YARA INTERNATIONAL

SCHOOL RIYADH

AISSCE – 2023-2024

DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY

CLASS XII

INVESTIGATORY PROJECT

Submitted by Alfy Philip Thomas Submitted to Mr. Murali Krishna

 Topic of the Project

BIOLOGY INVESTIGATORY PROJECT

(2023-2024)
 BIOLOGY PROJECT

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project entitled

“Spermatogenesis In Frogs and Humans” is a bonafide
work done by Alfy Philip Thomas of Grade XII during
the academic year 2023-24.
Submitted for AISSCE Biology Practical examination held
on _________ at Yara International school,
Riyadh.

DATE:

PRINCIPAL External Examiner Internal Examiner

 DECLARATION OF PLAGIARISM

I would like to expressly assure the fact that

this project was solely drafted, edited and produced
by us with the help of legal sources, the contents in
this report are entirely prepared by us with reference
to legitimate sources from the web and from the
official NCERT Biology textbook and Biology lab
Manual of Grade XII. And I would also like to
assure that no use of paid or unpaid third party
services such as ghostwriter, was used to make this
project. Thus I hereby declare that no plagiarism was
involved in the making of this project.
 ACKNOWLEDMENT

I warmly acknowledge the continuous encouragement

offered by our dear Principal Mrs.Asima Saleem. I also
extend my hearty thanks and gratitude to the school
management for providing me with enough facilities and
tools available in the campus which greatly aided me in
completing this report successfully.

I am highly indebted to our

Biology teacher – Mr. Murali Krishna for his
supervision, support and for providing necessary
information and guidelines on this project. His
constructive advice and constant support has been
responsible for the completion of this project report.

I would also like to express my utmost love and gratitude

to my parents for their valuable suggestions and support
to carry out this project.

Last not but not least I thank all those who have helped to
complete this report directly or indirectly.
 PROJECT PLAN

Prepared by:

• Alfy Philip Thomas

Class: XII
School: YARA INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL

Name of the Project: Spermatogenesis In Frogs and

Humans

Teacher In Charge: Mr. Murali

Date of Completion: 1 week

Date of Submission: / / 23
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Topic Page No

Introduction 1
Spermatogenesis 2
Location 4
Duration 5
Spermatocytogensis 6
Spermiogeneis 8
Functions of different cells 10
Hormonal control 12
What Makes Spermatogenesis 13
Different In Frogs
Conclusion 15
Bibliography 16
 INTRODUCTION

Spermatogenesis is the process by which

haploid spermatozoa develop from germ
cells in the seminiferous tubules of the
testis. This process starts with the mitotic
division of the stem cells located close to
the basement membrane of the tubules.
Meiosis is a step during spermatogenesis.
Spermatogenesis produces four haploid
sperm cells.

1
 Spermatogenesis

Spermatogenesis produces mature male gametes,

commonly called sperms but specially known as
spermatozoa, which are able to fertilize the
counterpart female gamete, the oocyte, during
conception to produce a single – celled individual
known as zygote

This is the cornerstone of sexual reproduction and

involves the two gametes both contributing half the
normal set of haploid chromosomes to result in the
chromosomally normal diploid zygote. In humans,
chromosomal abnormalities arising from incorrect
spermatogenesis can result in down syndrome,
Klinefelter’s syndrome and spontaneous abortion
etc.

2
3
 Location

The initial stage occur within the testis and

progress to the epididymis where the
developing gamete mature and are stored
until ejaculation. The seminiferous tubule of
the testes are starting point for the process,
where stem cells adjacent to the inner tubule
wall divide in a centripetal direction
beginning at the walls and proceeding into
the innermost part or Lumen to produce
immature sperms. Maturation occur in
epididymis.

4
 Duration

For humans,
• The entire process of spermatogenesis takes 4-7
days

• Including the transport on ductal system, it takes

about 2 months.

• Tesis produces 200 to 300 Million spermatozoa

daily.

5
 Spermatocytogensis

Spermatocytogensis is the male form of

gametogenesis and results in the formation of
spermatocytes possessing half the normal
complement of genetic material. In
Spermatocytogensis, a diploid spermatogonium
which resides in the basal compartment of
seminiferous tubule, divides mitotically to
produce two diploid intermediate cells called
primary spermatocytes. Each primary
spermatocytes then moves into the abluminal
compartment of the seminiferous tubules and
duplicates its DNA and subsequently undergoes
meiosis 1 to produced two haploid secondary
spermatocytes which will later divide once more
into haploid spermatids. The division implicates
sources of genetic variation.
Each cell division from a spermatogonium to a
spermatid is incomplete, the cells remain
6
connected to one another by bridges of
cytoplasm to allow synchronous development. It
should also be noted that not all spermatogonia
divide to produce spermatocytes, Otherwise the
supply would run out. Instead, certain types of
spermatogonia divide to produce copies of
themselves, thereby ensuring a constant supply
of gametogonia to fuel spermatogenesis.

Spermatidogenesis is the creation of spermatids

from secondary spermatocytes. Secondary
spermatocytes earlier rapidly enter meiosis II
and divide to produce haploid spermatids. The
Brevity of this stage means that secondary
spermatocytes are rarely seen in Histological
Studies.

