Submitted to: Dr.

Rajesh
Bhatt sir Electronics
department, UD RTU, Kota

By Shantanu Singh
Chundawat
Roll NO. : 22/212

Branch: E.C.E 2nd Year

emi asssignment
CATHODE RAY
OSCILLOSCOPE (CRO)
 CRO is a very useful and versatile instrument. It is used to
display measurement and analyze waveform and different
phenomena in electronic and electrical circuits.
 It is basically an x-y plotter which plots input signal versus
time or another signal.
 The stylus that plots the input signal is a luminous spot
which moves over the display area in response to input
voltage.
 The luminous spot is produced by a beam of electron
hitting a florescent screen.
 Due to low inertia effect of beam of electron, such a beam
is used to follow the instantaneous values of the input
signal.
 The CRO uses 2 inputs :- 1. Horizontal 2. Vertical input
 The horizontal input and vertical inputs are the type of
voltages. The horizontal input is type of internally
generated ramp voltage also known as ‘time base’.it
moves pointer from left to right. the vertical input is the
voltage under investigation and it moves the luminous
spot vertical.
 Luminious spot trace the waveform. If the input voltages
repeats itself at very high speed , the trace appear
stationary.
 CRO provides a means of visualizing time varying voltage.
It operate on voltage but we can operate it by converting
other quantities into voltage with transducer.
 Component of CRO
1. Cathode ray tube
2. Vertical amplifier
3. Delay line
4. Horizontal amplifier
5. Time base generator
6. Triggering circuit
7. Power supply
8. .

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-ND

1. Cathode Ray Tube : it is known as heart of CRO. It is

vacuum sealed envelop that has source of
electron(electron gun) that emit electron, that
accelerated to pass through two pair of plates before
 striking phosphorus coated screen internally to produce
visual display of signal.
2.

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY

3. The CRT has an electron gun which consists of cathode

which is has layer of barium or strontium oxide at the
end of cathode which is a cylinder to obtain high
amount of electron when heated by the heater. After
the emission, electron the pass through a small hole
through ‘control grid.’ It is made of a nickel cylinder
with a centrally located hole co-axial to CRT axis. It
controls the intensity of electron beam.
4. These electrons then are acc. By high positive potential
(voltage of 1500V) “pre-accelerating” and “accelerating
anode’’. The electron beam is focused by “focusing
anode.” These anodes are cylindrical in form with small
 opening in the center of the electrode. They use
electrostatic focusing.
5. After this the beam passese through the deflection
plates whivh produce s electric field to produce
deflection whithout striking the plates there two plates
horizontal and vertical .
6. Hten the beam strikes the screen that is coates with
phosphorescent material which emits light when
struck.


Now lets talk about vertical controller—

1. Vertical amplifier-
 this amplify the input signal which are weak.
 Does not distort the signal.
  This is applied if the direct input is weak.

Horizontal controllers –
2. Horizontal amplifier-
 Used to amplify the weak signal
 The signal is fed to the sweep voltage which provides a
time base.
3. Sawtooth sweep generator
 trgerred by thr syncriniziing amplifier when the sweep
selector is in the internal position .
 it then triggers the saw tooth generator and gives input
to horizontal amplifier.
 Types of sweep -
 Free running the second sweep is generated just after
first sweep ends
 Triggered sweep is gerated in response to the input
signal .
 Driven sweep used wher the sweep is used where the
sweep is reccurent but triggered by the signal under the
test.
 Non sawtooth sweep used for some application like
comparison of two frequency or for finding phase shift
between two voltages .
4. Syncronization amplifier – syncronoization between the
sweep and input signal we want to measure .
 3 Types-
 Internal – trigger is obtained from the input signal
 External – treigger is obtained from the external source
  Line – trigeger is obtained from line frequencies .

