Sorsogon College of Criminology, Inc.

3928 Rizal St., Piot, Sorsogon City

Email Add: sorcollgeofcriminology@gmail.com

Tel No: 211-00-17

CRIMINOLOGY 6

DISPUTE RESOLUTION
AND CRISIS/INCIDENTS
MANAGEMENT
Pre- final and Final Coverage
Module 3 and 4

Instructor:
Myshel A. Fortes, Rcrim.
09100375445
Email Add: myshelfortes@gmail.com/
myshelforteskate@gmail.com
 Learning Objectives
At the end of this lesson, the students will be able to:
 Define crisis, crisis management and identify the main principle, objective and
theories on crisis management.
 Understand the essential elements of crisis management.
 Gain a better understanding of the legal measure used to deal with crisis
management.

DEFINITION
Crisis – this term came from the Greek word “Krisis” which means to decide. A crisis is a turning
point in the progress of an affair or a series of events.
- “a disruption that physically affects a system as a whole an threatens its basic
assumptions, its subjective sense of self, and its existential core” (Pauchant and
Mitroff, 1992, 15).
- According to Lighthouse Readiness Group (2015), a crisis is a “time of intense difficulty,
trouble, or danger and can be personal, or confined to a small population, like a family,
or a company dealing with serious problem”.
Emergency – this term came from the Greek word “emergentia” which means dipping or
plunging. An emergency is a sudden condition or state of affair calling for immediate action.
- Is any natural or man-made situation that may result in substantial harm to the
population or damage to property (Shen Shaw, 2004, 2110).
- Emergency can be defined as “an imminent or actual event that threatens people,
property or the environment and which requires a coordinated and rapid response.
- Emergencies are usually unanticipated, at least in terms of exactly what happens and
when and where they take place.

CRISIS VERSUS EMERGENCY

If the situation is still controllable and the response given is for the purpose of
containing the situation and prevent it from getting out of control then it is just an emergency.
If the situation is already beyond normal control, what is happening is already a crisis. However
if the effect of the crisis can no longer be controlled even by its main instigator, then it is already
a disaster.

EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT
 The organization and management of resources and responsibilities for addressing all
aspects of emergencies, in particular, preparedness, response and initial recovery steps; a
management process that is applied to deal with the actual or implied effects of hazards.

CRISIS MANAGEMENT
The term crisis management refers to the expert handling of a crisis or emergency, with
aim of eliminating danger or damage, especially on the part of the government.
Especially crisis management refers to the process of identifying threats to an
organization and its major player as well as the methods used to an organization to deal with
such threats. Crisis managements often require decision to be made after a major event has
already occurred and within a short time frame. In order to reduce uncertainties and further
risk in the event of a crisis, organization (e.g, local or national governments) must create crisis
management plan (Crisis Management).
CONCEPT OF CRISIS MANAGEMENT
Crisis management is the proper utilization of all available resources and the
formulation of policies and procedures to effectively deal with progressive sequence of events
(crisis) and sudden or unforeseen state (emergency).

THEORIES ON CRISIS MANAGEMENT

Crisis Management Model
This argues that successfully diffusing a crisis requires understanding of how a crisis
diffusing be handled before it occur. According to the main proponents (Gonzales-Herrero and
Pratt), a four phases crisis management model process should be used to handle a crisis and
this process included (1) issue management, (2) planning prevention, (3) the crisis and (4) post
crisis (Crisis Management, 2009).
Structure – Functional System Theory
Structure – functional system theory propose that the provision of information to an
organization in time of crisis is critical ensuring effective crisis management. This theory
highlights the importance of an efficient information networks (consisting organization
communication (Crisis Management, 2009).

ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF CRISIS MANAGEMENT

Incident Management – this refers to an act of continuing the situation within a certain level,
mostly through law.
Consequence Management – this act that focusses on mitigating the adverse effects that may
be brought about by an incident. This achieved by utilizing non law enforcement elements such
as medical and fire service.

PURPOSE OF CRISIS MANAGEMENT

SALVARI VITAS – the main goal of this crisis management which means to save lives

OBJECTIVES OF CRISIS MANAGEMENT

 Resolve even without further incident ensure these after of all participants
 Apprehension of all the perpetrators
 Accomplish the task within the framework of current community standards

PRINCIPLE OF PROPER CRISIS MANAGEMENT

 To achieve a successful negotiation there must be a need to live on the part of the
hostage-taker and there must be a threat of force by the authorities.
 Contain and negotiate.
 Protect the innocent from harm
 Allow the passage of time so that the perpetrators can be reasoned with through a
negotiation.
 Allow the passage of time so that the response force can evaluate the situation, gather
information, explore alternative and formulate plan of action
 Rely on the continuous flow of information from all sources pressure the perpetrators
into abandoning their position.
 Receive analyse and disseminate all information prepare for a rapidly escalating of
events.

