MINDANAO STATE UNIVERSITY

MARAWI CITY
COLLEGE OF NATURAL SCIENCES AND MATHEMATICS
DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY

MODULE 6

MODULE IN
BIO 108

GENERAL
PHYSIOLOGY
 UNIT VI
RESPIRATION: Animal and Plant

Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to:
1. Compare and contrast the mechanisms used by aquatic and terrestrial animals;
2. Discuss the different phases in animal respiration;
3. Explain the mechanisms and identify the structures involved in the regulation of respiration;
and
4. Discuss the concepts in plant respiration.

The Respiratory system is a system in living organisms that takes up oxygen and discharges
carbon dioxide in order to satisfy energy requirements. In the living organism, energy is liberated,
along with carbon dioxide, through the oxidation of molecules containing carbon. The term
respiration denotes the exchange of the respiratory gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) between the
organism and the medium in which it lives and between the cells of the body and the tissue fluid that
bathes them.
A. ANIMAL SYSTEM
Although the acquisition of oxygen and the elimination of carbon dioxide are essential
requirements for all animals, the rate and amount of gaseous exchange vary according to the kind
of animal and its state of activity. Respiration can occur using a variety of respiratory organs in
different animals.
Respiratory Mechanism of Aquatic & Terrestrial Animals
Microorganisms rely on diffusion to and from their
environment for the supply of oxygen and removal of carbon dioxide

Humans cannot rely on diffusion because:

• Surface Area:Volume ratio is too small
• Diffusion distance from the surface of the body to the cells is too large and the process would
be far too slow to be compatible with life.
Human Respiratory System:
• A gas-exchange system provides a large surface area for the uptake of oxygen from, and the
release of carbon dioxide to, the environment - performed by the lungs.
• A transport system delivers oxygen to the tissues from the lungs and carbon dioxide to the
lungs from the tissues - carried out by the cardiovascular system.

Respiratory Mechanisms: Aquatic

It is more difficult for animals to obtain oxygen from water than from air Water fully
saturated with air contains only a fraction of the amount of oxygen that would be present in the
same volume of air. Also water is denser than air. Aquatic animals expend more energy carrying
out gas exchange than do terrestrial animals. They are equipped with a variety of adaptations that
allow them to carry a supply of oxygen with them under water or to acquire it directly from their
environment. Insects also have adaptations to obtain oxygen and maintain an aquatic lifestyle.
 Fishes use as much as 25% of their energy output to respire, while terrestrial mammals use
only 1-2% of their energy output for that purpose.
Some aquatic animals like Hydra (Cnidaria) and planaria use their body surfaces for gas
exchange. This works because the body surface is large compared to the size of the animal. Gas
exchange takes place by the process of diffusion. External respiration is effective by keeping the
gas exchange region moist, thin and large in relation to size.

Earthworms and amphibians - use their skin (integument) as a respiratory organ. A dense network
of capillaries lies just below the skin, facilitating gas exchange between the external environment
and the circulatory system. The respiratory surface must be kept moist in order for the gases to
dissolve and diffuse across cell membranes.
> Amphibian ventilates its
lungs by positive pressure
breathing, which forces air
down the trachea.

> Mammals ventilate their

lungs by negative pressure
breathing, which pulls air
into the lungs.