Intensity controller –
 it can be done by inserting a signal b/w the control grid
and the cathode.
 It causes the brightening of the display.
Position controller –
 Controles vertical and horizontal position of the display
Focus control -
 Focus can be changed by changing the focal length of
focusing anode.
Calibration circuit –
 Calibrating voltage has a square shape which is usually
internally generated voltage of a known amplitude .
Blanking circuit –
 It is necessary to eliminate the retrace thst would ocurr
when the spot moves on the screen moves from right to
left side.
Types of oscilloscope
A multi-input oscilloscope, also known as a multiple-
channel oscilloscope or multi-channel oscilloscope, is an
oscilloscope that can simultaneously display and analyze signals
from multiple input sources. There are two primary types single
beam and dual beam which may subsequently be converted
into further number of traces. these oscilloscopes typically have
two or more input channels, each with its own probe or input
connector.
1) Dual Trace Oscilloscope:
A dual-trace oscilloscope, also known as a dual-channel
oscilloscope, is a type of oscilloscope with two input channels,
each displaying its own trace on the screen. Dual-trace
oscilloscopes are widely used for comparing and analyzing two
different waveforms simultaneously. a dual-trace oscilloscope
has two input channels, and each channel can be connected to
a different signal source.
The oscilloscope captures and displays the voltage-time
waveforms of both input signals side by side on the screen.
Users can adjust the timebase (horizontal scaling) and voltage
scaling (vertical sensitivity) for each channel independently to
optimize the display.
Triggering settings can be configured individually for each
channel to ensure stable and synchronized waveform capture.
The dual-trace oscilloscope provides real-time visual feedback
of the two signals, enabling users to compare their
characteristics, timing, and relationships.
2) Dual Beam Oscilloscope:
A dual-beam oscilloscope is a specialized type of oscilloscope
that features two electron beams and two display screens.
This design allows for the simultaneous display and
comparison of two completely independent waveforms with
greater detail and precision compared to a standard dual-
trace oscilloscope.
A dual-beam oscilloscope typically contains two cathode-ray
tubes (CRTs) or electronic display screens, each with its
electron beam.
Each electron beam is independently controlled and directed
toward one of the two input channels.
The oscilloscope simultaneously displays two waveforms side
by side on the two screens, providing high-resolution and
accurate waveform representation.
Dual-beam oscilloscopes are especially useful for applications
requiring precise comparisons of waveform shapes, phase
differences, or fine details in the signals.

3) A sampling oscilloscope is a specialized type of

oscilloscope used for measuring and displaying high-
frequency signals with very fast rise times. Unlike traditional
analog oscilloscopes or digital storage oscilloscopes, which
use continuous-time waveform acquisition, a sampling
oscilloscope relies on a unique sampling technique to
capture and display waveforms accurately, even at extremely
high frequencies. Here's a brief explanation of how a
sampling oscilloscope works:
 Signal Sampling: The key concept behind a sampling
oscilloscope is "sampling." Instead of continuously
acquiring the entire waveform like traditional
oscilloscopes, it samples the waveform at discrete points
in time.
 Sampling Head: A sampling oscilloscope consists of a
specialized sampling head or front-end that is designed to
sample the input signal at a very high rate, typically in the
 range of gigahertz (GHz) or even terahertz (THz). This
sampling head contains components like fast switches and
delay lines.
 Triggering: Just like other oscilloscopes, a sampling
oscilloscope uses triggering to capture the signal of
interest. The trigger is typically set to synchronize with a
specific point on the input signal to ensure that each
sample is taken at a consistent phase of the waveform.
 Multiple Sampling: To reconstruct the entire waveform
accurately, a sampling oscilloscope takes multiple samples
per cycle of the input signal. This is necessary because
taking only one sample per cycle would not provide
enough information to reconstruct the waveform.
 Interpolation: After taking multiple samples, a sampling
oscilloscope uses interpolation techniques to reconstruct
the complete waveform between the sampled points. This
process involves estimating the values of the signal at
points that were not directly sampled.
 Display: Once the waveform is reconstructed, it is
displayed on the oscilloscope screen. The display can show
the waveform's voltage versus time, allowing you to
visualize and analyze the signal.
4) A digital storage oscilloscope (DSO) is an advanced electronic
test and measurement instrument used for visualizing,
analyzing, and measuring electrical signal .
Its works like this-
 Signal Input: Like other oscilloscopes, a DSO accepts
electrical signals from a variety of sources, such as
electronic circuits, devices, or sensors. These signals are
typically applied through input channels that connect to
probes or test leads.
 Analog-to-Digital Conversion: The incoming analog voltage
signals are converted into digital data using an analog-to-
digital converter (ADC). This conversion process samples
the analog signal at regular intervals and assigns a digital
value to each sample.
 Data Storage: Unlike analog oscilloscopes that display
waveforms directly on a cathode-ray tube (CRT), a DSO
stores the digitized waveform data in memory. This data
storage allows for capturing and storing waveforms over
time, making it useful for analyzing both single-shot events
and repetitive signals.
  Triggering: A digital storage oscilloscope provides various
triggering options to capture and display specific events or
portions of the waveform. Triggering helps ensure that the
oscilloscope captures the signal of interest consistently.
 Waveform Display: The captured waveform data can be
displayed on a digital screen. DSOs typically feature a high-
resolution LCD or LED display, which allows users to view
the waveforms in detail.
Probes
The probe performs the very important function of connecting
the test circuit to the oscilloscope without altering, loading, or
otherwise disturbing the test circuit.
The probes are of three different types :
direct reading probe
circuit isolation probe
detector probe.

