Lecture 6

LANGUAGE AS A REFLECTION OF CULTURE

1. Language as a reflection of social and cultural structure of society.

2. Social and cultural connotations of the words "Homeland" and "Patriotism" in
English and Russian cultures.

Language as a reflection of social and cultural structure of society

The past decades have witnessed a rapid development in sociolinguistics and the
findings in this field have greatly enriched our understanding of the relationship between
language and society.
There has been a maxim in sociolinguistics that claims, “You are what you say”.
Following this claim, we may expand the scope of our observation by introducing some
social factors that influence our language behavior in a social context.
Sociolinguists have documented the presence of dialects in every language. These
dialects, all of which are legitimate, are associated with educational, economic, social and
historical conditions. To linguists, the word “dialect” refers to a way of speaking a
language, to an incorrect way of speaking a language.
Languages vary from one place to another, from one social group to another, and from
one situation to another. Language variation describes the relationship between the use of
linguistic forms and factors such as geography, social class, ethnic group, age, sex,
occupation, function, or style. The combination of these various factors results in an
individual's idiolect, that is, their particular and idiosyncratic manner of speech. When a
variety of language shared by a group of speakers it is known as a dialect.
All speakers of a language speak a dialect of that language. Dialect is more a political
term than a linguistic one. By definition, everyone speaks a dialect. The question is which
dialects viewed as the “standard”, “correct”, or “official” languages, and which ones are
marked as the “dialects” or “slang”. “Poor English” literally means the English of the
poor, the rural, the weak.
Dialects of languages can vary in pronunciation. For example, Central American
speakers of Spanish pronounce c before e and i and z as the English c in city while in most
of Spain they are pronounced like the English th in thin.
Variation may also come in the grammar, when structures are changed by addition,
replacement, or subtraction of grammatical units.
Dialects may also vary in vocabulary. Those variations serve as reference points in
dialect geographies. Certain social dialects of English use the term “pancake” for a very
thin cake made of batter poured onto a hot greased surface and cooked on both sides until
brown. Other English speakers call the same thing a “flapjack”. Still others use the word
“griddlecake” or “flannel cake”. The reality – the thin brown cake – is the same even
though dialects have developed different terms.
Dialect diversity reflects the fact that languages change over time and that people who
live in the same geographical area or maintain the same social identity, share language
norms; in other words, they speak the same dialect.
Dialects themselves are collections of idiolects (and thus so are languages).
 Idiolect is another term that we must be familiar with. An idiolect is simply the
technical term we use to refer to the variety of language spoken by each individual speaker
of the language. Just as there is variation among groups of speakers of a language, there
is variation from speaker to speaker. No two speakers of a language speak identically.
Each speaks her or his own particular variety of that language. Each thus speaks her or
his own idiolect.
Thus, languages mark cultural identities, and entire societies may define themselves
according to the language and dialect they speak.
Geographical dialects arise when groups of speakers are isolated from one another
by a barrier – rivers, mountains, lakes, oceans, and national boundaries, to name a few.
Over time, the speakers on each side of the barrier sound less and less alike. In the
Appalachian Mountains, speakers were isolated for generations from those in the valleys,
and as a result, their dialect has marked differences in both grammar and vocabulary. For
instance, the following are perfectly grammatical sentences in Appalachian English: “I
disremembered.” (I forgot)
The different geographical dialects are the different varieties of the same language
spoken in different areas. As we know, Modern English is used as the first language by
tens of countries in the world. Therefore, there exist British English, American English,
Canadian English, Australian English, New Zealand English, South African English and
so forth. They are all geographical dialects or varieties of Modern English. Language and
dialect have become a flag of proclaiming one's identity. Dialects are usually used or
preferred in oral communication.
The three major U.S. regional dialects are the following:
1. Northern Region: This region consists of New England, from Vermont to New
York and all the states between the Great Lakes and the Pacific Ocean.
2. Southern Region: This region includes Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North
Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia and all of the states bordering the Gulf of Mexico,
including Texas.
3. Midland Region: This is the largest region, consisting of most of the United States.
It extends from Pennsylvania and New Jersey west into Ohio and south along the Blue
Ridge Mountains of Virginia into the Carolinas.
British English (BrE) is the form of English used in the United Kingdom. It includes
all English dialects used within the United Kingdom. Dialects and accents vary amongst
the four countries of the United Kingdom, as well as within the countries themselves.
There are also differences in the English spoken by different socio-economic groups in
any particular region.
The major divisions are normally classified as English (or English as spoken in
England, which comprises Southern English dialects, Midlands English dialects and
Northern English dialects), Welsh English (not to be confused with the Welsh language),
and Scottish English (not to be confused with the Scots language).
The various British dialects also differ in the words that they have borrowed from
other languages. The Scottish and Northern English dialects include many words
originally borrowed from Old Norse and a few borrowed from Gaelic, though most of the
structure and common words are conservative Anglo-Saxon, hence kirk (church), beck
(stream), feart (feared), fell (hillside), kistie (chest, box), lang syne (long ago) and so on.
 Social Dialects
These dialects imply that the use of language is not only linguistic behavior, hut also