Fish, molluscs, annelids, tadpoles and crustaceans - have gills to take up the dissolved
oxygen from water. Gills are thin tissue filaments that are highly branched and folded. When water
passes over the gills, the dissolved oxygen in the water rapidly diffuses across the gills into the
bloodstream. The circulatory system can then carry the oxygenated blood to the other parts of the
body. In animals that contain coelomic fluid instead of blood, oxygen diffuses across the gill
surfaces into the coelomic fluid. Similarly, carbon dioxide molecules diffuse from the blood (high
concentration) to water (low concentration).
 Fish gills use a design called ‘countercurrent oxygen exchange’ to maximize the amount
of oxygen that their blood can pick up. They achieve this by maximizing the amount of time their
blood is exposed to water that has a higher oxygen level, even as the blood takes on more oxygen.
Countercurrent oxygen exchange (shown in the figure above) means the blood flows through the
gills in the opposite direction as the water flowing over the gills. With countercurrent flow, as
blood gains oxygen, it always encounters water having an even higher
oxygen content. A countercurrent mechanism prevents an equilibrium point from being reached,
and about 80-90% of the initial dissolved oxygen in water is extracted.
Terrestrial vertebrates have lungs which are vascularized outgrowths from the lower
pharyngeal region. The tadpoles of frogs live in water and have gills for external respiration, but
adult amphibians possess simple saclike lungs. Most amphibians respire through their skin and
some salamander depend entirely on their moist skin.
The lungs of birds and mammals are subdivided into small passageways and spaces. It has
been estimated that human have a total surface area that is 50 times the skin’s surface area. Air is
a rich source of oxygen compared to water, it does have a drying effect on external respiratory
surface. A human loses 350ml of water per day when the air has a relative humidity of only 50%.To
keep the lungs from drying out, air is moistened as it moves to the passageways leading to the
lungs.
Birds have a series of air sacs attached to the lungs. When a bird
inhales, air enters the posterior sacs, and when it exhales, air
moves through the lungs to the anterior sacs before exiting the
respiratory tract. The one way flow of air through the lungs allow
more fresh air to be present in the lungs with each breath, and
this leads to greater uptake of oxygen from one breath air.
INSECTS
Cuticular Respiration
• a relatively thin integument permeable to oxygen (and carbon dioxide)
• diffusion of gasses through this body wall sufficient to meet the metabolic demands of small,
inactive insects -- especially those living in cold, fast-moving streams where there is plenty of
dissolved oxygen
• larger insects, more active ones, or those living in less oxygenated water may need to rely on
other adaptations to supplement cuticular respiration.
Biological Gills
• allows dissolved oxygen from the water to pass (by diffusion) into an organism's body
• gills are usually outgrowths of the tracheal system
• covered by a thin layer of cuticle that is permeable to both oxygen and carbon dioxide
Example: mayflies and damselflies - leaf-like gills located on the sides or rear of
abdomen (fanning movements keep in contact with fresh water)
stoneflies and caddisflies - filamentous gills on thorax or abdomen
dragonflies - internal gills associated with the rectum (water circulated in and
out of the anus)
Rectal gill mechanism doubles as a jet propulsion system; a sudden, powerful
contraction of the abdomen will expel a jet of water and thrust the insect forward
-- a quick way to escape from predators!
Breathing Tubes
Many aquatic insects live underwater, they get air straight from the surface through hollow
breathing tubes (sometimes called siphons) that work on the same principle as a diver's snorkel.
 In mosquito larvae - siphon tube is an extension of the posterior spiracles (guarded by a
ring of closely spaced hairs with a waterproof coating) - hairs break the surface tension of the water,
when the insect dives, water pressure pushes the hairs close together so they seal off the opening
and keep water out
E.g., water scorpions (Hemiptera:Nepidae) and rat-tailed maggots (larvae of a Syrphid fly)
aquatic insects that have snorkel-like breathing tubes

Air Bubbles
Diving beetles carry a bubble of air with them whenever they dive
beneath the water surface, bubble may be held under the elytra (wing covers)
or it may be trapped against the body by specialized hairs and it usually covers
one or more spiracles so the insect can "breathe" air from the bubble while
submerged. It provides an insect with only a short-term supply of oxygen. A
bubble will also "collect" some of the oxygen molecules dissolved in the
surrounding water - acts as a "physical gill" -- replenishing its supply of
oxygen through the physics of passive diffusion.
Plastrons
These are special array of rigid, closely-spaced hydrophobic
hairs (setae) that create an "airspace" next to the body. The air
trapped within a plastron operates as a physical gill (just like air in
a bubble) but this airspace cannot shrink in volume because the
fortress of setae prevents encroachment of surrounding water.
Hemoglobin in Invertebrates
Hemoglobin occurs only rarely in insects -- most notably in
the larvae of certain midges (family Chironomidae) known as
bloodworms.
red "worms" usually live in the muddy depths of ponds or
streams where dissolved oxygen may be in short supply

Hemoglobin in Vertebrates
Hemoglobin is the main protein in mature red blood cells. Each RBC contains over 600
million hemoglobin molecules and it is tetramer, that is, one molecule of hemoglobin in adult is
composed of four globin chains, 2 alpha and 2 beta. These chains are derived from chromosome,
mainly chromosome 16 and 11.
 Functions of Hemoglobin
1. It is an essential chemical which carries oxygen from lungs to other parts of the body.
2. A metalloprotein transporting oxygen via RBCs in blood in mammals as well as other animals
3. It fulfills different effect modulation and gas transport duties, although which differ from
species to species and most probably is altogether different in invertebrates
4. It performs the most vital duty of binding oxygen to it so that it reaches each and every body
part.

B. PHASES AND STAGES OF RESPIRATION

Human Respiratory System
The functions of the respiratory system are:
1. Oxygen supplier. The job of the respiratory system is to keep the body constantly
supplied with oxygen.
2. Elimination. Elimination of carbon dioxide.
3. Gas exchange. The respiratory system organs oversee the gas exchanges that occur
between the blood and the external environment.
4. Passageway. Passageways that allow air to reach the lungs.
5. Humidifier. Purify, humidify, and warm incoming air.

The organs of the respiratory system include the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi,
and their smaller branches, and the lungs, which contain the alveoli.

The mechanism of gas exchange

Oxygen from the inhaled air diffuses through
the walls of the alveoli and the capillaries into the
red blood cells, which carry it through the blood to the
body tissues. Carbon dioxide produced by the body’s
tissues returns to the alveoli via the blood. It then
diffuses across the capillary and respiratory membranes
into the air space to be removed by expiration.

Phases of Respiration

The major function of the respiratory system is to supply the body with oxygen and to
dispose of carbon dioxide. To do this, at least four distinct events, collectively called respiration,
must occur.
  Pulmonary ventilation. Air must move into and out of the lungs so that gasses in the
air sacs are continuously refreshed, and this process is commonly called breathing.
 External respiration. Gas exchange between the pulmonary blood and alveoli must
take place.
 Respiratory gas transport. Oxygen and carbon dioxide must be transported to and
from the lungs and tissue cells of the body via the bloodstream.
 Internal respiration. At systemic capillaries, gas exchanges must be made between
the blood and tissue cells.