Direct reading probe- This probe is simplest of all the probes

and uses a shielded co-axial cable. It avoids stray pick-ups
which may create problems when low level signals are being
measured.
Isolation probe- Isolation probe is used in order to avoid the
undesirable circuit loading effects of the shielded probe.

. Detector probe- When analyzing the response to modulated

signals used in communication equipment like AM, FM and TV
receivers, the detector probe functions to separate the low
frequency modulation component from the high frequency
carrier. The amplitude of the modulator carrier (which is
proportional to the response of the receiver to the much high
frequency carrier signal) is displayed on the oscilloscope by
rectifying and bypassing action.
TRANSDUCERS FOR
MEASUREMENT OF
PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
Transducer is device which converts one form of energy to
another form of energy. They are used to convert
physicalquantities or signals into electrical signals which can be
measured .

the transducer is of many types, and they can be classified as :

as a primary and secondary transducer
as a passive and active transducer
as analogue and digital transducer
as the transducer and inverse transducer
Primary and Secondary Transducer
Primary Transducer – The transducer consists the mechanical as
well as the electrical devices. The mechanical devices of the
transducer change the physical input quantities into a
mechanical signal. This mechanical device is known as the
primary transducers.
Secondary Transducer – The secondary transducer converts the
mechanical signal into an electrical signal. The magnitude of the
output signal depends on the input mechanical signal.

The Bourdon’s Tube is the primary transducer, and the L.V.D.T

is called the secondary transducer.
Passive and Active Transducer
Passive Transducer – The transducer which requires the power
from an external supply source is known as the passive
transducer. They are also known as the external power
transducer. The capacitive, resistive and inductive transducers
are the example of the passive transducer.
Active Transducer – The transducer which does not require the
external power source is known as the active transducer. Such
type of transducer develops theirs owns voltage or current,
hence known as a self-generating transducer. The output signal
is obtained from the physical input quantity. Example
accelerometer ( piezoelelectric crystal).
Analog and Digital Transducer
The transducer can also be classified by their output signals.
The output signal of the transducer may be continuous or
discrete.
Analog Transducer – The Analog transducer changes the input
quantity into a continuous function. The strain gauge, L.V.D.T,
thermocouple, thermistor are the examples of the analogue
transducer.
Digital Transducer – These transducers convert an input
quantity into a digital signal or in the form of the pulse. The
digital signals work on high or low power.
Transducer and Inverse Transducer
Transducer – The device which converts the non-electrical
quantity into an electric quantity is known as the transducer.
Inverse Transducer – The transducer which converts the electric
quantity into a physical quantity, such type of transducers is
known as the inverse transducer. The transducer has high
electrical input and low non-electrical output.
Selection characteristics of transducers
The three main selection characteristics for a transducer.
1. Input characteristics for selecting a transducer : type of input,
operating range, loading effect(when transducer is connected
there should be no change in the physical quantity).
2. Transfer characteristics for selecting a transducer : transfer
function (q0=f[qi]), error and hysteresis, response of a
transducer to environmental influences.
2. Output characteristics for selecting a transducer : type of
output, output impedance, useful range.
 Thermoelectric effect:
Seebeck Effect:
Definition, describes the generation of a voltage (EMF -
electromotive force) in a closed circuit made of two dissimilar
conductive materials when there is a temperature difference
between the junctions.
When there is a temperature gradient across the junctions of
two different conductive materials, electrons in the hotter
material gain energy and migrate toward the cooler material.
This migration of charge carriers creates an electric potential
difference between the two ends, resulting in the generation of
an electric voltage.
Peltier Effect:
Definition: The Peltier effect, discovered by Jean Charles
Athanase Peltier in 1834, is the reverse of the Seebeck effect. It
describes the absorption or release of heat when an electric
current flows through the junction of two dissimilar conductive
materials.
When an electric current passes through a junction of two
dissimilar materials, one side of the junction absorbs heat
(endothermic) while the other side releases heat (exothermic).
The magnitude and direction of the heat transfer depend on
the direction of the current flow. This effect is exploited in
thermoelectric coolers (TECs) or Peltier coolers, used for
electronic device cooling and precise temperature control
applications.

 Thermocouple:
thermocouple is an active transducer that measure
temprature. It works on the principle of see back effect. They
are extensively used for temperature measurement in
industrial applications.
Thermocouple Construction and Types
A thermocouple consists of two different types of metals joined
together at one end (hot junction) and terminated at another
end (cold junction). When the hot junction is heated or cooled,
a voltage created can be correlated back to the temperature.

Theoretically, any pair of dissimilar materials can be used for

the construction of a thermocouple. But practically, only a few
materials have found useful for measuring temperature. The
following table shows common types of thermocouple
materials with their temperature range.