TYPES OF CRISIS
A. Man-made crisis
1. Civil disturbances, such as labor strike/demonstration, riots, anarchy, welga ng bayan
2. Revolt
- Mutiny, insurrection, coup d’ etat
3. Border incident
 4. War
- Conventional, nuclear
5. Kidnapping
6. Hijacking
- By air, by sea, by land
7. Hostage taking
8. Terrorist activities
9. Attacts/Raids on government installation facilities and other vital centres

B. Natural crisis
1. Fire
2. Floods
3. Earthquakes
4. Tidal waves
5. Marine/air disaster
6. Hazardous spills
7. Failure of facilities that provide utilities (power, water, telephone)
8. Nuclear accidents
9. Food scarcity/famine
10. Fuel shortage
11. Pestilence/epidemic
12. Volcanic eruption
13. Typhoons
14. Drought

C. Individual Crisis – it refers to the feelings that arises when a person faces unpleasant
situation such as frustrations and conflicts. This includes:

1. Physical Crisis -those that are related to health problems or bodily

sickness/sufferings.
2. Economic Crisis – the deprivation of the basic necessities of life like food and
material things.
3. Emotional Crisis – when an individual is affected by negative feelings like emotional
disturbances, fear, etc.
4. Social Crisis – the experiencing lack of interest, confidence and social skills to relate
meaningful, harmonious relationship with others.
5. Moral Crisis – the person has an irrational or distorted concept of what is right and
wrong, lack of moral values and integrity of the person.
6. Psychosexual Crisis – failure of the person to assume one’s sex role and identity as a
man or woman. The person has inappropriate sex objective, inadequate and
distorted expression of affection
THE CRISIS MANAGEMENT DOCTRINE
The crisis may start as basically police or special unit matter but could develop in
proportion and dimension requiring further military operations. If the crisis situation is brought
about by natural calamities, then it is addressed by the National Disaster Risk Reduction
Management Council or NDRRMC (Formerly known as the National Disaster Coordinating
Councilor NDCC). The general idea is to prevent the occurrence of a crisis, ensure a probability
of success in minimizing or neutralizing the perpetrator or return the situation onto normalcy.

PHASES OF CRISIS MANAGEMENT

A. Proactive Phase – is the stage of advance planning, organization and coordination and
control in response to an anticipated future crisis occurrence. This phase is designed to
predict or prevent probability or occurrence of the crisis while at the same time
prepares to handle them when they occur.

1. Prediction – the first stage of anticipating future crisis occurrence through the following;

a. Update- Intelligence
b. Events
c. Threat Analysis of Threat Groups
Political Terrorist
Criminals
Mentally Deranged Individuals

2. Prevention – this pro-active phase considers counter measures as part of the total
system of operation. Such counter measures involve the following;

a. Operation Security c. Physical Security

b. Personal Security

3. Preparation – this pro-active phase involves organizing training and equipment

personnel of the organization.
a. NCCM – National Committee on Crisis Management
b. The On-site Command Post (OSCP)
Composition of the OSCP
1. Tactical Unit – composed of regular military or police placed under the operational
command of the OSC.
 a. Reaction Element b. Security Element

2. Support Unit – it a unit that provides the necessary administrative, operational and
logistic support of the OSC.
a. Intelligence Team e. Fire Fighting Team
b. Communication Team f. Administrative Personnel
c. Logistic Team g. Legal/Investigation Team
d. Medical Team

3. Negation Unit – it is headed by a chief negotiator and composed of two or more

members. Their primary concern is to serve first life, prevent destruction and pave the
way for a peaceful resolution of crisis situations.

B. Reactive Phase – when a crisis occurs despite the pro-active effort, the organization
concerned must prepare to perform the crisis management in accordance with their plan.