Breathing also called pulmonary ventilation, is a complete mechanical process that depends
on volume changes occuring in the thoracic cavity. Volume changes lead to the flow of gases to
equalize the pressure.

The process of breathing (respiration) is divided into two distinct phases:

1. Inspiration (inhalation) - the act of moving air into the lungs
2. Expiration (exhalation) - the act of moving air out of the lungs.
During inspiration in mammals, the rib cage moves up and out, and the diaphragm contracts
and moves down. As the thoracic (chest) cavity expands and lung volume increases, air flows into
the lungs due to decreased air pressure in the thoracic cavity and lungs. Inspiration is the active
phase of breathing in reptiles and mammals.
During expiration, the rib cage moves down and the diaphragm relaxes and moves up to its
former position. No muscle contraction is required and expiration is the inactive phase of breathing
in reptiles and mammals. Air flows out as a result of increased pressure in the thoracic cavity and
lungs.

C. RESPIRATORY MECHANISMS
To maintain homeostasis, the human body employs many physiological adaptations. One of
these is maintaining an acid-base balance.
Acid-Base Balance - is important for the homeostasis of the body and almost all the physiological
activities depend upon the acid-base status of the body.
Acids - are constantly produced in the body. However the acid production is balanced by the
production of bases so that the acid-base status of the body is maintained.

An increase in H+ ion concentration decreases the pH (acidosis) and a reduction in H+

concentration increases the pH (alkalosis). In the absence of pathological states, the pH of the
human body ranges between 7.35 to 7.45. A pH below 7.35 is an acidemia, and a pH above 7.45
is an alkalemia. The maintenance of acid -base status is very important for homeostasis because
even a slight change in pH below 7.35 or above 7.45 will cause serious threats to many
physiological functions.

Regulation of Acid-Base Balance

Two types of acids are produced in the body:

1. Volatile acids - derived from CO2; large quantity of CO2 is produced during the metabolism of
carbohydrates and lipids. This CO2 is not a threat because it is totally removed throughout expired
air by lungs.
2. Non-volatile acids- are produced during the metabolism of other nutritive substances such as
proteins. These acids are real threat to the acid-base status of the body. For example, sulfuric acid
is produced during the metabolism of sulfur containing amino acids such as cysteine and
methionine; hydrochloric acid is produced during the metabolism of lysine, arginine and histidine.
Fortunately the body is provided with the best regulatory mechanisms to prevent the hazards of
acid production.

Compensatory Mechanism
The body has three different mechanisms to regulate acid-base status:
1. Acid-base buffer system - which binds free H+
2. Respiratory mechanisms - which eliminates CO2
3. Renal mechanism - which excretes H+ and conserves the bases (HCO3-)
Among the three mechanisms, the acid-base buffer system is the fastest one and it read just
the pH within seconds. The respiratory mechanism does it in minutes whereas the renal system is
slower and it takes few hours to few days to bring the pH back to normal. However the renal
mechanism is the most powerful mechanism than the other two in maintaining the acid- base
balance of the body fluids.

1. Regulation of Acid-Base Balance by Acid-Base Buffer System:

An acid-base buffer system is the combination of weak acid (protonated substance) and a
base-the salt (unprotonated substance).

Types of Buffer System:

1. Bicarbonate buffer system

2. Phosphate buffer system
3. Protein buffer system
Bicarbonate Buffer System

• Bicarbonate buffer system is present in ECF (plasma)

• HCO3- is in the form of salt i.e. sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3)

Mechanism of action of bicarbonate buffer system:

• HCl + NaHCO3, this action activates when (fall of pH)
• (NaOH) + H2CO3, this action activated when (rise of pH)

Importance of bicarbonate buffer system:

• Concentration of HCO3 - is regulated by kidney and the concentration of CO2 is regulated by
the respiratory system.

Phosphate Buffer System

• Phosphate buffer system is useful in the intracellular fluid (ICF), in red blood cells or other
cells. As the concentration of phosphate is more in ICF than in ECF.

Mechanism of phosphate buffer system:

• HCl + Na2HPO4
• NaOH + NaH2PO4

Importance of phosphate buffer system:

• Phosphate buffer is useful in tubular fluids of kidney
• The elements of phospphate buffer inside the red blood cells are in the form of potassium
dihydrogen phosphate (KH2PO4) and dipotassium hydrogen phosphate (K2HPO4).

Protein Buffer System

• Protein buffer systems are present in the blood, both in the plasma and erythrocytes.
• Protein buffer system in plasma:
i. C-terminal carboxyl group, N-terminal amino group and side-chain carboxyl group of
glutamic acid.
ii. Side-chain amino group of lysine
iii. Imidazole group of histidine
Protein buffer in erythrocytes (Hemoglobin)
• Hemoglobin has about six times more buffering capacity than the plasma proteins.
• When a hemoglobin molecule becomes deoxygenated in the capillaries, it easily binds with H+
which are released when CO2 enters the capillaries.