Temperature
Type Positive Lead Negative Lead
Range

Platinum-Rhodium
R Platinum 0 – 1500 oC
(87% Pt,13% Rh)

Platinum-Rhodium
S Platinum 0 – 1500 oC
(90% Pt, 10% Rh)

Chromel (90%Ni, 10% Alumel

K -200 – 1300 oC
Cr) (Ni94Al2Mn3Si)

Chromel (90%Ni, 10% Constantan (57% Cu,

E -200 – 1000 oC
Cr) 43% Ni)

Constantan (57% Cu,

T Copper -200 – 350 oC
43% Ni)

Constantan (57% Cu,

J Iron -150 – 750 oC
43% Ni)

Thermocouple Working Principle

The thermocouple works on the principle of see back effect.
Thomas Johan Seeback discovered that temperature
difference(thermal energy) can produce electrical energy. In a
thermocouple, two conductors of different type of metals are
connected forming two common junctions. When these two
junctions are exposed to two different temperatures, a net
thermal emf is produced. The value also depends on the
materials used and is proportional to the temperature
difference between hot and cold junctions.
The output of a thermocouple can be measured directly by a
millivoltmeter. It can be also measured with the help of a dc
potentiometer or using amplifiers with an output device.

 RTD (resistance temperature detector):

Construction of RTD
The resistance temperature detector is constructed by
wounding the resistance wire on a mica base. The wire is
wound like a helical coil on the support to reduce the
inductance effect. The terminals(Leads) are brought out of the
pipe. The coil is protected by a stainless steel case. The
structural view of a wire wound RTD is shown in the figure.
Copper, Nickel and Platinum are the most used RTD materials.
These metals have positive temperature co-efficient and
possess poor thermal sensitivity. Also, the resistance-
temperature characteristics of these materials are
approximately linear.
Another type of RTD is thin-film RTD that is constructed by
depositing a thin layer of resistive material onto a ceramic
substance.
Working Principle of RTD
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD) operates on the
principle that the resistance of a metal changes with changes in
temperature.
The variation of resistance R with temperature t can be
represented by the equation,
R=R0(1+αΔt)
Where α is the temperature co-efficient at t0 and R0 is the
resistance at t0.

 Thermistor :
The Thermistor or simply Thermally Sensitive Resistor is
a temperature sensor that works on the principle of varying
resistance with temperature. They are made of semiconducting
materials. The circuit symbol of the thermistor is shown in the
figure.
Construction of Thermistor
A thermistor is made of oxides of metals such as Nickel,
Manganese, Cobalt, Copper, Uranium etc. It is available in a
variety of shapes and sizes. Commonly used for configurations
are Disk type, Bead type and Rod type.

The disc type thermistor and rod type thermistor is used when
greater power dissipation is required. The rod type thermistor
has high power handling capacity.
The smallest thermistor in these configurations is the bead type
thermistor. its diameter is low as 0.15 mm. The measurement
element is typically encapsulated in a glass probe. It is
commonly used for measuring the temperature of liquids.
Working Principle of Thermistors
The thermistor works on the simple principle of change in
resistance due to a change in temperature. When the ambient
temperature changes the thermistor starts self-heating its
elements. its resistance value is changed with respect to this
change in temperature. This change depends on the type of
thermistor used. The resistance temperature characteristics of
different types of thermistors are given in the following section.
Types of Thermistors
The two basic types of thermistors available are the NTC and
PTC types.
NTC Thermistor
NTC stands for Negative Temperature coefficient. They are
ceramic semiconductors that have a high Negative
Temperature Coefficient of resistance. The resistance of an NTC
will decrease with increasing temperature in a non-linear
manner.
Circuit symbols of NTC and PTC thermistors are shown in the
following figure.

PTC Thermistor
PTC thermistors are Positive Temperature Coefficient resistors
and are made of polycrystalline ceramic materials. The
resistance of a PTC will increase with increasing temperature in
a non-linear manner. The PTC thermistor shows only a small
change of resistance with temperature until the switching
point(TR) is reached.
The temperature resistance characteristics of an NTC and a PTC
is shown in the following figure.

 Linear variable differential transformer

(LVDT) :
LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer) is a passive
transducer, that works on the principle of mutual induction and
can be used to measure displacement, pressure, and force.
Construction of LVDT
LVDT consists of one primary coil and two secondary coils
wounded on a cylindrical core. The core is made up of a
ferromagnetic material such as iron core and is freely movable
inside the coil and this movement measures the physical
quantity.
The primary winding is connected to an AC source. The two
secondary winding S1 and S2 have an equal number of turns
and are set up in series opposition. So the e.m.f induced in
these winding are 180° out of phase with each other and thus
the net effect is cancelled.
Working of LVDT
When an alternating voltage input is given in the primary
winding, an alternating emf is induced in the secondary
winding(S1 and S2).
Suppose V1 is the voltage induced across S1 and V2 is the
voltage induced across S2. The overall output voltage across
the secondary winding(V0) is the difference between V1 and
V2.
So the differential output is
The value of V0 depends on the position of the core. Three
possible cases are illustrated in the following figure.

