UNIT IV

Fiber optic revolution – basic characteristics of optical fiber – acceptance angle – numerical
aperture – propagation of light through optical fiber – theory of mode formation – classification
of fibers – step index and graded index fibers – single mode and multi mode fibers – losses in
fibers – fabrication techniques of fibers.

4 INTRODUCTION TO FIBER OPTICS

The development of lasers and optical fiber has brought about a revolution in the field
of communication systems. Experiments on the propagation of information – carrying light
waves through an open atmosphere were conducted. The atmospheric conditions like rain, fog
etc. affected the efficiency of communication through light waves.
To have efficient communication systems, the information carried by light waves should
need a guiding medium through which it can be transmitted safely.
This guiding mechanism is optical fiber. The communication through optical fiber is
known as light wave communication or optical communication.
A light beam acting as a carrier wave is capable of carrying more information than that of
radio waves and microwaves due to its larger bandwidth.
Currently in most part of the world, fiber optics is used to transmit voice, video and
digital data signals using light waves from one place to other place.

Optical fiber
The optical fiber is a wave guide. It is made up of transparent dielectrics (SiO2), (glass or
plastics).

4.1 STRUCTURE OF OPTICAL FIBER

Fiber Construction

It consists of an inner cylinder made of glass or plastic called core. The core has high
refractive index n1. This core is surrounded by cylindrical shell of glass or plastic called
cladding. The cladding has low refractive index n2. This cladding is covered by a jacket which is
made of polyurethane. It protects the layer from moisture and abrasion.

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4.2 Principle of propagation of light in an optical fiber

The light launched inside the core at one end of the fiber propagates to the other end due
to total internal reflection at the core and cladding interface.

Total internal reflection at the fiber wall can occur only if two conditions are satisfied.

1. The refractive index of the core material n1 must be higher than that of the cladding n2
surrounding it (n1> n2).
2. At the core – cladding interface, the angle of incidence (between the ray and normal to
the interface) must be greater than the critical angle
a) When, it is refracted into rarer medium
b) When , it traverses along the interface so that angle of
refraction is
c) When , it is totally reflected back into the denser
medium itself.

When , then by Snell’s law,

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4.3 PROPAGATION OF LIGHT IN OPTICAL FIBER
(Acceptance Angle and Numerical Aperture Derivation)
Let as consider an optical fiber through which the light is being sent. Let the refractive
indices of the core and cladding be n1 and n2 respectively; n1> n2. Let the refractive index of the
medium from which the light is launched be n0.

Let the light ray enter at an angle ‘i’ to the axis of the fiber. The ray is refracted along OB
at an angle θ in the core as shown in the figure.

The angle of incidence at interface of the core and cladding this angle is
more than the critical angle Hence the ray is totally internally reflected
Applying Snell’s law at the point of the entry of ray (AO)

Applying Snell’s law at the point B (on interface)

Substituting eqn, (2) in equ. (1)

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If the refractive index of the air n0= 1 then the maximum value of Sin im is given as

4.4 ACCEPTANCE ANGLE

Definition
Acceptance angle is defined as the maximum angle that a light ray can have relative to
the axis of the fiber and propagate down the fiber. Or the maximum angle at or below which the
light can suffer Total Internal Reflection is called acceptance angle.

Acceptance cone

The cone of rays that are accepted by the fiber to have total internal reflection inside the
fiber is referred as acceptance cone.
The light rays contained within the cone having a full
angle im are accepted and transmitted along the fiber. Therefore,
the cone is called the acceptance cone.
Light incident at an angle beyond im refracts through the
cladding and the corresponding optical energy is lost. It is
obvious that the larger the diameter of the core, the larger the
acceptance angle.

4.5 NUMERICAL APERTURE

Definition
Numerical aperture (NA) is the light gathering capacity of the fiber, which depends on
the acceptance angle. It is also defined as the Sine of the acceptance angle of the fiber.

Numerical aperture determines the light gathering ability of the fiber.

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4.6 FRACTIONAL INDEX CHANGE
It is the ratio of refractive index difference in core and cladding to the refractive index of
the core.

Relation between NA and ∆

If n1≈n2

The above equation gives the relation between Numerical aperture and fractional index
change of optical fibre.

