Grade12 Year Notes by E.C Mabuza 1
Grade12 Year Notes by E.C Mabuza 1
Grade12 Year Notes by E.C Mabuza 1
JANUARY 1, 2020
Table of Content
Content Page
1. Animal nutrition 02- 35
2. Note taking 35-36
3. Animal production 37-47
4. Note taking 47-48
5. Animal reproduction 49-78
6. Note taking 78-70
7. Animal disease and protection and plant poisoning 80-108
8. Note taking 108-109
9. Basic Genetics 110- 132
1O. Note taking 132- 133
11.Production factors 134- 153
12.Note taking 153-154
13.Agricultural marketing 155- 181
14.Agricultural entrepreneurship and business planning 182- 185
15.Note taking 186
Paper 1
ANIMAL NUTRITION Question 2
This refers to the foods consumed by animals and how it is digested to help
to keep the body of an animal healthy and warm
Different animals has different digestive system that suit their feeding
standard and requirements
In the stomach
Process taking place: chemical digestion (due to the presence of enzyme)
In the small intestine
Process taking place: absorption ( transport of nutrients into blood stream
: assimilation ( process when nutrients are taken up by cells)
: chemical digestion (due to presence of enzymes)
In the large intestine
Process taking place: microbial fermentation ( has micro-organism in has a hind-gut
(caecum)
In the Anus
Process taking place: egestion/ excretion (expelling of waste)
In the stomach
Has a pear shape
Has a pyloric sphincter that controls food leaving the stomach
In the small intestine
Divided into three parts:
Duodenum – secrets digestive enzyme
Jejunum- absorption of nutrients
- Presence of villi
Ileum- absorption of feeds
Structural adaptation of small intestine
Structure of a villi
B- Blood capillarity- absorbs nutrients (glucose , amino acid, vitamin and minerals)
C- Lacteal- absorbs fats
Absorption processes
A. Beak E. PROVENTRICULUS
B. Mouth F. VENTRICULUS
C. Oesophagus G. DUODENUM
D. Crop H. JEJUNUM
I. ILEUM K. CAECA
J. SMALL INTESTINE L. COLON
N. CLOACA
FUNCTIONING OF DIFFERENT PARTS OF ALIMENTARY CANAL OF A FOWL
BEAK – Collect food particles from the soil
CROP - Moistening, soaking, softening and storage
GIZZARD – Grinding of food
SMALL INTESTINE – Absorption of nutrients
E
A. RUMEN
B. DUODENUM
C. OMASUM
D. ABOMASUM
E. RETICULUM
1. Food moves from the oesophagus from the mouth by PERISTALSIS into the
rumen.
2. Food REGURGITATE from the reticulo-rumen back to the mouth for re-chewing
3. After re-chewing food is moved back through RETRO-PERISTALSIS into
Omasum and abomasum
Functioning of different parts of alimentary canal of ruminants
MOUTH – food is taken in
OESOPHAGUS – transport food to the stomach
STOMACH- temporally storage of food
- Divided into four compartments:
RUMEN
RETICULUM
OMASUM
ABOMASUM
SMALL INTESTINE – absorption of nutrients
LARGE INTESTINE – absorption of water from undigested feed
ANUS – expel waste material away from the body
O768538168 By E.C Mabuza evansneomshengu@gmail.com
14
No chemical digestion
IN THE OESOPHAGUS
Has a ring of muscle called CARDIAC SPHINCTER that controls food
entering the stomach
It has muscles that contract and relax to move food into the stomach
IN THE STOMACH
1. RUMEN
Is the largest stomach compartment of ruminant
Contain papillae that act as a heating rod (heat production)
Contain micro-organism (bacteria and protozoa)
POPULATION OF BACTERIA IN THE RUMEN
Cellulolytic bacteria: Digest cellulose
: Population increase with increase in cellulose intake
: Secrete enzyme CELLULASE
Amylolytic bacteria: Digest starch
: Population increase with increase in starch intake
: Secrete enzyme MALTASE
Proteolytic bacteria: Digest protein
: Population increases with increase in protein intake
Note: Rumen bacteria are very sensitive to feed changes, therefore frequent
and sudden changes in diet may disturb rumen functions
2. RETICULUM
It is known a honeycomb stomach or a hardware stomach
It is where foreign objects are stored
3. OMASUM
It is known as a leaf stomach
It has many folds that help in water absorption
It has many folds that help in grind of food
4. ABOMASUM
It known a TRUE STOMACH or milk stomach
It corresponds with the simple stomach of a pig and a Proventriculus of a fowl
Supplied with the following:
Digestive Glands: gastric gland
Digestive juice produced: gastric juice and hydrochloric acid
Digestive enzymes: renin and pepsin
Ph. medium: acidic
Process: chemical digestion / enzymatic digestion
Alimentary of young ruminant
2. Components of feeds
Animals require all the essential nutrients to balance their daily ration.