II. Regulation of Acid-Base Balance by Respiratory Mechanisms

• CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H+ HCO3

• Entire reaction is reversed in lungs when CO2 diffuses from blood into the alveoli of lungs.
• When metabolic activities increase, more amount of CO2 is produced in the tissues and the
concentration of the H+ increases as seen above.
• Increased H+ concentration increases the pulmonary ventilation (hyperventilation) by acting
through the chemoreceptors.
• Due to hyperventilation, the excess of CO2 is removed from the body.

III. Regulation of Acid-Base Balance by Renal Mechanism

• Kidney maintains the acid-base balance of the body by the secretion

of H+ and by the retention of HCO3.

DISTURBANCES OF ACID BASE STATUS

ACIDOSIS
• Acidosis is the reduction in pH (increase in H+ concentration) below normal range.
• It is produced by: Increase in partial pressure of CO2 in the body fluids and decrease in HCO3-
concentration

ALKALOSIS
• Is the increase in pH (decrease in H+ concentration) above the normal range.
• It is produced by: Decrease partial pressure of CO2in the arterial blood and increase HCO3-
concentration.

• Since the partial pressure of CO2 (pCO2) in arterial blood is controlled by lungs, the acid-base
disturbances produced by the change in arterial pCO2 are called respiratory disturbances.
• On the other hand, the disturbances in acid-base status produced by the change in HCO3-
concentration are generally called the metabolic disturbances.
The Acid-Base Disturbances are:
1. Respiratory acidosis
2. Respiratory alkalosis
3. Metabolic acidosis
4. Metabolic alkalosis

Respiratory acidosis
• Respiratory acidosis is the acidosis that is caused by alveolar hypoventilation.
• During hypoventilation, the lungs fail to expel CO2.
• CO2 accumulates in blood where it reacts with water to form carbonic acid, which is called
respiratory acid.
• Carbonic acid dissociates into H+ and HCO3-.
• The increase H+ concentration in blood leads to decrease pH and acidosis.
• Normal partial pressure of CO2 in arterial blood is about 40 mm Hg. When it increases above 60
mm Hg acidosis occurs.

Causes of Excess CO2 in the Body:

• Hypoventilation (decreased ventilation) is the primary cause for excess CO2 in the body.
> Airway obstruction due to bronchitis, bronchospasm, emphysema, etc.
> Lung disease like fibrosis, pneumonia, etc.
> Respiratory center depression by anesthetics, sedatives, cerebral trauma, tumors, etc.
> Extrapulmonary thoracic diseases like flail chest, kyphosis and scoliosis.
> Neural disease like poliomyelitis, paralysis of respiratory muscles.

Respiratory Alkalosis
• Respiratory alkalosis is the alkalosis that is caused by alveolar hyperventilation.
• Hyperventilation causes excess loss of CO2 from the body.
• Loss of CO2 leads to decreased formation of carbonic acid decreased release of H+.
• Decreased H+ concentration increases the pH leading to respiratory alkalosis.
• Whe the partial pressure of CO2 in arterial blood decreases below 20 mm Hg, alkalosis occurs.

Causes of Decrease CO2 in the Body:

• Hyperventilation is the primary cause for loss of excess CO2 from the body.
• Hypoxia as in high altitude, severe anemia and pulmonary diseases like edema and embolism.
• Increased respiratory drive due to cerebral disturbances, voluntary hyperventilation and
psychological and emotional trauma.
Metabolic Acidosis
• Metabolic acidosis is the acid-base imbalance characterized by excess accumulation of organic
acids in the body, which is caused by abnormal metabolic processes.
• Organic acids such as lactic acid, ketoacids and uric acid are formed by normal metabolism.
• The quantity of these acids increases due to abnormality in the metabolism.

Causes of Metabolic Acidosis

• Lactic acidosis as in circulatory shock.
• Ketoacidosis as in diabetes mellitus
• Uric acidosis as in renal tubule.
• Acid poisoning
• Renal tubular acidosis due to decreased H+ excretion.
• Loss of excess HCO3- due to diarrhea and pancreatic intestinal or biliary fistula.

Metabolic Alkalosis
• Metabolic alkalosis is the acid-base imbalance caused by loss of excess H+ resulting in
increased HCO3- concentration.
• Some of the endocrine disorders, renal tubular disorders, etc. Cause metabolic disorders leading
to loss of H+.
• It increases HCO3- and pH in the body leading to metabolic alkalosis.

Causes of Metabolic Alkalosis

• Vomiting and congenital diarrhea
• Endocrine disorders such as Cushing’s syndrome and Cohn’s syndrome.
• Diuretic therapy
CLINICAL EVALUATION OF DISTURBANCES IN ACID-BASE STATUS-ANION
GAP

• Anion gap is an important measure in the clinical evaluation of disturbance in acid base status.
• Only few cations and anions are measured during routine clinical investigations.
• Commonly measured cation is sodium and the unmeasured cations are potassium, calcium and
magnesium.
• Usually measured anions are chloride and bicarbonate.
• The unmeasured anions are phosphate, sulfate, proteins in anionic form such as albumin and
other organic anions like lactate.
• Difference between concentrations of unmeasured anions and unmeasured cations is called
anion gap.