4.7 TYPES OF OPTICAL FIBERS BASED ON MATERIALS MODES AND

REFRACIVE INDICES
Optical fibers are classified into three major categories
i. The type of material used ii. The number of modes iii. The refractive index profile
GLASS AND PLASTIC FIBRE

Based on the type of the material used, fiber are classified into two types as follows
Glass fiber: If the optical fiber is made up of mixture of silica glasses and metal oxides, then it is
called glass fiber.
Example: (i) Core: GeO2 -SiO2 Cladding: SiO2
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 (ii) Core: SiO2 Cladding: P2O3-SiO2
Plastic fiber: If the optical fiber is made up of plastic then it is called plastic fiber.
Example: (i) Core: Poly methyl mentha crylate
Cladding: Co- Polymer
(ii). Core: Polystyrene:
Cladding: Methyl mentha crylate
4.8 SINGLE AND MULTI MODE FIBERS
Depending on the number of modes of propagation, the optical fibers are classified into
two types they are classified as (i) Single-mode fiber and (ii) Multimode fiber.
(i) Single-mode fiber
If only one mode is transmitted through an optical fiber, then the optical fiber is called
single-mode fiber.
In general, the single mode fibers are step – index fibers. These types of fibers are made
from doped silica. It has a very small core diameter so that it can allow only one mode of
propagation and hence called single mode fibers.
The cladding diameter must be very large compared to the core
diameter. Thus in the case of single mode fiber, the optical loss is very
much reduced. The structure of a single mode fiber as shown in figure.
Structure
Core diameter: 5-10µm Cladding diameter
Cladding diameter: Generally around 125µm
Protective layer: 250 to 1000µm
Numerical aperture: 0.08 to 0.10
Band width: More than 50MHz km.

Application: Because of high bandwidth, they are used in long haul communication systems.

(ii). Multi- Mode Fibers

If more than one mode is transmitted through an optical fiber, then the optical fiber is
called multimode fiber.

The multi modes fibers are useful in manufacturing both for step – index and graded
index fibers. The multi-mode fibers are made by multi-component glass compounds such as
Glass – Clad -Glass, Silica – Clad – Silica, doped silica etc.
Here the core diameter is very large compared to single mode fibers, so that it can allow
many modes to propagate through it and hence called as Multi mode fibers. The cladding
diameter is also larger than the diameter of the single mode fibers. The structure of the
multimode fiber is as shown in the figure.

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Structure:
Core diameter: 50-350µm
Cladding diameter: 125µm - 500µm
Protective layer: 250 to 1100µm
Numerical aperture: 0.12 to 0.5
Band width: Less than 50MHz km.

Application: Because of its less band width it is very useful in short haul communication
systems.

4.9. STEP INDEX AND GRADED INDEX (GRIN) FIBRE

Based on the variation in the refractive index of the core and cladding, the optical fibers
are classified into two types (i) Step-index fiber and (ii) Graded-index fiber.

(i). Step-index fiber

In step fiber, the variation in refractive indices of air, cladding and core vary step by step.
Hence, this type of fiber is known as step index fiber.
Based on the refractive index and the number of modes, further step – index Fiber is
classified into two types as,
(i) Step index – single mode fiber (ii) Step index – multi mode fiber
(i). SINGLE MODE STEP INDEX FIBER

A single mode step index fiber consists of a very thin core of uniform refractive index
surrounded by a cladding of refractive index lower than that of core. The refractive index
abruptly changes

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at the core cladding boundary. Light travels along a side path, i.e., along the axis only. So zero
order modes is supported by Single Mode Fiber.
(ii). MULTIMODE STEP INDEX FIBER

A multimode step index fiber consists of a core of uniform refractive index surrounded
by cladding of refractive index lower than that of the core. The refractive index abruptly changes
at the core cladding boundary.

The core is of large diameter. Light follows zigzag paths inside the fiber. Many such
zigzag paths of propagation are permitted in Multi-Mode Fiber. The Numerical Aperture of a
Multi-mode fiber is larger as the core diameter of the fiber is larger.

(iii). GRADED INDEX FIBER

GRIN fiber is one in which
refractive index varies radially, decreasing
continuously in a parabolic manner from
the maximum value of n1, at the center of

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the core to a constant value of n2 at the core cladding interface.

In graded index fiber, light rays travel at different speeds in different parts of the fiber
because the refractive index varies throughout the fiber. Near the outer edge, the refractive index
is lower. As a result, rays near the outer edge travel faster than the rays at the center of the core.
Because of this, rays arrive at the end of the fiber at approximately the same time.
In effect light rays arrive at the end of the fiber are continuously refocused as they travel
down the fiber. All rays take the same amount of time in traversing the fiber. This leads to small
pulse dispersion.