When the core is positioned at the centre (Case 1), voltages

induced across winding S1 and S2 are equal(but in reverse-
phase). Then, the resultant voltage V0=0. In this case, we say
there is no displacement.
If the core is displaced from the central position to more in
S1(Case 2), then more emf generated in coil S1. That is V1>V2.
Similarly, if the core is displaced from the central position to
more in S2(Case 3), then more emf generated in coil S2. That is
V2>V1.
In case 2, we have upward displacement and in case 3, we have
downward displacement. In both cases, the magnitude of V0
will be proportional to the position of the core relative to the
centre.
The input output curve of a LVDT is shown in the figure.
  Load cell :
A load cell converts a force (usually the gravitation force from
an object being weighed) to a strain which can then be
converted to an electrical signal by strain gauges. Construction
of Strain Gauge Load Cell

Fig. 1 (a) shows a simple strain gauge load cell. Load cell con-
sists of a steel cylinder, on which, four identical strain gauges
are mounted. The gauges R, and R, are along the direction of
applied load (i.e. vertically) and the gauges R2 and R3 are at-
tached circumferentially to gauges R, and R. All the four gauges
are connected electrically to the four arms of a Wheatstone
bridge circuit.
Working of Strain Gauge Load Cell
When there is no load on the cell, all four strain gauges will
have same resistances (R₁ = R4 R3 = R₂). It means,
Wheatstone's bridge is in balanced condition, and
galvanometer shows zero output voltage. On the application of
a compressive load to the unit, the vertical gauges (R, and R)
undergo com- pression (i.e. decrease in length causing negative
strain). Due to decrease in length, resistance decreases. At
same time, the cir- cumferential gauges R2 and R3 undergo
tension (i.e. increase in length causing positive strain). Due to
increase in length, resis- tance increases. As a result of change
in resistances, Wheatstone's bridge gets unbalanced. Thus, an
output voltage obtained is a measure of applied load. Refer Fig.
1 (b).
  Strain gauge :
A strain gauge is a device used to measure the strain or
deformation of an object under external forces
When an external force is applied to an object, it causes the
object to deform. This deformation alters the length and cross-
sectional area of the strain gauge, leading to a change in its
electrical resistance. This change in resistance is directly
proportional to the amount of strain experienced by the object.
To measure the strain, the strain gauge is typically attached to
the surface of the object being tested using adhesive or solder.
As the object deforms, the strain gauge undergoes the same
deformation, resulting in a change in resistance
train gauge working principle is based on the concept of
electrical resistance variation due to mechanical strain. The
strain gauge consists of a fine wire or foil, typically made of a
highly conductive material like copper or constantan, which is
attached to a flexible backing material. When a mechanical
strain is applied to the strain gauge, the wire or foil undergoes
deformation, resulting in a change in its length and cross-
sectional area. This alteration in dimensions causes a
corresponding change in the electrical resistance of the wire or
foil.
The change in resistance can be measured using a Wheatstone
bridge circuit, which is commonly employed in strain gauge
applications. The Wheatstone bridge consists of four resistive
arms, with the strain gauge forming one of the arms. The other
three arms typically consist of fixed resistors. When the strain
gauge experiences a strain, the resistance of the gauge
changes, leading to an imbalance in the Wheatstone bridge
circuit. This imbalance generates a small electrical output
signal, which is proportional to the applied strain.
By measuring the output signal, the magnitude of the strain can
be determined. This allows for the analysis of various
mechanical properties such as stress, load, and deformation in
structural components. Strain gauges find extensive
applications in areas like civil engineering, aerospace,
automotive, and material testing. We will learn more about its
applications in civil engineering in following sections.
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA

 Bourdon tube :
The Bourdon tube is an almost rectangular or elliptical cross-
section tube made from materials such as stainless steel or
phosphor bronze. With a C-shaped tube when the pressure
inside the tube increases the closed end of the C opens out,
thus the displacement of the closed end becomes a measure of
the pressure. A C-shaped Bourdon tube can be used to rotate,
via gearing, a shaft and cause a pointer to move across a scale.
Such instruments are robust and typically used for pressures in
the range 10 kPa to 100 MPa with an accuracy of about ±1% of
full scale
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under
CC BY-SA
ERRORS
RELATIVE (FRACTIONAL) LIMITING ERROR
The relative (fractional) error is defined as the ratio of the error
to the specified (nominal) magnitude of a quantity. Therefore,
Relative limiting error

TYPES OF ERRORS
GROSS ERRORS
This class of errors mainly covers human mistakes in reading
instruments and recording and calculating measurement
results. The responsibility of the mistake normally lies with the
experimenter. The experimenter may grossly misread the scale.
They can be avoided by adopting two means. They are:
1. Great care should be taken in reading and recording the
data. 2. Two, three or even more readings should
be taken for the quantity under measurement.