a social activity. Without a language intelligible to all the members of a community, the
community could by no means exist, not to speak of its development.
Social dialects reflect a person's speech not only where s/he comes from but also what
class s/he belongs to and a general tendency that the speech of the higher classes
demonstrates less regional variation.
A society is usually composed of various social groups differentiated by age, sex,
social, economic and political backgrounds, education, occupation, religious beliefs or
other social factors. Moreover, different social groups speak different social dialects.
There are two approaches to the relation between language and society. One approach
is that society is taken as a whole, in which it is watched how language functions in it and
how it reflects various social differentiations, and the other is that society is studied from
the point of view of an individual social member.
The interrelationship between language and society can be clearly shown by the fact,
that language is not always used to exchange information, but it is also used to maintain
certain social relationships between people. This kind of social function of language is
often embedded in everyday social interactions and linguistic routines.
A social dialect, or sociolect, often revealed through language, which indicates the
cultural attitudes and status preferences of the communities in which we live, or groups
with which we identify. Examples of these could include an individual's use of
“politically-correct” language, or the attitudes and perspectives revealed by the humor or
special jargons one may use.
Speakers of a language may often use their language quite differently due to their
different social status, such as social, political and economic backgrounds, religious
beliefs, profession, education, sex, age etc. The standard variety of a given language, e.g.
British English, tends to be the upper class sociolect of a given central area.
Speaking the wrong social dialect in a certain environment may result in awkwardness
or difficulty for the speaker.
Standard Language
The most popular type dialect known as standard language (also standard dialect or
standardized dialect) is a particular dialect of a language that has been given either legal
or quasi-legal status. It is said to be the most correct language of a nation.
Usually, but not always, based on the tongue of a capital city, a standard language is
defined by the selection of certain regional and class markers, and the rejection of others.
The standard language of a country is the language, which is recognized as the official
language of that country, and is the “correct” language of the nation.
It is usually the language of the capital city and defined as the selection of certain
regional and class markers and the rejection of others. This is the version of a language
typically taught to learners of the language as a foreign language, and most texts written
in that language follow its spelling and grammar norms.
A standard variety is generally:
 used in the news media and literature;
 described in dictionaries and grammars;
  taught in schools and taught to non-native speakers when they learn the language
as a foreign language.
Some of the features that identify a Standard Language include:
 a recognized dictionary or group of dictionaries which embody a standardized
spelling and vocabulary;
 a recognized grammar which records the forms, rules and structures of the
language, and which commends some forms and castigates others;
 a standard system of pronunciation, which is considered "educated" or "proper"
speech by the speakers, and which is considered free from regional marking;
 an institution promoting the use of the language and given some authority in
defining the norms of its use;
 statutes or constitutions giving that language an official legal status in a country's
system of law;
 the use of the language in public life, such as in the work of courts and legislatures;
 a canon of literature;
 the teaching of the language's standards of grammar and spelling in schools;
 the selection of this particular dialect of a language as being especially appropriate
to be taught to learners of foreign languages.
Other Kinds of Language Varieties
Besides dialects, there are different kinds of language varieties: slang, Ebonics,
pidgin, Creole.
Slang is the use of informal words and expressions not considered standard in the
speaker's dialect or language. Slang is used in areas of the lexicon that refer to things
considered taboo. It is often used to identify with one's peers and, although it may be
common among young people. Slang can be born from any number of situations or ideas
(the word slang itself has come to represent selling, especially of illegal drugs), and can
be blunt or riddled with metaphor, and often quite profound.
Slang very often involves the creation of novel meanings for existing words. It is
common for such novel meanings to diverge significantly from the standard meaning.
Jargon is terminology defined in relationship to a specific activity, profession, group,
or event.
Pidgin is a new language which develops in situations where speakers of different
languages need to communicate but do not share a common language. The vocabulary of
a pidgin comes mainly from one particular language (called the 'lexifier'). An early “pre-
pidgin” is quite restricted in use and variable in structure. However, the later 'stable
pidgin' develops its own grammatical rules, which are quite different from those of the
lexifier.
Creole – any pidgin language that has become established as the native language of a
speech community. A creole usually arises when speakers of one language become
economically or politically dominant over speakers of another. Unlike a pidgin, however,
a creole is not restricted in use, and is like any other language in its full range of functions.
The words pidgin and creole are technical terms used by linguists, and not necessarily by
speakers of the language.
Ebonics imply that sometimes members of a particular minority ethnic group have
their own variety, which they use as a marker of identity, usually alongside a standard
variety. This is a minority dialect. Examples are African American Vernacular English in
the USA, London Jamaican in Britain, and Aboriginal English in Australia. African
American (Vernacular) English (AAVE), also called 'Ebonics', is a minority dialect
spoken by most African Americans throughout the U.S.A.
Ebonics is a variation of English entirely made up of slang and southern word
shortenings. It is generally spoken in the neighborhood and has almost no defined
syntactical structure.