It is calculated as:
Anion gap = [Na+] - [HCO3-]- [Cl-]
= 144 - 24 - 108 mEq/L
= 12 mEq/L

Normal value of anion gap is 9 to 15 mEq/L, It increases when concentration of unmeasured anion
increases and decreases concentration of unmeasured cations decreases. Anion gap is a useful
measure in the differential diagnosis (diagnosis of the different causes) of acid-base disorders
particularly the metabolic acidosis.

Organ Systems Involved

Every organ system of the human body relies on pH balance; however, the renal system
and the pulmonary system are the two main modulators. The pulmonary system adjusts pH using
carbon dioxide; upon expiration, carbon dioxide is projected into the environment. Due to
carbon dioxide forming carbonic acid in the body when combining with water, the amount of
carbon dioxide expired can cause pH to increase or decrease. When the respiratory system is
utilized to compensate for metabolic pH disturbances, the effect occurs in minutes to hours.
The renal system affects pH by reabsorbing bicarbonate and excreting fixed acids.
Whether due to pathology or necessary compensation, the kidney excretes or reabsorbs these
substances which affect pH. The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney. Blood vessels called
glomeruli transport substances found in the blood to the renal tubules so that some can be filtered
out while others are reabsorbed into the blood and recycled. This is true for hydrogen ions and
bicarbonate. If bicarbonate is reabsorbed and/or acid is secreted into the urine, the pH becomes
more alkaline (increases). When bicarbonate is not reabsorbed or acid is not excreted into the urine,
pH becomes more acidic (decreases). The metabolic compensation from the renal system takes
longer to occur: days rather than minutes or hours.

Biochemical Processes
Throughout the human body, many chemical reactions are in equilibrium. One of the most
important was previously mentioned with the equation:
H20 + CO2 <-> H2CO3<-> H+ + HCO3-
The Le Chatelier Principle states that when the variables of concentration, pressure, or
temperature are changed, a system in equilibrium will react accordingly to restore a new steady
state. For the reaction above, this states that if more hydrogen ions are produced, the equation will
shift to the left so that more reactants are formed, and the system can remain in equilibrium. This
is how compensatory pH mechanisms work; if there is a metabolic acidosis present, the kidneys
are not excreting enough hydrogen ions and/or not reabsorbing enough bicarbonate. The respiratory
system reacts by increasing minute ventilation (often by increasing respiratory rate) and expiring
more CO2 to restore equilibrium.

Related Testing
Arterial blood gas (ABG) sampling, is a test often performed in an inpatient setting to assess the
acid-base status of a patient. The blood is analyzed to determine parameters such as the pH, pC0 2,
pO2, HCO3, oxygen saturation, and more. This allows the physician to understand the status of the
patient better. ABGs are especially important in the critically ill. They are the main tool utilized in
adjusting to the needs of a patient on a ventilator. The following are the most important normal
values on an ABG:
• pH = 7.35 to 7.45
• pCO2 = 35 to 45 mmHg
• pO2 = 75 to 100 mmHg
• HCO3- = 22 to 26 mEq/L
• O2 Sat = greater than 95%
The ability to quickly and efficiently read an ABG, especially in reference to inpatient
medicine, is paramount to quality patient care.

Compensation for acid-base disorders

Each acid-base disturbance provokes automatic compensatory mechanisms that push the blood pH
back toward normal. In general, the respiratory system compensates for metabolic disturbances
while metabolic mechanisms compensate for respiratory disturbances.
At first, the compensatory mechanisms may restore the pH close to normal. Thus, if the blood pH
has changed significantly, it means that the body's ability to compensate is failing. In such cases,
doctors urgently search for and treat the underlying cause of the acid-base disturbance.

Henderson-Hasselbalch equation

The Henderson-Hasselbalch equation describes the relationship between blood pH and the
components of the H2CO3 buffering system. This qualitative description of acid/base
physiology allows the metabolic component to be separated from the respiratory components of
acid/base balance.
Relationship: changes in arterial pCO2 cause changes in pH (as defined in the Henderson-
Hasselbalch equation):
pH = pKa + log ([HCO3]/(0.03 x pCO2))
Note: Normal pCO2 in arterial blood are 35 to 45 mmHg and, in venous blood, 40 to 45 mmHg.

Estimating blood pH

where:
• pKa H2CO3 is the logarithm of the acid dissociation constant of carbonic acid. It is equal to
6.1.
• [HCO3-] is the concentration of bicarbonate in the blood
• [H2CO3] is the concentration of carbonic acid in the blood

This is useful in arterial blood gas, but these usually state PaCO 2, that is, the partial
pressure of carbon dioxide, rather than H2CO3. However, these are related by the equation:

, where:
• [H2CO3] is the concentration of carbonic acid in the blood
• kH CO2 is the Henry's law constant for the solubility of carbon dioxide in blood. kH CO 2 is
approximately 0.03 mmol/(mL-atm)
• PaCO2 is the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the blood