These nutrients become indispensable for life. All the major nutrients
includes; WATER, CARBOHYDRATES, PROTEIN, LIPIDS,
MINERALS AND VITAMIN.
These nutrients are needed for many purpose which includes:
1. WATER
FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES
3. PROTEIN
ORGANIC COMPOUND
PROTEIN SUPPLIMENT
Proteins can be supplemented by SOURCE OF NPN;
UREA- cheap source
BUIRET- expensive feed
4. FATS AND OIL (LIPIDS)
is an ORGANIC COMPOUND
Differences between FATS and OIL
FATS – Originates from animals
- Solid at room temperature
OIL – originate from plants
-liquid at room temperature
FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS
important organs (such as heart, liver, and lungs)
5. VITAMINS
EXAMPLES OF VITAMINS AND THE RESPECTIVE DEFICIENCY DISEASE
DEFICIENCY
Polyneuritis
Vitamin B2
Curled-toe paralysis
Vitamin B12 (it contain element cobalt)
Poor hatching of chicken
Wasting disease
6. MINERALS
e divided into:
MARCRO MINERAL – are minerals that are needed in large quantities
MICRO MINERAL - are minerals that are needed in small quantities
when they insufficient
Mineral Deficiency
Keratinization (hairlessness)
Swayback
Wasting disease
3. DIGESTIBILITY OF FEEDS
DIGESTIBILITY -Amount of feed that is not excreted in faeces but restored in the
animal’s body
DIGESTIBILITY COEFFECIENT- proportion of a nutrient taken absorbed by
animal expressed in percentage
DIGESTIBILITY COEFFECIENT
Let’s assume that 70kg of feed was taken in and only 30kg was excreted, one must
assume that 40kg was digested and absorbed in the body of animal.
(70kg – 30kg = 40kg) This means that 40kg of the 70kg is absorbed by the animal
Example: calculate the digestibility coefficient of the following ration of a
matured animal
Animal ingested 25kg of grass with the moisture content of 75%. 8kg of feed was
excreted in faeces with a moisture content of 80%
75
𝐦𝐨𝐢𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐤𝐞: × 25Kg
100
=18,75kg
Therefore: 25kg – 18.75kg
=6.25kg (dry matter intake)
80
Moisture excreted: × 8𝑘𝑔
100
=6.4kg
∴ 8kg – 6.4kg
=1.6kg (dry matter excreted)
DIGESTIBILITY COEEFFECIENT % =DM intake (kg) – DM excreted (kg) x100
DM intake (kg)
= 6.25kg ˗˗ 1.6kg x100
6. 25kg
= 74.4%
4. QUALITY OF FEED
Different feeds has various physical chemical characteristics that determine its
quality
BIOLOGICAL VALUE (BV) OF PROTEIN
Is the index used to measure the quality of protein in a feed
It is determined by;
Amino acid composition
Ratio of amino acid
Amount of nitrogen supplied
Note: FEED WITH HIGH AMINO ACID CONTENT IS A GOOD QUALITY
FEED AND HAS HIGH BIOLOGICAL VALUE
TYPE OF FEED BV %
1OO
95
90
75
60
6. NUTRITIVE RATIO
Is the measure of protein content in a feed
EXAMPLE OF NUTRITIVE RATIO
A feed has 75% TDN (TOTAL DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS) AND 25% DP
(DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN). Calculate the nutritive ratio of this feed.