Social and cultural connotations of the words "Homeland" and "Patriotism" in

English and Russian

In cross-cultural communication, we should understand cultural connotations of those

words, which have a significant impact on expression of thought throughout language.
Such words are homeland (rodina) and patriotism, which are also symbols of national
identity. The concepts of homeland / rodina are closely connected with the concepts of
patriotism and help to define it.
The Merriam-Webster Unabridged Dictionary defines patriotism as love for or
devotion to one's country. The word patriotism comes from a Greek word meaning
fatherland. For most of history, love of fatherland or homeland was an attachment to the
physical features of the land.
Nevertheless, that notion changed in the eighteenth century, when the ideals of
democracy, socialism, and communism strongly emerged into political thought.
Patriotism was still a love of one's country that included connections to the land and
people, but then also included its customs and traditions, pride in its history, and devotion
to its welfare.
Today most people agree that patriotism also involves service to their country, but
many disagree on how to perform such service. Some believe that the national
government speaks for a country; therefore, all its citizens should actively support
government policies and actions. Others argue that a true patriot speaks out when
convinced that their country is following an unwise or unjust action.
In the United States, the meaning of patriotism has once again been on the public
agenda. In addition, it is seen as a “blind attachment to certain national cultural values,
uncritical conformity with prevailing group ways and rejection of other nations as
outgroups….”
Russian patriotism was not merely a “love for the place where one was born,” but in
its sense, it means what something one did, it is active – not a passive “sense of patriotism”
as it is in the West.
Both Russians and Americans have national loyalty and love to their countries.
American citizens have a special pride for being American, which they want everyone to
know about. The U.S. flags are flying in the streets and squares of American cities and
patriotic slogans can be found everywhere, from ads to schoolbooks.
American patriotism is mainly political deeply attached to the sacred ideas of
freedom and democracy, as the country is just as young as 500 years.
Patriotism has some ethical connotations: it implies that one places the welfare of the
nation above that of oneself. It may also imply that one's nation is more important than
other nations. However, it does not necessarily imply that one should support the principle
of "my country right or wrong," for patriots may also at times be strong critics of their
nation's policies.
So, the connotation of the word patriotism can be considered from the following
aspects: firstly, patriotism is the deep affection of people to his homeland; secondly,
patriotism also expresses the love of people to the material civilization and the spiritual
civilization; thirdly, patriotism is historic and specific.
But what is common for the all interpretations of the word patriotism is love for or
devotion to one's country, which is reflected in artifacts of national cultures and in the
cultural connotations of words homeland and rodina which are culturally marked.
The English concept country patriotism lacks the personal implications of the Russian
rodina. In English, "homeland" is not a key word. To the American English speaker,
"homeland," "motherland," and "fatherland" sound like translations. When spoken in
English, it seems to refer to "the old country" or the birthplace of an immigrant. Weaker
bonds tie Americans and perhaps even the British to their countries than those, which tie
other nationalities to their homelands. This is the case for two reasons.
The concept of "homeland" as developed in other countries ties together nation (ethnic
group) and state (political entity) in a way that seems impossible for Americans. Two
essential elements in Wierzbicka's explications of concepts glossed as "homeland" in
other European languages are: "I was born here" and "I am like a part of this country"
(Wierzbicka 196). These two speech patterns are widely used in English-speaking
countries.
In a situation where a German would answer, "I am German," and a Pole, "I am
Polish," a person born in America to German and Polish parents is as likely to say, "I am
American." Few Americans will say, "There is a part of me which makes me American;"