Taken together, the following equation can be used to relate the pH of blood to the concentration
of bicarbonate and the partial pressure of carbon dioxide:

where:
• pH is the acidity in the blood
• [HCO3-] is the concentration of bicarbonate in the blood
• PaCO2 is the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the arterial blood
Alveolar Ventilation - Arterial pCO2 Realationship
The partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PCO2) is the measure of carbon dioxide within
arterial or venous blood. It often serves as a marker of sufficient alveolar ventilation within
the lungs. Generally, under normal physiologic conditions, the value of PCO2 ranges between
35 to 45 mmHg, or 4.7 to 6.0 kPa
 Two relationships which provide the connection between alveolar ventilation and pH via
pCO2
 paCO2 is proportional to [VCO2 / VA]
where:
• paCO2 = Arterial partial pressure of CO2
• VCO2 = Carbon dioxide production by the body
• VA = Alveolar ventilation
ALTERNATIVELY:
paCO2 = 0.863 x [VCO2/VA]
* (if VCO2 has units of ml/min at STP and VA has units of l/min at 37oC and at atmospheric
pressure)

Respiratory Volumes and Capacities

Tidal volume. Normal quiet breathing moves approximately 500 ml of air into and out of the lungs
with each breath.
Inspiratory reserve volume. The amount of air that can be taken in forcibly over the tidal volume
is the inspiratory reserve volume, which is normally between 2100 ml to 3200 ml.
Expiratory reserve volume. The amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled after a tidal expiration,
the expiratory reserve volume, is approximately 1200 ml.
Residual volume. Even after the most strenuous expiration, about 1200 ml of air still remains in
the lungs and it cannot be voluntarily expelled; this is called residual volume, and it is important
because it allows gas exchange to go on continuously even between breaths and helps to keep the
alveoli inflated.
Vital capacity. The total amount of exchangeable air is typically around 4800 ml in healthy young
men, and this respiratory capacity is the vital capacity, which is the sum of the tidal volume,
inspiratory reserve volume, and the expiratory reserve volume.
Dead space volume. Much of the air that enters the respiratory tract remains in the conducting
zone passageways and never reaches the alveoli; this is called the dead space volume and during a
normal tidal breath, it amounts to about 150 ml.
Functional volume. The functional volume, which is the air that actually reaches the respiratory
zone and contributes to gas exchange, is about 350 ml.
Spirometer. Respiratory capacities are measured with a spirometer, wherein as a person breathes,
the volumes of air exhaled can be read on an indicator, which shows the changes in air volume
inside the apparatus.

Regulation of Respiration
Regulation of respiration control is the rate and depth of respiration as per the physiologi
demand. Control of respiration primarily involves neurons in the reticular formation of the medulla
and pons. Because the medulla sets the respiratory rhythm. The purpose of regulation of respiration
are:
1. To maintain a constant O2 and CO2 level in blood.
2. It adjust the O2 supply as per the metabolic demand of the body..
3. It helps to regulate acid base balance or pH.
 The size of the thorax is altered by the action of the respiratory muscles, which contracts as
a result of nerve impulses transmitted to them from centers in the brain and relax in the absence of
nerve impulses. This impulses travels along the phrenic and external intercostal nerves to excite
the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles. These nerve impulses are sent from cluster of
neurons located bilaterally in the medulla oblongata and pons of the brainstem. This widely
dispersed group of neurons, collectively called the respiratory center.

There are two major mechanisms of regulation of respiration:

1. Nervous regulation of respiration
2. Chemical regulation of respiration

Nervous Regulation of respiration - the respiratory centers are divided into four major groups:
1. Two groups in the medulla are: the dorsal respiratory group and ventral respiratory group
2. Two groups in the pons: pneumotaxic center and apneustic center (pontine respiratory group)

Respiratory centers can be divided into three areas on the basis of their functions:
1. Medullary rhythmicity area in the medulla oblongata
2. The pneumotaxic area in the pons-transmits inhibitory
impulses to the inspiratory area to turn it off before the lungs
become too full of air.
3. The apneustic area, also in the pons- sends stimulatory
impulses to the inspiratory area that activate it and prolong
inhalation (long deep inhalation).

Medullary Rhythmicity Area:

The function of the medullary rhythmicity area is to
control the basic rhythm of respiration. It includes two areas:
a. inspiratory medullary rhythmicity area or inspiratory centre
b. Expiratory medullary rhythmicity area or expiratory centre

Inspiratory center: Establishes the basic rhythm. When its inspiratory neurons fire, a burst of
impulses travels along the phrenic and intercostal nerves to excite the diaphragm and external
intercostal muscles.
Expiratory center: Impulses from the expiratory area cause contraction of the internal intercostal
and abdominal muscles, which decreases the size of the thoracic cavity and causes forceful
exhalation.
Chemical Regulation of Respiration:
Three important chemical factors controlling respiration:
1. Concentration of CO2 in blood
2. Concentration of H+ ions or pH
3. Concentration of oxygen in blood
When CO2 concentration in blood increases, it stimulates the chemoreceptors. There are
two groups of chemoreceptors:
1. Peripheral chemoreceptors - situated at the carotid body and aortic body
2. Centre chemoreceptors - situated at the medulla oblongata