NR=1: TDN – DP
DP
=1: 75% ˗ 25%
25%
= 1: 50
25
= 1:2 (narrow)
Meaning for every 1 part of digestible protein there’s 2 parts of other
nutrients
and maintenance
7. TYPES OF FEEDS
CONCENTRATE – feed with small volume per unit mass (not bulky)
ROUGHAGE – feed with large volume per unit mass (bulky)
CONCENTRATES
Animal origin
ROUGHAGE
Protein-rich Silage
Carbohydrates-rich
8. SUPPLIMENTING RATION
This is additional feed given to animal to stimulate growth and production
SUPPLIMENTING RATIONS
9. GROWTH STIMULANTS
This are substances that are used to influence growth rate
TYPE OF GROWTH STIMULANTS
TRANQUILISER/ SEDATIVE – Keep animal calm and eat more feed
HORMONES – growth hormone in pellets are planted under the skin of animal to
stimulate growth
=81.25%
6
% of soya meal= × 100
32
=18.75%
NOTES
QUESTION 3
PAPER 1
ANIMAL PRODUCTION
To increase production of animal farmers should plan on which
production system to be used according to the aim and economic
standard of an individual farmer
2. FARMING SYSTEMS
Wetting by rain
A= HANDLERS POSITION
Handler should be outside the edge of flight zone.
In this position the handler is not a threat to the animal
Handler initiate movement
B= FLIGHT ZONE
The distance the animal keep between themselves and threat to danger
C= BLIND SPOT
Area in which animal will kick when approached
D= BALANCE POINT
PIGS
ANIMAL HANDLING
It is when you touch, hold or move animal one place to another
USE OF HALTER
restrain animal by its head usually when milking
USE OF CRUSH
restrain large animals
DESIGN FEATURES OF A CRUSH
High and strong solid sides
Wide and straight to provide clear path
No sharp pointing objects
USES OF RAMP
To load and unload animals
DESIGN FEATURE OF A LOADING RAMP
Should not be slippery
Should not be too steep
-
USE OF RED FLAG
used when animals are crossing busy roads
HISTLE
WHNE HANDLING A PIG
PLYWOOD BOARD
PLASTIC SHAKERS
BOX
CRUSH
GUIDELINE WHEN HANDLING FARM ANIMALS
animal
You are now ready to tackle your question 3 of your paper one. But only one
topic pending (animal disease and animal pests) to complete your entire
question 3 of paper 1
Notes
ANIMAL REPRODUCTION
For farm animal to thrive, they must be able to reproduce
Proper functioning of male and female reproductive system is the key to
successful production of offspring
SEMINAL VESICLE
Is the largest sex gland
Secretes sticky fluid that that provide energy for sperm
PROSTATE GLAND
Forms a ring around the urethra
Secrete a milky, alkaline fluid that regulates ph.