1. Performance (Implementation and Contingency Plan)

a. The Initial Action

b. The Action Stage (Negotiation or Tactical Action Intervention)
c. Post – action

LEGAL REGIMES IN DEALING WITH CRISIS

In the Philippines, several laws have been passed to ensure effective and appropriate
crisis management at all levels of government. Some of these laws are discussed here.
Section 6, Article XV, 1987 Constitution
The state shall establish and maintain one police force which shall have a national
scope and civilian in character. The police force shall be administered and controlled by a
National Police Commission. The authority of local executives over the police units in their
jurisdiction shall be provide and mandated by the law.
Section 444 and 445, R.A. 7160 (Local Governments)
The mayor shall act as the deputized representative of the National Police
Commission. He/she shall formulate the peace and other plan of the City Municipality, and
upon its approval, implement the same. The mayor is expected over the local police force in the
City Municipality.
Section 5 R.A. 6975 as amended (DILG Act of 1990)
The mayor shall exercise operational supervision over PNP units in their respective
jurisdiction except during the thirty (30) day period immediately preceding and the thirty (30)
day following any national, local and barangay elections.

Operational Supervision and Control

This refers to the power to direct, superintend, oversee, and inspect the police units
and forces. This power shall include the power to employ and deploy units or elements of the
PNP through the station commander of peace and order within the locality.

Executive Order No. 309 s. 1987 and Executive No. 366 s. 1996
These executive orders created the National Peace and Order Council, Local Peace
and Order Council and the Barangay Peace and Order Committees.

Memorandum Order No. 21

The government shall all peaceful means possible in seeking a resolution to a crisis
in order to minimized, if not prevent the loss of the loss of life destruction of property. If all
peace means are exhausted then the government shall act promptly, decisively choosing from
the whole range of police and military action appropriate to the circumstance or otherwise
known as the final option.

TERRORISM – Terrorism is punishable under Republic Act 9372 – Human Security Act of 2007
Is a threat or actual use of force violence for political or other purpose, to foster fear,
insecurity, distrust, and unrest among a specific group or the general population.
Classification of Terrorists
1. National Terrorist – a terrorist who operates and aspires to political power primarily
within a single nation.
2. Transnational Terrorist – this is a terrorist who operates across national borders whose
actions and political aspirations may affect individual of more than one nationality.
3. International Terrorists – a terrorists who is controlled by, and whose actions represent
the national interest of a sovereign state.
Types of Terrorist
1. State Sponsored Terrorist – which consists of terrorist acts on the state or government
by a state or government.
2. Dissent Terrorist – terrorist groups which have rebelled against their government.
3. Terrorists (Left and Right) – terrorist groups rooted in political ideology.
4. Religious terrorism – terrorist groups which are extremely religious motivated.
5. Criminal terrorism – terrorist act used to aid in crime and criminal profit.
6. Lone-Wolf Terrorist – someone who prepares and commits violent acts alone, outside
of any command structure and without material assistance from any group

Motivation and Group Classification

1. Minority Nationalistic Groups 3. Anarchist Group
2. Marxist Revolutionary Groups 4. Pathological Groups

Terrorist Tactics
1. Bombing – delivery to target is done through Vehicle Bomb-booby traps with attached
devices, Laid Charges-bomb plates, Projected bombs- launched from riffles by a mortal
device, Postal/mail bombs.
2. Arson – this is used to destroy or to disrupt public utilities, political HQs and industrial
facilities.
3. Hijacking – hijacking and skyjacking is commonly used by terrorists. The hijack supply,
ammunitions, fuel cargoes, and vehicles to provide them to gain entry to a close military
area, skyjacking of commercial aircraft to gain publicity or to ask demands.
4. Assassination – the oldest but the commonly used terrorist tactic where targets are
often police or military officials, or political features and they always claim responsibility
of assassination.
5. Ambush – this is a will-planned, well thought- out, property rehearsed and precisely
executed operation. The terrorist has time on his side and will spend considerable time
preparing for an operation.
6. Kidnapping – kidnapping for ransoms is the most common form of this tactic. The victim
is normally confined in a secret hideout and kidnappers make material demands.
7. Hostage taking -the hostage-taker confronts the authorities and openly holds the
victims for ransom. His demands are more than just material in nature.
8. Robbery/extortions – terrorist operations are expensive. To help finance their activities,
terrorists rob banks and armored vehicles carrying large sums of money.
MANAGING HOSTAGE SITUATIONS
Hostage Negotiation
In hostage negotiation, the general tendency of Hostage Taker, is to focus their
attention on prominent personalities to gain much needed leverage in the negotiation.
In hostage situation, the authorities are faced with individuals or groups of
individuals with psychological mentality, commitment, behavior stress and behavioral
intolerance of varying degree – aggravated by the unpredictability of human behavior.
In dealing with hostage situations, the priorities are to;
1. Preserve lives
2. Apprehend the captors. and
3. Recover or protect properties.