rather, the American nationality is a coincidence of birthplace.
As a nation of immigrants, the place of our birth rarely correlates with a feeling of
belonging. Belonging is more likely to spring from a separate identification with a racial,
ethnic, or religious subgroup without any immediate correlation to place. Any feeling we
might have of being Americans could spring from an identification with political
ideologies, a pride in our history, or a simple recognition of our citizenship. Claiming to
be an American, however, rarely ties something inherent in the citizen to something
intrinsic in the country.
In Russia, World War II, which in that country is known as the Great Patriotic War,
caused an increase in the incidence of the terms rodina and otechestvo, both glossed as
"homeland" in English. The United States’ experience in World War II was different,
however. Without any real threat to American soil, soldiers often fought to "save Europe"
or to "protect democracy abroad" instead of dying "za rodinu", as Russian soldiers did.
Homeland, then, becomes a muddled concept, which evokes translated novels and
translated ideas.
Rarely is the word applied by native speakers to a country where English is the
dominant language spoken. According to Wierzbicka semantic meanings of the word
homeland in English are the following:
(a) this is a country
(b) someone else was born there
 (c) that person is like part of that country
(d) that person no longer lives there
(e) that country is an important part of that person's identity
(f) that person often thinks about that country
(g) when that person thinks about that country s/he feels something good
(h) that person is like other people in that country
(i) that person may not return to that country
(j) that person could not feel this way about any other country
In contrast to the English "homeland," the Russian word rodina appears frequently in
the modern language. The word appears frequently in spoken language as well as in
official contexts, especially in Soviet-era period time.
The word shares its root rod- with rodnoi (native or one's own) and with rodit'sja (to be
born). Indeed, the concept of birth is essential to the word's meaning. The "familiar
character of rodina, as a place where everything is 'rodnoe, blizkoe, poniatnoe i
privychnoe' (that is, roughly speaking, [one's own], close to one's heart, understandable,
and accustomed)" (Wierzbicka).
Wierzbicka claims that rodina carries no implicit duties, which she assigns to the
rough Russian synonym, otechestvo. However, Russian speakers rate their duty to defend
their rodina as more important than their duty to defend their otechestvo. Rodina nurtures
like a mother and in the slogan rodina-mat' zovet, expected to be defended as your own
mother. The rest of the full explication of the word rodina by Anna Wierzbicka:
(a) a country
(b) I was born in this country
(c) I am like a part of this country
(d) I couldn't be like a part of any other country
(e) when I think about this country I feel something good
(f) I think something like this when I think about this country: this country is like a
person
(h) this country does good things for me, like a mother does good things for her
children
(i) I should help this country whenever it needs me
(j) I know everything in this country
(k) I am like other people in this country
(l) when I am in this country I feel something good
(m) I couldn't feel like this in any other country
Thus, the given examples demonstrate that every language has "key concepts,"
expressed in "key words," which reflect the core values of a given culture. So the words,
"Homeland" and "Patriotism", have important historical dimensions, they are core
cultural elements, which are important for understanding implicit ideological aspect of
cross-cultural communication.

FURTHER READING
1. Зайцева, В.А. Актуальные вопросы кросскультурного общения / Basics of
cross-cultural communication / В.А. Зайцева. – Минск: БГУ, 2012. –– 48 c.
2. Мархасев, И.Р., Зайцева, В.А. Хрестоматия по основам
кросскультурного общения = Reading on Cross-Cultural Communication:
учеб. пособие для студентов фак. междунар. отношений / авт.-сост. И.Р.
Мархасев, В.А. Зайцева. – Минск: БГУ,2006. – 50 с.
3. Тер-Минасова, С.Г. Язык и межкультурная коммуникация: (Учеб.
пособие) /С.Г. Тер-Минасова. – М.: Слово / Slovo, 2000. – 624 с.
4. Wolfram, D. Dialect Diversity and ESOL / W. Wolfram [Electronic
resource]. – Mode of access: http://www.tapestry.usf.edu/Wolfram/outline.htm/.
– Date of access: 06.10.2011.