4.10. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN STEP INDEX FIBER AND GRADED INDEX FIBER

S.
STEP INDEX FIBER GRADED INDEX FIBER
No
The refractive index of the core is made
The refractive index of the core is uniform
to vary gradually such that it is
1 throughout and undergoes on abrupt change at
maximum at the center of the core.
the core cladding boundary
The diameter of the core is about 50-200µm in The diameter of the core is about 50µm
2 the case of multimode fiber and 10µm in the in the case of multimode fiber
case of single mode fiber
The path of light propagation is zig- zag in
3 The path of light is helical in manner
manner
Attenuation is more for multimode step index
4 Attenuation is less.
fiber but for single mode it is very less.
5 This fiber has lower bandwidth This fiber has higher bandwidth
The light ray propagation is in the form of The light propagation is in the form of
6 meridional rays and it passes through the fiber skew rays and it will not cross fiber axis.
axis.
No of Mode of propagation No of Mode of propagation

Where d= diameter of the fiber core

7 λ= wavelength
NA = Numerical Aperture
V- V-number is less than or equal to 2.405 for
single mode fibers and greater than 2.405 for
multimode fibers.

4.11. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SINGLE AND MULTIMODE FIBER

S.N SINGLE MODE FIBER MULTIMODE FIBER

O
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 In single mode fiber only one mode can In multimode it allows a large number of
1 propagate through the fiber paths or modes for the light rays travelling
through it.
It has smaller core diameter and the It has larger core diameter and refractive
2 difference between the refractive index of the index difference is larger than the single
core and cladding is very small. mode fiber.
Advantages: Disadvantages:
3 No dispersion(i.e. there is no degradation of Dispersion is more due to degradation of
signal during propagation) signal owing to multimode.
Since the information transmission capacity
is inversely proportional to dispersion the
4 fiber can carry information to longer Information can be carried to shorter
distances. distances only.

Disadvantages: Advantages:
5 Launching of light and connecting of two Launching of light and also connecting of
fibers difficult. two fibers is easy.
Installation (fabrication) is difficult as it is Fabrication is easy and the installation
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more costly cost is low.

4.12 LOSSES IN OPTICAL FIBERS

When light propagates through an optical fiber, a small percentage of light is lost
through different mechanisms. The loss of optical power is measured in terms of decibels per km
for attenuation losses.

ATTENUATION

It is defined as the ratio of optical power output (Pout) from a fiber of length ‘L’ to the power
output (Pin)
Attenuation
Since attenuation plays a major role in determining the transmission distance, the
following attenuation mechanisms are to be considered in designing an optical fiber.

1. Absorption
Usually absorption of light occurs due to imperfections of the atomic structure such as
missing molecules (OH-), hydroxyl ions, high density cluster of atoms etc., which absorbs light.

2. Scattering
Scattering is also a wavelength dependent loss, which occurs inside the fibers. Since the
glass is used in fabrication of fibers, the disordered structure of glass will make some variations
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in the refractive index inside the fiber. As a result, if light is passed through the atoms in the
fiber, a portion of light is scattered (elastic scattering) .this type of scattering is called Raleigh
scattering. Raleigh scattering loss

3. Radiative loss or bending loss

Radiative loss occurs in fibers due to bending of finite radius of curvature in optical
fibers. The types of bends are
a. Macroscopic bends b. Microscopic bends
a. Macroscopic bends
If the radius of the core is large compared to fiber
diameter, it may cause large-curvature at the position where the
fiber cable turns at the corner. At these corners the light will not
satisfy the condition for total internal reflection and hence it
escapes out from the fiber. This is called as macroscopic /
macro bending losses. Also note that this loss is negligible for
small bends.
b. Microscopic bends

Micro-bends losses are caused due to non-uniformities

or micro bends inside the fiber as shown. This micro bends in
fiber appears due to non-uniform pressures created during the
cabling of the fiber or even during the manufacturing itself.
This is lead to losses of light by leakage through the fiber.
Remedy
Micro-bend losses can be minimized by extruding
(squeezing out) a compressible jacket over the fiber. In such
cases, even when the external forces are applied, the jacket
will be deformed but the fiber will tend to stay relatively straight and safe, without causing more
loss.