SYSTAMATIC ERRORS
These types of errors are divided into three categories:
Instrumental Errors - These errors arise due to three main
reasons:

(i) Due to inherent shortcomings in the instrument - These

errors are inherent in instruments because of their mechanical
structure. They may be due to construction, calibration or
operation of the instruments or measuring devices. These
errors may cause the instrument to read too low or too high.
For example, if the spring (used for producing controlling
torque) of a permanent magnet instrument has become weak,
the instrument will always read high. Errors may be caused
because of friction, hysteresis or even gear backlash.

(ii) Due to misuse of the instruments - the errors caused in

measurements are due to the fault of the operator than that of
the instrument. A good instrument used in an unintelligent way
may give erroneous results.

(Iii) Due to loading effects of instruments - One of the most

common errors committed by beginners is the improper use of
an instrument for measurement work. For example, a well
calibrated voltmeter may give a misleading voltage reading
when connected across a high resistance circuit
2. Environmental Errors - These errors are due to conditions
external to the measuring device including conditions in the
area surrounding the instrument. These may be effects of
temperature pressure, humidity, dust, vibrations or of external
magnetic or electrostatic fields. The corrective measures
employed to eliminate or to reduce these undesirable effects
are: (i) Arrangements should be made to keep the conditions as
nearly as constant as possible.
(ii) Using equipment which is immune to these effects
(iii) Employing techniques which eliminate the effects of these
disturbances.
(iv)In case it is suspected that external magnetic or electrostatic
fields can affect the readings of the instruments, magnetic or
electrostatic shields may be provided.
(v) Applying computed corrections.

3. Observational Errors- These are the errors that arise due to

an individual’s bias, lack of proper setting of the apparatus, or
an individual’s carelessness in taking observations. The
measurement errors also include wrong readings due to
Parallax errors.

RANDOM ERRORS
It has been consistently found that experimental results show
variation from one reading to another; even after all systematic
errors have been accounted for. We are aware of and account
for some of the factors influencing the measurement, but about
the rest we are unaware. The happenings or disturbances about
which we are unaware are lumped together and called
"Random" or "Residual". Hence the errors caused by these
happenings are called Random (or Residual) Errors. Since these
errors remain even after the systematic errors have been taken
care of, we call these errors as Residual (Random) Errors.

ARITHMATIC MEAN

Where, X = arithmetic mean

x1, x2... xn = readings or variants or samples and n = number of
readings
RANGE
The simplest possible measure of dispersion is the range which
is the difference between greatest and least values of data.
DEVIATION
Deviation is departure of the observed reading from the
arithmetic mean of the group of readings.

AVERAGE DEVIATION
Average deviation is defined as the sum of the absolute values
of deviations divided by the number of readings.

STANDARD DEVIATION (S.D)

The Standard Deviation of an infinite number of data is defined
as the square root of the sum of the individual deviations
squared, divided by the number of readings.

If the number of observations is less than 20, the symbol used

is s. The Standard Deviation of a finite number of data is given
by:

VARIANCE
The variance is the mean square deviation, which is the same as
S.D., except that square root is not extracted

But when the number of observations is less than 20

Normal or Gaussian Curve of Errors
The Normal or Gaussian law of errors is the basis for the major
part of study of random effects. This type of distribution is most
frequently met in practice.

Where x = magnitude of deviation from mean, y = number of

readings at any deviation x, (the probability of occurrence of
deviation x) and h = a constant called precision index.
Another, more convenient form of equation describing
Gaussian curve uses standard deviation o and is given by:

Standard Deviation of Mean

Standard Deviation of Standard Deviation

Probable Error

Probable Error for infinite deviations

Probable Error for finite deviations

Probable Error for Mean

A.C. BRIDGES
Alternating current bridges methods are used for the
measurement of inductance, capacitance, loss factor etc.
The AC bridges are the extension of WSB Wheat stone bridge.
AC bridge consists of four arms, a source of excitation and a
balance detector.
In an ac bridge each of the four arm are impedance. The battery
and galvanometer of WSB are replaced by a.c.source and
detector sensitive to detect the small potential difference
SOURCES AND DETECTORS:
For measurements at low frequencies, the power line may act
as the source of supply to the bridge circuits.
For higher frequencies electronic oscillators are universally
used as bridge source supplies
The detectors commonly used for A.C. bridges are:
Head phones
Vibration galvanometers
Tuneable amplifier detectors.