STAGES OF A HOSTAGE SITUATION

1. Alarm stage – this stage is the most traumatic and dangerous. In the alarm stage, the
emotion of the hostage taker is exceedingly in its highest peak, his rationalization and
proper thinking is low, he maybe extremely aggressive in his reaction to any perceived
threat.
2. Crisis stage - in this stage, when negotiation attempts are being initiated by the crisis
negotiator. Outrageous demands and unpredictable emotion are marked or commonly
noted in the hostage taker. There is still a great deal of danger since hostage takers try
to consolidate their positions. To do these, they try to move their hostages to a safer
ground area. On the part the captive, this is the most critical because this stage may
predict the remainder of the situation. Chances of survival may be enhanced or reduced
during this stage through the hostage-hostage taker interaction. At this stage hostages
may start to feel three (3) problems:
a. Isolation
b. Claustrophobia
c. Sense of time
3. Accommodation stage – this is distinguished by boredom, and with moments of terror.
Though is considered as the longest yet is the most tranquil. In the crisis stage, and even
in the alarm stage, hostages are considering escape options but in the accommodation
stage their initiative and planning are narrowed since captors has increased control over
them. The hostages’ sense of life preserving has increased and even tries to obey the
orders.
 4. Resolution stage – this is the stage when the hostage taker is being stressed out or
fatigued of the situation. He is seemingly losing interest of the situation and lost most of
his bargaining points. Tension between the hostages, hostage taker and the crisis
negotiator are notably low. It should be regarded also that the crisis intervention
techniques of the negotiation team have increase.

THE HOSTAGE TAKER

It is a must that a police officer who first arrived at the scene has the necessary skill to
determine what type or personality of the hostage taker is. This does not mean that he must
diagnose the perpetrator. In assessing the situation.one must be able to determine and know
the two kinds of behavior:
1. Instrumental behavior – those who are engaging in this kind of behavior are having goals
to obtain or to be fulfilled. Generally, hostage takers of instrumental behavior are
criminal types and intervention usually needs bargaining. E. g. barricaded criminal. Or
other organized crime group.
2. Expressive behavior – this kind of behavior is characterized by their attempt to display
power. Those who engage in this kind are emotionally disturbed individuals.

a. Mentally disturbed – this group suffers from different kinds of psychological

maladies. They may or may not in touch with reality, a mentally disturbed individual
may be a loner, act in accordance with non-existing irresistible force, or on a false
belief of stimulus.
b. Psychosis – is a gross and persistent falsification of conventional reality that leaves
the person unable to manage conventional reality with any degree of effectiveness.
c. Delusion – is the faulty belief that is motivated primarily by the individual’s needs
and wishes and in fact, has no basis.
d. Hallucination – is manifested in a visual image that is quite vivid and real to the
individual who experiences it.
e. Paranoia – is a set of fixed delusional beliefs that are accompanied by clear and
orderly thinking outside the delusion system. Paranoia manifests itself. A paranoid
as “vigilant suspicious, distrustful, insecure, and chronically anxious”.
f. Schizophrenia – is a thinking disorder. Expert says that, approximately 80 percent of
the mentally ill of the population are schizophrenic. There are subcategories of this
kind of mental disorder:

1. Catatonic state – is demonstrated by the patient’s rigidly held position for some
interminable
2. Hebephrenic state – is when the subject acts childlike and silly.
 g. Neurosis – is suffered by a person if most likely to be observed in a continuous state
of anxiety. Erratic behavior would more than likely be displayed by reaction to
anxiety in the form of ego defense mechanism such as rationalization, projection or
displacement. The signs and symptoms are shaking uncontrollably and depression
without explanation.
h. Manic depressive personality – depressed individuals are in an incapacitated mental
state. He may frequently know the hostages and the latter might be the cause of his
depression.
i. Inadequate personality – this is a type of person that displays attention- seeking
behavior. Hostage taking is his action to prove himself or his worth.
j. Anti-social personality – those who belong to this kind of personality are repeatedly
having conflict with the people around them and notably having a deviant behavior
from groups, social values and or individuals.
k. The estranged person – domestic problem is the main cause why an estranged
individual takes hostages.
l. Terrorists – they create chaos through assassinations, bombing, arson and other
forms of malicious destruction of properties.
m. Barricaded criminals – this type might be robbers cornered by the police while in the
act of committing their crimes.
n. Prisoners – while most prisoners spend their time inside the correctional institutions,
some are concentrated on penal colonies under tight guards and to those who are
completely secluded inside their prison cells, they are hunted by boredom, get tired
and hostile.

