic hammers, drilling Two single-point systems:
equipment, or possibly a jetting system to install platform (a) a single anchor leg
mooring piles; mooring (SALM);
• Suction piles are employed in deep waters for cost (b) a catenary anchor leg
efficiency and practicality; mooring (CALM)
• Single-point mooring (SPM) systems are designed to
accommodate deep-draft tankers while transferring crude
oil and fuel oil to and from shore. Types of SPM are
SALM and CALM;
• By 2000, there are ~50 SALM and ~150 CALM systems
(see figure on the right) in operations in the world; CALM Example. Credit: SBM
Offshore

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Historical Perspective
Moorings – Platform Pile and Single-Point Moorings (1/3)
• Most of 80,000 km of offshore pipelines have been
installed by the following three methods:
Laybarge method of pipeline
• Laybarge method. Pipe sections, which sometimes have construction offshore
been coated previously with concrete for protection, are
welded together on the deck of a barge and deployed on
rollers over the stern. Near the stern, the pipeline passes
over pontoons called stingers that relieve excess bending
in the pipeline as deployed to the seabed.
Reel barge method. Credit:
• Reel barge method. Small to medium diameter pipe Bureau of Indian Standards
sections (up to 41 cm in diameter) are welded and coiled BIS 1993
onto a reel mounted to the deployment vessel. As the
pipeline is unreeled at sea, it passes through straightening
rollers and is then deployed as the lay barge method.

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Historical Perspective
Moorings – Platform Pile and Single-Point Moorings (2/3)
• Bottom-pull method. Pipe sections are assembled onshore, and the pipe string is towed into
the sea by a barge. During the launch to its place on the seabed, pontoons are often used under
the string to avoid excess pipeline bending.

Illustration of bottom pull

method. Credit: EMAS

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Historical Perspective
Moorings – Platform Pile and Single-Point Moorings (3/3)
• J-lay method. A dynamically positioned vessel
such as a drillship, a converted pipelaying
vessel, or a semisubmersible may be used. J-Lay method. Credit: Technip
Onboard the vessel, a derrick is used to hold
the pipeline vertically as it is lowered, and the
pipeline forms a J-shape between the vessel
and seafloor.
• They are floating string methods. First, the
pipeline is floated on pontoons at the water
surface. Then the pontoons are released
successively so that the pipe string gradually Illustration of floating string
sinks to the seafloor. method. Credit: Sea flex UK

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Historical Perspective
Pipelines – Vertical Pipelines (1/2)
• Marine riser functions:
• Riser may contain a bundle of smaller
pipelines connecting a wellhead to its
platform;
• Riser may transport oil directly from its
platform to a seafloor pipeline;
• Riser may act as a drilling sleeve;
• Riser may contain electric power lines for
operating seafloor mining vehicles or
other subsea facilities. Typical Flexible Riser
• Riser is maintained under tension to ensure Configurations. Credit: OTC
stability and is kept to within 8 degrees of the 1991
vertical by computer-controlled positioning of
its parent drilling vessel.

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Historical Perspective
Pipelines – Vertical Pipelines (2/2)
• Deep-sea dredging. Received attention in the 1960s to
suck up and transport manganese nodules from depths
of 3000 to 5000 m. Dredge pipe’s position is
computer-controlled, synchronized to the movement Two vertical pipeline
of both the self-propelled mining scoop at end and the systems:
ship at the other end. (a) a dredge pipe for mining
• A Vertical cold water pipe system is used for ocean manganese nodules;
thermal energy conversion (OTEC). Practical (b) a cold water pipe for
dimensions are 10-20 m in diameter and ~1000 m ocean thermal energy
long. Therefore, With differential temperature conversion
between the ends of THE pipe (10-20°C), it is
possible to produce net power through heat exchange.
• In 1979, a small-scale OTEC power plant operated
successfully on a barge 2.3 km offshore of Kona,
Hawaii. This pipe was 61 cm in diameter, 660 m long,
and made of polyurethane.

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 Design of Offshore Structures
Challenges
Modeling and Analysis Environmental Forces
• Inclusion of fatigue/fracture in structural
• Minimizing differential settlements for gravity
reliability analysis;
platforms;
• Continuous improvements in reliability
assessments, FE methods, optimizations, • In ArCtic regions, data are needed on the rates of
fluid-structure interactions, structural ice accretion, the velocity, yield strength, and
dynamic behavior, etc. mass of floating ice.
Experimental Evaluations
• Present laboratory-scale efforts include
Structural Materials
fluid-structural load interactions, and • High-strength steels with high fracture toughness
mechanics of structural-soil foundation are being investigated for reducing hull weight;
interactions;
• Hollow cylindrical steel link chains or synthetic
• Continuous improvements in
mooring line materials (e.g., Kevlar) are being
mathematical models based on large data
developed to increase mooring capacity;
gathered, stored and analyzed.
• THE Suitability of composite materials is being
investigated.

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