7
 Spermiogeneis

During spermiogeneis, the spermatids begin to grow

a tail and develop a thickened mid- piece, where the
micro tubules gather and form an axoneme.
Spermatid DNA also undergoes packaging,
becoming highly condensed. The DNA is packaged
firstly with specific nuclear basic proteins, which are
subsequently replaced with specific nuclear basic
proteins , which are protamine’s during spermatid
elongation. The resultant tightly packed chromatin is
transcriptionally inactive. The golgi apparatus
surrounds the now condensed nucleus becoming
acrosomes. One of the centrioles of the cell
elongates.
Maturation then takes place under the influence of
testosterone, which removed the remaining
unnecessary cytostomes and organelles. The excess
cytoplasm, known as residual bodies is
phagocytosed by surrounding Sertoli cells in the
testes. The resulting spermatozoa are now mature
but lack motility, rendering them sterile. The mature
8
spermatozoa are released into the lumen of
seminiferous tubules in a process called spermiation

The non-motile spermatozoa are transported to the

epididymis in testicular fluid secreted by the Sertoli
cells with the aid of peristaltic contractions while in
te epididymis the spermatozoa gain motility and
become capable of fertilization.

9
 Functions of different cells

Sertoli Cells:
They are known as testicular “Nurse Cells” or
“Mother Cells”
It is a component of a seminiferous tubule that aids
in the process of spermatogenesis
Functions:
• It nourishes the growing sperm cells during
spermatogenesis.
• These cells function as phagocytes consuming
the cytoplasm left behind during
spermatogenesis
• They constitute the blood-Testis barrier which
prevent undesired chemicals and germs from
passing through

10
Leydig cell:

They are known as Leydig interstitial cells. They are

located in the testicle near the seminiferous tubule.
Leydig cells feature a polyhedral structure, a big
conspicuous nucleus and cytoplasm. They also
feature a large number of lipid filled vesicles.

Functions:

• They produce androgens, which are hormones

• Androgens are steroid hormones that include
testosterone
• Androgens are crucial in the development of
secondary sexual characteristics throughout
puberty such as facial hair growth, sexual
behavior, desire and so on.

11
 Hormonal control

The initiation of spermatogenesis occurs at puberty

due to the interaction of the hypothalamus, pituitary
gland and Leydig cells. If the pituitary gland is
removed, spermatogenesis can still be initiated by
follicle stimulating hormone and testosterone.
Androgen binding protein is essential to
concentrating testosterone in high levels enough to
initiate and maintain spermatogenesis, which can be
20-50 times higher than the concentration found in
blood. Studies from rodent models suggest that
gonadotrophin hormones support the process of
spermatogenesis.

12
 What Makes Spermatogenesis
Different In Frogs

• Location: In frogs, spermatogenesis primarily occurs within the

testes, as it does in humans. However, in some species of frogs, the
testes may extend into the body cavity, making them more diffuse
compared to the human testes, which are contained in the scrotum.

• Seasonal Variation: Many frog species exhibit seasonal breeding

patterns, and their spermatogenesis is often tightly regulated by
environmental cues such as temperature and rainfall. In contrast,
humans have continuous sperm production throughout their
reproductive years.

• Number of Spermatogonia: In humans, a single spermatogonium

typically gives rise to four sperm cells during spermatogenesis,
while in frogs, one spermatogonium can produce a variable number
of sperm cells. This difference is related to the higher reproductive
output and lower investment in each individual sperm in frogs.

13
• Fertilization Method: Frogs usually release their sperm externally,
into the water, where they fertilize eggs. This requires the
production of a large number of sperm cells. In contrast, humans
practice internal fertilization, and the sperm need to traverse the
female reproductive tract to reach the egg.

• Sperm Morphology: Sperm morphology varies between species,

and frog sperm often have unique adaptations for fertilizing eggs in
aquatic environments. They may have long tails or other
specialized structures to help them swim to the eggs, which is
different from the structure of human sperm.

• Hormonal Control: While both frogs and humans rely on hormonal

control for spermatogenesis, the specific hormones and their
regulation can differ. For example, in humans, the pituitary gland
releases luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone
(FSH) to regulate sperm production, whereas frogs may have
different hormonal systems and triggers related to environmental
cues.

• Timing and Reproductive Strategy: Frogs often synchronize their

spermatogenesis with the breeding season, whereas humans have a
continuous and more opportunistic reproductive strategy, allowing
for reproduction throughout the year.

14
 Conclusion
In culmination, this investigatory project delves deep into the
intricate and fascinating realm of spermatogenesis. By meticulously
unraveling the stages of sperm cell development, from the initial
germ cells to the fully formed spermatozoa, we've gained profound
insights into the complexity of this biological process. The
regulatory mechanisms, hormonal influences, and environmental
factors explored here highlight the delicate balance required for
successful spermatogenesis. While spermatogenesis is a
fundamental process in both frogs and humans, there are notable
differences in terms of timing, environmental influences, sperm
production quantity and quality, and reproductive strategies between
these two species. These differences reflect their respective
reproductive adaptations and ecological niches.

This study's significance extends beyond academic curiosity; it

holds implications for reproductive health, fertility treatments, and
contraception methods. As we conclude this endeavor, we're
reminded of the intricate design of life itself and the remarkable
processes that ensure the continuity of species.

As we stand at the intersection of science and wonder, this

investigation serves as a testament to humanity's unending curiosity
and our perpetual quest to comprehend the mysteries of existence. In
a mere few weeks, we've journeyed through the microscopic
wonders within us, reaffirming the inexhaustible potential for
discovery that science offers.

15
 Bibliography

• Class XII Ncert Biology Textbook

• Byjus.com
• Google Images
• Chat Gpt

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