COWPER’S GLAND
Secrete fluid that lubricate and clean the urethra
Process: Ejaculation
Process: Copulation
SPERMATOGENESIS
Is the process that involve the formation sperm
PROCESS OF SPERMATOGENESIS
1. SPERMATOGONIUM (the undifferentiated male germinal epithelial cell)
found in the wall of the seminiferous tubule divides by MITOSIS to form a
primary spermatocytes that are diploid (2n)
2. PRIMARY SPERMATOCYTE divides by MEIOSIS 1 to form secondary
spermatocytes
3. SECONDARY SPERMATOCYTE divides by MEIOSIS 2 to form haploid
spermatid
4. SPERMATID undergo differentiation (change) and develop into a MATURE
SPERM
- contain enzyme that digest the outer membrane the egg during
fertilization
- contain genetic material
- help with cell division
–supply energy
– enable sperm to move (propels the sperm forward)
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SPERM CELL AND SEMEN
- is a male gamete
- is a fluid containing sperm
STERILITY
Is a permanent inability to reproduce
Is a total loss of fertility
Caused by congenital defect (defects that are present from birth)
INFERTILITY
Temporal inability to reproduce
Fertility is not totally lost
It can be corrected and reclaim the animal’s ability to reproduce
Process: Implantation
Process: Copulation
INFERTILITY
2. 0ESTRUS
Is the stage in the oestrus cycle where female is receptive to male and allow
mating
- 18 hours (18 hours is the average length)
4. DI-OESTRUS
-16 days
STAGLANDIN INJECTION
5. MATING
Mating is divided into: natural mating and artificial mating
NATURAL MATING
Stages of natural mating
ARTIFICIAL MATING
Divided into:
Artificial insemination
Embryo transfer
Cloning
ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION (AI)
Is a technique where semen is collected from a male animal and deposited into
the uterus of a female animal for fertilization?
COLLECTION OF SEMEN
Method of collection includes
, 9)
(with a microscope)
Characteristics of semen seen under a microscope;
cell)
TIMING OF INSEMINATION
ADVANTAGES OF AI
DISADVANYAGES OF AI
g
EMBRYO TRANSFER
Is the transfer of fertilized egg (embryo) from the DONOR to the RECIEPIENT
The DONOR has superior characteristics
The RECIEPIENT has genetically inferior characteristics
calf
CLONNING
Is the breeding of animal to produce offspring that is genetically identical to the
original organism
STEPS OF THE CLONNING PROCESS
e cloned
(donor)
TYPES OF CLONNING
PEUTIC CLONNING
Used in production of organs, cells and tissues
It aim on finding cure for disease (intention is not to create an offspring) through
the use of stem cells
AIMS OF CLONNING
6. FERTILISATION
Is the fusion of sperm (male gamete) and egg cell (female gamete) to form a
zygote
Identical twins
They of same sex
Develop from fertilization of single egg
They share same placenta
Non-identical twins
They are of opposite or same sex
Develop from fertilization of two separate eggs
They share different placenta
Infertile or sterile female calf that develop in the uterus with the normal male
calf
Male hormone of the developing bull calf affects the female calf.
7. PREGNANCY/ GESTATION
Is the period between fertilization and birth (it starts when the egg is fertilized
until the animal give birth
DURATION: 280 days
STAGES OF PREGNANCY
AMNION
Is the inner membrane
It encloses amniotic fluid
Embryo is connected to the amnion by umbilical cord
ALLANTOIS
It grows out of the urinary system
It collects urine from the unborn calf
attach the embryo to the wall of uterus
It brings blood of the mother and the embryo in close contact but there is no
mixing
It allows exchange of nutrients, gases, and elimination of waste material
In the early embryonic development cells migrate to the interior of the
embryo, forming the three primordial germ layers:
Ectoderm
Is the outer layer
It gives rise to the nervous system and the epidermal skin cells
Mesoderm
Is the middle layer
It gives rise to the skeletal muscles, bone cartilage, joints and urogenital organ
Endoderm
Is the inner layer
It gives rise to the digestive system and other internal organs
8. ABORTION
Is the termination of pregnancy before normal parturition
CAUSES OF ABORTION
9. PARTURITION (BIRTH)
Is the normal separation of offspring from the body of the mother
STAGES OF PARTURITION
PREPARATORY STAGE
ition
EJECTION STAGE
EXPLUSION OF PLACENTA
Note: With after birth we mean the umbilical cord and foetal membranes.