Concentration of CO2 in Blood

When concentration of H+ ions increases, it stimulates the peripheral chemoreceptors. H+
ions diffuses with CO2 and form carbonic acid, to cross the blood brain barrier then dissolves into
H+ and H2CO3. There by H+ ions stimulates the central chemoreceptors then the respiratory centers,
resulting a reduction in the level of CO2 in blood. This will in turn decrease concentration of H+ in
blood or decrease concentration H+ in blood or increase the pH in to normal.
D. PLANT SYSTEM
Photosynthesis - How a Plant Harnesses Light Energy to Make Chemical Energy

Respiration - Turning Chemical Energy into Fuel for Growth,

Development and Reproduction
> Free energy is released and incorporated into a form (ATP) that
can be readily used for the maintenance and development of the plant
• Low-temperature oxidation of carbohydrates carried out by enzymes
and living systems
• Net reaction appears as the reverse of PS
> The individual reactions that occur to achieve the net effect are
entirely different
> Reactions occur in different parts of cells

CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Net Reaction
C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 40 ADP + 40 Phosphates → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 40 ATP

RESPIRATION
• Respiration is the means to turn carbs into usable chemical energy (ATP) for many other plant
reactions including PS
• All living plant and animal cells carry out respiration
• Respiration occurs
> At same time as PS
> During the night
> In developing and ripening fruit
> In dormant seeds
Mitochondria
• Occurs in mitochondria of cells
Mitochondria are membrane-enclosed organelles distributed through the
cytosol of most eukaryotic cells. Their main function is the conversion of
the potential energy of food molecules into ATP

LIGHT COMPENSATION POINT

• Level of light intensity where the rate of respiration (CO2 produced) equals the rate of PS (CO2
consumed)
• Greater light intensity should result in net dry matter (Carbohydrate accumulation)
• Lower light intensity will result in net dry matter loss over time
• Light compensation point is generally reached for plants grown outdoors
• May not be reached for full sun plants grown in shade or for houseplants grown indoors in
inadequate light
AEROBIC RESPIRATION
• Requires oxygen
• Main type of respiration that occurs in most situations in plants and animals
• Involves complete breakdown of glucose back to CO2 and water
• Not all of the energy in glucose Is converted to ATP formation
> Only about 40% efficient
> Extra energy Is given off as heat
• In Plants, heat quickly dissipates
• For Animals, heat Is retained to hold body temperature

3 Main Respiration Steps

1. Glycolysis -Breakdown of glucose to a 3-C compound called Pyruvate
> Occurs in cytosol
> Some ATP and NADH are also formed
- Storage energy molecules
>NADH is formed from NAD
> Similar type of energy-storing Rx as NADP + H2 → NADPH2
- NAD + H → NADH

2. Krebs Cycle -‘Tricarboxylic acid Cycle (TCA Cycle)’or ‘Citric acid Cycle’
> Occurs in mitochondrial matrix
> A cyclic series of Rxs that completely break down Pyruvate to CO 2 and various carbon
skeletons
> Skeletons are used in other metabolic pathways to make various compounds
- Proteins, Lipids, Cell Wall Carbohydrates, DNA, Plant Hormones, Plant
Pigments, Many other Biochemical Compounds
> The step where CO2 Is given off by the plant
> 10 NADH are generated

3. Electron Transport Chain- ‘Oxidative Phosphorylation’

> Series of proteins in the mitochondria helps transfer electrons (e-) from NADH to
oxygen
• Releases a lot of energy
> Occurs on mitochondrial inner membrane (proteins bound to membrane)
 > Released energy is used to drive the reaction ADP + P → ATP
• Many ATP are made
> Oxygen is required for this step
> Water is produced

Aerobic:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 40 ADP + 40 Phosphates → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 40 ATP

ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
• ‘Fermentation’
• Occurs in low-oxygen environments
> Wet or compacted soils for plants
>After strong exertion for animals
• ATP is still produced from glucose but not as efficiently as with
aerobic respiration

Anaerobic respiration

C6H12O6 + O2 → 2 CH2O5 + 2 H2O + 2 ATP

or
Glucose + Oxygen → 2 Ethanol + 2 Water + 2 ATP

Same Rx used to produce alcohol from corn or to make wine or other consumed alcohol

• Only 2 ATP are formed instead of 40 from aerobic respiration

> Plant soon runs out of energy
> Can begin to suffer from toxic levels of ethanol and related compounds
• Extended periods of anaerobic respiration will seriously reduced plant growth and yields

Anaerobic:
C6H12O6 + O2 → 2 CH2O5 + 2 H2O + 2 ATP
Aerobic:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 40 ADP + 40 Phosphates → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 40 ATP

Photorespiration
• In the "normal" reaction, CO2 is joined with RUBP to form 2 molecules of 3PGA
• In the process called photorespiration, O2 replaces CO2 in a non-productive, wasteful reaction
• It is believed that photorespiration in plants has increased over geologic time and is the result of
increasing levels of O2 in the atmosphere--the byproduct of photosynthetic organisms themselves
• The appearance of C4-type plants appears to be an evolutionary mechanism by which
photorespiration is suppressed
• It has long been the dream of biologists to increase the production of certain crop plants, such as
wheat, that carry on C3 PS by genetically re-engineer them to perform C4 PS
• It seems unlikely that this goal will be accomplished in the near future due to the complex
anatomical and metabolic differences that exist between C3- and C4-type plants
• Respiration driven by light energy
• Discovered when scientists realized that some plants have faster respiration rate in light than in
dark
• Occurs in chloroplasts and other structures in a photosynthetic cell
• Rubisco can react with oxygen to start a slightly different series of Rxs
> Result in a loss or no net gain of dry matter for the plant
> Less ATP is produced from the photorespiration