4.13 DISTORTION AND DISPERSION

The optical signal becomes increasingly distorted as it travels along a fiber. This
distortion is due to dispersion effect.
Dispersion
When an optical signal or pulse is sent
into the fiber the pulse spreads /broadens as it
propagates through the fiber. This phenomenon is
called dispersion as shown in the figure.
From figure we can see that the pulse
received at the output is wider than the input

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pulse. Hence the output pulse is said to be distorted, due to dispersion effect.
The pulse broadening or dispersion will occur in three ways, viz.,
1. Inter-modal dispersion
2. Material dispersion or chromatic dispersion
3. Waveguide dispersion

Intermodal dispersion
When more than one mode is propagating through
the fiber, then the inter modal dispersion will occur. Since,
many modes are propagating; they will have different
wavelengths and will take different time to propagate
through the fiber, which leads to intermodal dispersion.
Explanation
When a ray of light is launched into the fiber, the
pulse is dispersed in all possible paths through the core, so
called different modes. Each mode will be different wavelength and has different velocity as
shown in the figure. Hence, they reach the end of the fiber at different time. This results in the
elongation or stretching of data in the pulse. Thus causes the distorted pulse. This is called
intermodal dispersion.
Material dispersion
In material dispersion, the dispersion occurs due to
different wavelength travelling at different speed inside the
fibers shown in the figure.
Remedy
The material dispersion can be minimized at certain
wavelengths say 870nm, 1300 nm and 1550 nm; these
wavelengths are termed Zero Dispersion wavelengths (ZDW).
Whether light wavelength is lesser than Zero Dispersion wavelengths, it travels slower
and when it is higher than ZDW it travels faster. Thus the speed is altered and adjusted in such a
way that all the waves passing through the fiber will move with constant speed and hence the
material dispersion is minimized.
Note: this dispersion will not occur in single mode fibers

Wave guide dispersion

The wave guide dispersion arises due to the

guiding property of the fiber and due to their different
angles at which they incident at the core-cladding
interface of the fiber.

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In general:
Inter-modal dispersion > Material Dispersion > Waveguide dispersion

4.14 FIBER OPTIC SENSORS

Optical sensor is a transducer which converts any form of signal into optical signal in the
measurable form. Here optical fibers are used as a guiding media and hence called as wave
guides. The block diagram of a sensor system is as follows.

The optical sources used here are LED/Laser. The optical signal produced by the optical
source and is transmitted through the transmitting fiber in the modulation zone.

The optical signals are modulated based on any one of these properties, viz., Optical
intensity, phase, polarization, Wavelength and spectral distribution. These modulated signals
with any one of these properties are received by the receiving / fiber and is sent to the optical
detector.

TYPES OF SENSORS
There are two types of sensors, viz.
(i). Intrinsic sensors or Active sensors (ii). Extrinsic sensors or Passive sensors

INTRINSIC SENSORS OR ACTIVE SENSORS

In intrinsic sensors or active sensors the physical parameter to be sensed directly acts on
the fiber itself to produce the changes in the transmission characteristics.

Example: (i). Temperature / Pressure Sensor (Phase and polarization sensor) and (ii).
Liquid level sensor.

EXTRINSIC SENSORS OR PASSIVE SENSORS

In extrinsic sensors or passive sensors, separate sensing element will be used and the
fiber will act as a guiding media to the sensors. Examples:
Example: (i). Displacement sensor (ii). Laser Doppler velocimeter sensor

TEMPERATURE SENSOR (Intrinsic sensors or Active sensors)

Principle
It is based on the principle of interference between the beams emerging out from the
reference fiber and the fiber kept in the measuring environment.
Description

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 It consists of a Laser source to emit light. A beam splitter, made of glass plate is inclined
at an angle 450 with respect to the direction of the laser beam. Two fibers viz.,
i. Reference fiber which is isolated from the environment

ii. Test fiber kept in the environment to be sensed, are placed as shown in the figure.
Separate lens systems are provided to split and to collect the beam.

Working

1. A monochromatic source of light is emitted from the laser source.

2. The beam splitter kept at an angle 450 inclination divides the beam emerging from the laser
source into two beams (i) main beam and (ii) splitted beam, exactly at right angles to each
other.
3. The main beam passes through the lens L1 and is focused ontothe reference fiber which is
isolated from the environment to be sensed.
4. The beam after passing through the reference fiber then falls on the Lens L2.
5. The splitted beam passes through the Lens L3 and is focused onto the test fiber kept in the
environment to be sensed.
6. The splitted beam after passing through the test fiber is made to fall on lens L2.
7. The two beams after passing through the fibers, produces a path difference due to change in
parameters such as pressure, temperature etc. in the environment.
8. Therefore a path difference is produced between two beams causing the interference pattern as
shown in the figure.
9. Thus the change in pressure or temperature can be accurately measured with the help of the
interference pattern obtained.

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