GENERAL EQUATION FOR BRIDGE BALANCE:

Figure below shows a basic a.c. bridge. The four arms of the
bridge are impedances Z1 Z2, Z3 and Z4
The conditions for balance of bridge require that there should
be no current through the detector. This requires that the
potential difference between points b and d should be zero.
This will be the case when the voltage drop from a to b equals
to voltage drop from a to d, both in magnitude and phase.
Z1Z4 = Z2Z3 ...(eq)

Fig. Basic a.c. bridge network.

Maxwell’s Inductance Capacitance Bridge:

In this bridge an inductance is measured by comparison with a
standard capacitance. The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. No. 1
Let L1 = Unknown inductance
R1 = Effective Resistance of Inductor L1 R2, R3, R4 = Known
Non-Inductive resistances
C4 = Variable Standard Capacitor
Fig. No. 1 Shows the Maxwell’s Inductance Capacitance Bridge
for the measurement of unknown Inductance.
Z1 = R1 +jωL1
Z4 = R4 / (1 + jωC4 R4)
Z2 = R2
Z3 = R3
Z1 Z4 = Z2 Z3
= (R1 +jωL1) [ R4 / (1 + jωC4 R4)] = R2 R3
On Solving we get
R1 R4 + jωL1 R4 = R2 R3 + jω C4 R4 R2 R3
Separating real and imaginary parts we get
R1 = R2 R3 / R4 ….Equation 1….
L1 = R2 R3 C4
….Equation 2….
We get two equation having two variables R4 and C4 which
appear in one of the two balanced equation and hence the two
equation are independent.
Quality factor OR Q factor = ωL1 /R1 = ωC4 R4 …Equation
3….

Hay’s Bridge:
The Hay’s Bridge is the modification of Maxwell’s Bridge.
This Bridge uses a resistance in series with standard capacitor
(unlike Maxewell’s Bridge which uses in a resistance in parallel
with capacitor.
The Circuit diagram is shown in Fig. No.1.
Let L1 = Unknown inductance.
R1 = Effective Resistance of Inductor L1
R2, R3, R4 = Known Non-Inductive resistances.
C4 = Variable Standard Capacitor
In Balance Condition
Z1 Z4 = Z2 Z3
= (R1 +jωL1) (R4 – j/ωC4 ) = R2 R3
On Solving we get
R1 R4 + L1/C4 + jωL1R4 –jR1 / ωC4 = R2 R3
Separating real and imaginary parts we get
R1 R4+ L1/C4 = R2 R3
And L1 = - R1 / (ω2 R4C4)
On Solving above two equation we get
 L1 = R2 R3 C4 / (1+ ω2 C 2 4 R 2 4)
…Equation 1…
R1 = ω 2R2 R3R4C 2 4 / (1+ ω2 C 2 4 R 2 4)
…Equation 2…

Quality factor OR Q factor = ωL1 /R1 = 1/ωC4 R4

…Equation 3….

Schering Bridge:
Fig. No.1 Shows the Schering bridge for the measurement of
unknown capacitance. Let
C1 = Capacitor whose capacitance is to be determined.
r1 = A series resistance which represents loss in capacitor C1.
C2 = A Standard Capacitor.
R3 = A non-inductive resistance
C4 = A variable capacitor
R4 = A non-inductive resistance in parallel with variable
capacitor C4

At balance Condition
Z1 Z4 = Z2 Z3
(r1 + 1/jωC1) [ R4 / (1+jωC4 R4) ] = (1/jωC2 ) R3
OR
(r1 + 1/jωC1) R4 = (R3/jωC2 ) (1+jωC4 R4) OR
r1R4 – jR4 /ωC1 = (-jR3/ωC2 ) (R3 R4 C4 / C2)
Equating real and imaginary parts we get
r1= R3 C4 /C2 …Equation 1…
 C1 = C2 (R4/ R3) …Equation 2…
Two independent balance equation is obtained if C4 and R4 are
taken as variable elements.
Dissipation Factor = D1 = tan δ = ωC1 r1 = ω (C2 R4/ R3) (R3
C4 /C2)
OR
Dissipation Factor = D1 =ω C4 R4 …
Equation 3 …
The values of capacitance C1 and its dissipation factor is
obtained from the values of bridge elements at balance.