NEGOTIATION MODELS
1. Bargaining Negotiation Approach – in this approach, negotiation is viewed in terms of
an exchange or distribution of resources.
2. Expressive Negotiation approach – this approach is mainly focused on the emotional
state of the hostage taker as a powerful tool to resolving of crisis situation.
3. Communication-based Negotiation Approach – this approach is founded on an
interactive assessment if the crisis (hostage) situation as it unfolds and is created
through the interaction of the negotiator and the perpetrator.

TECHNIQUES OF KIDNAP/HOSTAGE SUCCESS

Hallmark of success: blending of tactical response and behavior know-how calls for,
development of tactics, using blocking and containment forces; expertise in use of weapons;
deployment of instant communications; use of behavioral experts – cool headed and with
professional leadership.
 This calls for training programs for the police in these vital areas:
1. Considerable screening 5. Electronic equipment
2. Psychology 6. Emergency rescue ambulance
3. Physical training 7. Vehicle operation
4. Firearms 8. Liaison
Upon arrival at the scene of incident, the negotiator should execute/act immediately the
following:
1. Containment
2. Establish contact
3. Time lengthening
4. Telephone negotiation technique
5. Need for face-to-face conversation
6. Surrender approach

References:
Dispute Resolution and Crisis Management, 2020 edition Prof. Christian G. Domingo

Understanding the Terminologies: Disaster, Crisis and Emergency, https://www.arcom.ac.uk

Final Coverage

Definition of Terms

Disaster – are largely defined as sudden unforeseen events with natural, technological or social
causes that lead to destruction, loss and damage (Alexander, 2005b; Jorgustin, 2012; Iyer and
Mostarakis, 2006, Parker, 1992; UNSDR, 2009)
- As defined by the United Nations, is a serious disruption of the functioning of a
community or society, which involves widespread human, material, economic or
environmental impacts that exceed the liability of the affected community or
society to cope using its own resources.
- According to the International Federation of Red Cross & Red Crescent Societies
a disaster occurs when a hazard impacts on vulnerable people. The combination
of hazards, vulnerability and inability to reduce the potential negative
consequences of risk results in disaster.
Disaster Management – is how we deal with the human, material, economic or environmental
impacts of said disaster, it is the process of how we “prepare for, respond to and learn from the
effects of major failures”.

TYPES OF DISASTER
1. Natural Disasters – (according to the International Federation of Red Cross & Red
Crescent Societies) Natural disasters are naturally occurring physical phenomena caused
either by rapid or slow onset events that have immediate impacts causing further death
and suffering. These disasters can be:

a. Geophysical (e. g. earthquakes, landslides, tsunamis and volcanic activity)

b. Hydrological (e. g. floods)
c. Climatological (e. g. extreme temperatures, drought and wildfires)
d. Meteorological (e. g. cyclones and storms/wave surges)
e. Biological (e. g. disease epidemics and insect/animal plaques

2. Man-Made Disasters – are events that are caused by humans which occur in or close to
human settlements often caused as a results of environmental or technological
emergencies. This can include:

a. Environmental degradation
b. Pollution
c. Accidents (e. g. industrial, technological and transport usually involving the
production, use or transport of hazardous materials).

COMPLEX EMERGENCIES
Some disaster can result from multiple hazards, or more often, to a complex
combination of both natural and man-made causes. This includes:
a. Food insecurity
b. Epidemics
c. Armed conflicts
d. Displaced populations

PANDEMIC EMERGENCIES
 Pandemic (from Greek pan “all” and demos “people” is an epidemic of infectious
disease that has spread across a large region, which can occur to the human population
or animal population and may affect health and disrupt services leading to economic
and social costs. These included:

a. Ebola e. Dengue fever

b. Zika f. Malaria
c. Avian flu g. Yellow fever
d. Cholera h. corona virus (covid 19)

ASPECTS OF DISASTER MANGEMENT

Defines disaster management as the organization and management of resources and
responsibilities for dealing with all the humanitarian aspects of emergencies, in particular
preparedness, response and recovery in order to lessen the impact of disasters.