FACTORS INFLUENCING PHORESPIRATION

• O2:CO2 ratio
• If cells have low O2 but higher CO2, normal PS Calvin Cycle dominates
• C4 Plants have little photorespiration because they carry the CO 2 to the bundle sheath cells and
can build up high [CO2]
>Calvin cycle Rxs always favored over photorespiration
• If cells have higher O2 and lower CO2, Photorespiration dominates
• Light Intensity
> Increasing light intensity will increase energy for the photorespiration process and for
PS
> C3 Plants light-saturate at lower light intensities than C4 Plants
• Reach their ‘Break-Even Point’ at much lower light levels due to increasing
photorespiration
• Temperature
> Aerobic respiration and Photorespiration increase with Temp
> Plants have Optimum, Minimum and Maximum temp ranges
• Net Photosynthesis or Net Assimilation Rate
> C4 Plants generally have Net Assimilation Rates about 2 to 3 times that of C3 Plants
> C4 Plants are often called Efficient Plants and C3 Plants called Non-Efficient Plants
> A few C3 Plants have low respiration and similar assimilation rates as C4 Plants
• Sunflower
• Peanut
• Net Photosynthesis or Net Assimilation Rate
> Cooler temps are the only time when C3 Plants have higher Net Assimilation Rates
than C4 Plants
• PEP Carboxylase needed to incorporate CO2 into the 4-Carbon structure no
longer functions
• C4 PS rates drop dramatically or stop
C3 and C4 Plants Differ in Water Use
C4 Plants can produce 3 times as much dry matter per unit of water as C3 Plants

FACTORS AFFECTING RESPIRATION

• Kind of Cell or Tissue
> Young and developing cells (Meristematic Areas) usually have higher respiration rates
> Developing and ripening fruit and seeds, too
> Older cells and structural cells respire at lower rates

• Temperatures
> Respiration generally has higher optimum and maximum temps than PS Rxs
> Can have Net Dry Matter Loss at high temps where respiration exceeds PS
> Temp refers to temp inside plant or animal cell, not air temp
• Using irrigation to help cool the plant can keep the plant in Net Gain range

• Oxygen
> Low O2 can reduce aerobic respiration and increase anaerobic respiration
> Low O2 can reduce photorespiration

• Light
> Can enhance rate of photorespiration
> Does not directly affect other forms of respiration

• [Glucose]
> Adequate glucose needed to carry out respiration
> Reductions can occur
• Reduced PS
• Reduced flow of carbohydrates in plant
- Insect feeding
- Phloem blockages

• [CO2]
> Higher CO2 levels reduce rate of respiration
- Feedback inhibition
> Seldom occurs except when O2 levels are limited
- Flooded, compacted soils

• [ATP]
> Higher [ATP] reduces rate of respiration
- Feedback inhibition
> Usually occurs when other metabolic processes have slowed or stopped

• Plant Injury
> Injury will increase respiration
> Plant’s growth rate increases in attempt to recover
- Mechanical damage
- Hai, Mowing, grazing, cultivation, wind
> Plant synthesizes compounds to fight pests
- Insect feeding
- Diseases
> Some herbicides kill plants by disrupting or affecting respiration
- Generally an indirect effect
- Herbicide disrupts enzyme activity or some other metabolic process that will
affect respiration
Plant Mitochondria and Chloroplasts May Have Evolved from Bacteria

Many of the features of the mitochondrial genetic system resemble those found in prokaryotes like
bacteria. This has strengthened the theory that mitochondria are the evolutionary descendants of a
prokaryote that established an endosymbiotic relationship with the ancestors of eukaryotic cells
early in the history of life on earth. However, many of the genes needed for mitochondrial function
have since moved to the nuclear genome.

The Porphyrin Story

• Porphyrins: Super-molecules of the future and the sinister molecules of the past
• In Photodynamic Therapy (PDT), used as light-absorbing compounds which are “switched on”
by photons of light and then react with cells in a desired way

Learning Activity:
1. Name the parts of the human respiratory system and list a function for each part. How is air
reaching the lungs cleansed?
2. The concentration of what substances in blood controls the breathing rate in humans? Explain.
3. How are oxygen and carbon dioxide transported in blood? What does carbonic anhydrase do?

References:
• Best and Taylor. Physiological Basis of Medical Practice (Latest Edition)
• Bullock, J., J. Boyle, M.B. Wang. 1995. Physiology. (3rd ed. or latest edition). U.S.A.: Williams &
Wilkins, Co
• Ganong, F.W. Review of Medical Physiology. (Latest Edition). U.S.A.: Lange Medieval Publications.
• Guyton, A.C. & J.E. Hall. 1996. Textbook of Medical Physiology. (9th ed. or latest edition).
Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Co.