Wein’s Bridge:
Let Z1, Z2, Z3, and Z4 be the impedances of the arm AB, AD, BC,
and CD respectively and given as,
When the bridge is balanced, we have,

Equating the real terms, we get,

The above equation is used to determine the resistance ratio

(R4/R3). Now equating the imaginary terms,
If suppose the bridge components are chosen such that R1 = R2
= R and C1 = C2 = C. Then the above equation is given as,

In order to maintain R1 = R2, a mechanical coupling is provided

between them. So that R2 varies with R1 proportionally such
that R1 = R2 can be maintained.
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS
Electronic voltmeters, ammeters and ohmmeters use
amplifiers, rectifiers and other auxiliary circuits to produce a
current proportional to the quantity being measured. This
current is measured by a PMMC instruments.
Although analog and digital instruments must perform the
same function i.e., measurement of voltage, current, power
and circuit parameters, the principle of operation is different in
each case.

ELECTRONICVOLTMETERS:-
Electronic voltmeters make use of the rectifying properties of
diodes whether vacuum tubes or metal rectifiers or semi-
conductor diodes. Vacuum tube diode was first used in
electronic voltmeters.
Vacumm tube is major component and quite popular as a
sensing element of vacuum tube voltmeters (VTVM). With the
introduction of the transistor and other semiconductor devices,
vacuum tubes are on their way out. Solid state models with
junction field effect transistor (JFET) input stages are known as
Transistor Voltmeters (TVM) and Field Effect Voltmeters
(FETVM) are taking their place.
Advantages of Electronic Voltmeters:-
Detection of low level signals.
Low power consumption.
High frequency range.

ELECTRONIC MULTIMETERS:-
An electronic multimeter is one of the most versatile laboratory
instruments which is capable of measurement of D.C. and A.C.
currents and voltages and resistances. The solid state version of
the multimeter is described.
Components used in Electronic Multimeters:-
A balanced bridge d.c. amplifier and PMMC indicating
instrument.
A range switch which is an attenuator to limit the value of
input voltage to the desired value.
A rectifier to convert a.c. to a proportionate d.c. value.
An internal battery and additional circuitry for the
measurement of resistance.
A FUNCTION Switch to select various measurement functions of
the instrument like current, voltage and resistance.

Digital Voltmeters:-
A digital voltmeter (DVM) displays the value of a.c. or d.c
voltage being measured directly as discrete numerals in the
decimal number system. Numerical readout of DVMs is
advantageous since it eliminates observational errors
committed by operators.
A digital voltmeter is a versatile and accurate voltmeter which
has many laboratory applications. On account of developments
in the integrated circuit (IC) technology.
Circuit or Block diagram of Digital Voltmeters:-

Fig: Block Diagram of Digital Voltmeters.

COMPONENT MEASURING INSTRUMNETS:-

Measurements are the basic means of acquiring knowledge

about the parameters and variables involved in the operation
of a physical system. Measurement, generally involves using an
instrument as a physical means of determining a quantity or
variable. An instrument or a measuring instrument is,
therefore, defined as a device for determining the value or
magnitude of a quantity or variable. The electrical measuring
instrument, as its name implies, is based on electrical principles
for its measurement function.
Direct Measurement:- In direct method the unknown quantity
is measured directly such as measurement of current by an
ammeter, voltage by voltmeter, resistance by ohm meter,
power by wattmeter etc.
by measuring other functionally related quantities and
calculating the desired quantity rather than measuring it
directly with an instrument.

Q METER:-

The instrument which measures the storage factor or quality

factor ofthe electrical circuit at radio frequencies, such type of
device is known as the Q-meter. The quality factor is one of
the parameters of the oscillatory system, which shows
the relation between the storage and dissipated energy.
Working Principle of Q meter:-
The Q meter works on series resonant. The resonance is the
condition exists in the circuit when their inductance
and capacitance reactance are of equal magnitude. They induce
energy which is oscillating between the electric and magnetic
field of the capacitor and inductor respectively.
VECTOR IMPEDENCE METER:-

Vector impedance meters are essential tools in the field of

electronics and electrical engineering, playing a crucial role in
testing and analyzing components and circuits. They are used to
measure complex impedance, a property that describes the
resistance and reactance of an electronic component when an
alternating current (AC) is applied to it. This article provides an
introduction to vector impedance meters, their applications,
and their importance in the electronics industry.
RF POWER:-

A radio-frequency power amplifier (RF power amplifier) is a

type of electronic amplifier that converts a low-power radio-
frequency signal into a higher-power signal. Typically, RF power
amplifiers are used in the final stage of a radio transmitter,
theiroutput driving the antenna. Design goals
ofteninclude gain,power output, bandwidth, power efficiency,
linearity (low signal compression at rated output), input and
output impedance matching, and heat dissipation.