DESASTER PREVENTION
The outright avoidance of adverse impacts of hazards and related disasters. Disaster
prevention as the concept of engaging in activities which tend to prevent or avoid potential
adverse impacts through action taken in advance, activities designed to provide protection from
the occurrence of disasters. Similarly highlight that while not all disasters can be prevented,
good risk management, evacuation plans, environmental planning and design standards can
reduce risk of loss of life and injury mitigation.

DISASTER PREPAREDNESS
The knowledge and capacities developed by governments, professional response and
recovery organizations, communities and individuals to effectively anticipate, respond to, and
recover from, the impacts of likely, imminent or current hazard events or conditions.
Disaster preparedness refers to measures taken to prepare for and reduce the effects of
disasters, be natural or man-made. This achieved through research and planning in order to try
to predict areas or regions that may be at risk of disaster and where possible prevent this from
occurring and/or reduce the impact those disasters on vulnerable populations that may be
affected so they can effectively cope. Disaster preparedness activities embedded with risk
reduction measures can prevent disaster situations and also result in saving maximum lives and
livelihoods during any disaster situation, enabling the effected population to get back to
normalcy within a short time period.
DISASTER RESPONSE/RELIEF
Focused predominantly on immediate and short-term needs, the division between this
response/relief stage and the subsequent recovery stage is not clear-cut. Some response
actions, such as the supply of temporary housing and water supplies, may extend well into the
recovery stage. Rescue from immediate danger and stabilization of physical and emotional
condition of survivors is the primary aims of disaster response/relief, which go hand and hand
with the recovery of the dead and restoration of essential services such as water and power.
Coordinated multi-agency response is vital to this stage of disaster management in order
to reduce the impact of a disaster and its long-term results with relief activities including:
a. Rescue e. Prevention of disease and disability
b. Relocation f. Repairing vital services e. g. telecommunications,
c. Provision food and water transport
d. Provision emergency health care g. Provision temporary shelter

DISASTER RECOVERY
Disaster recovery refers to those programmes which go beyond the provision of
immediate relief to assist those who have suffered the full impact of a disaster and include the
following activities:
a. Rebuilding infrastructures
b. Health care rehabilitation
c. Development activities
d. Development policies and practices to avoid or mitigate similar situations in future

ASSESSMENT OF CRISIS/DISASTER MANAGEMENT

The term disaster assessment refers to the survey and information collection activities
carried out to determine the effects on disaster victims, the stricken community and the society
in general. Disaster Assessment must be seen as an integral part of a response mechanism and
as a planning tool. It is a part of the disaster management information toolbox.
The purpose of assessments in the initial phase of a disaster is to provide information
that can guide our emergency services in activities such as search and rescue missions, pinpoint
location and nature of secondary threats, provide information about the status of facilities
needed to threat or support survivors, and provide information about the access to stricken
communities.
 The objectives of an assessment in a disaster response situation are to collect
information on the nature of a disaster and its impact. We want to describe the effect on
people, their coping capacity and who are the most vulnerable groups. The assessment should
help us identify the most urgent needs and the best methods of relief delivery.
A disaster assessment can be divided onto following elements:
a. Pre-Disaster Planning – we focus on identification of potential hazards, means of
collection of data, and selection of formats for collection and presentation. Planning in
non-disaster situation can help identify potential and specific information needs.
b. Survey and Data Collection – to ensure efficiency in the survey and data collection, we
often need to use standard survey techniques, questionnaires, pre-planned checklists,
procedures for data input, etc.
c. Interpretation – all information needs to be interpreted so it can be used by those
responsible for decision-making. We need to analysis the information, recognize
indicators of problems, and interpret and link information action.
d. Forecasting – is necessary to give an estimate of the entire situation, not only as it
appears at the time of assessment, but in order to forecast needs and trends.
e. Reporting – is essential part of assessment. The data must be communicated to
appropriate agencies and in a manner that is understood at the receiving end.
Assessment is an ongoing process, and especially in slow onset disaster is necessary to continue
to monitor the situation on order to understand whether it is improving or deteriorating.
Monitoring can also help us measuring effectiveness of our action.
The information we collect during an assessment might be grouped as follows;
 Baseline data: What used to be there?
 Situation: What has happened?
 Needs: What assistance is required?
 Capacity: What resources exist?
 Gaps: Where are the critical shortfalls?
 Risk: What are the existing risk/ primary and secondary hazards?

References:
https://www.physio-pedia.com Disaster Management

Introduction to Disaster Assessment and Assessment Methodologies, Mr. Terje Skavdal, Regional Disaster Response Advisor for Asia, United
Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) Kobe, Japan