: There are some case in which the placenta or after birth is retained in the body of the
female
10. DYSTOCIA
Is the difficulty of giving birth
Under normal circumstance the young animal is born head and forelegs first, with the head lying
on the forelegs
CAUSES OF DYSTOCIA
11. LACTATION
Is a milk production process
Duration: 305days after that the milk dries up
It pump deoxygenated blood from the udder to the heart and the lungs
VEIN
Supply the udder with oxygenated blood
MILKING STIMULI
The udder has nerves that respond to stimuli
Example of milk stimuli:
Oxytocin
COLOSTRUM
Is the first milk produced after calving (usually after 3 day)
It is yellower than normal milk
CHARACTERISITIC OF COLOSTRUM
Contain extra nutrients
Protein
Fats
Lactose
Calcium
Phosphorus
When milk production INCREASE the animal eats a LOT but body mass
DECREASES.
When milk production DECREASE animal eat LESS and body mass INCREASES
DRYING-OFF PERIOD
Is the natural end of lactation
Notes
TOPIC 5
1. ANIMAL HEALTH
HEAD GATES
Drug for retained placenta or vaginal infection is inserted into the vagina
2. ANIMAL DISEASE
Most animal disease are caused by small organism called PATHOGEN (Bacteria,
virus, fungi and protozoa)
Different pathogen cause different animal diseases
VIRUS
This pathogen causes viral disease
highly contagious and zoonotic
-curable
Note:
CONTAGEOUS DISEASE- disease that spread through contact
ZOONOTIC DISEASE- disease that can spread from animals to human and vice
versa
EPIDERMIC DISEASE- disease that affect large number of animals
NOTIFIABLE DISEASE- disease that need to be reported after seeing symptoms
(RVF)
Animal affected: ALL FARM ANIMALS
Symptoms: HIGH FEVER
: ARBOTION
Mode of transmission: BITE FROM AN INSECT (MOSQUITO)
: HANDLING AFFECTED ANIMAL
MEAT OR BLOOD
Treatment: VACCINATION
: SLAUGHTER AND BURN INFECTED ANIMALS
BACTERIA
This pathogen causes bacterial disease
Many bacteria are harmless (not deadly)
Bacterial disease can be cured with ANTIBIOTICS
Most bacterial disease are contagious
PROTOZOA
They cause protozoan disease
-curable
in grassy areas
FUNGI
They cause fungal disease
Most fungal disease are CHRONIC
des
Parasites are organism that spend most of its life in the body of another
organism
5 4
O768538168 By E.C Mabuza evansneomshengu@gmail.com
91
1. ADULT FLUKE in the liver of primary host (horse) laid eggs in the liver
2. EGGS are released in faeces
3. Eggs hatch into a LARVAE (maracidium) in the grass
4. Larvae swim to enter INTERMEDIATE HOST (snail)
5. Larvae leave the snail and form a CYSTS on the grass (resting stage)
6. Cysts on the grass is eaten by the animal and grow into a FLUKE (and
affect the liver)
TAPEWORM
A long narrow and flat organism with many segments
ROUNDWORM
Is a small white thread-like organism
a country
LICE
NASAL WORM
MOSQUITO
TICKS
Ticks causes protozoan disease
TYPES OF TICKS
Ticks are divided into THREE according to number of host in their life cycle
To control the effect of ticks as parasites farmers need to know about the life
cycle and habits of ticks
(i) BLUE-TICK
has a single host in its life cycle
Disease caused : red water and Anaplasmosis
(iii) BONT-TICK
Has three host in its life cycle
Disease caused: Heart water and Congo fever
MITE
MITES CAN SPREAD FROM ANIMAL TO ANIMAL.
THEY LIVE PERMEMANTLY IN THE BODY OF HOST
LICE
They are big enough to be seen with naked eyes
They can be transmitted from one animal to another
TYPES OF LICE
SUCKING LICE – have pointed heads and piercing style of sucking
BITTING LICE – have rounded heads and chewing mouth parts
BLOWFLY
NASAL WORM
f the veld
-fungi
4.PLANT POISONING
Wide range of plants can be poisonous to livestock.
Farmers should be aware of plants that poses threat to their livestock and
take measures to prevent animals from grazing poisonous plants
Plant poison is not very common , it occur when the pasture is overgrazed
and only poisonous plants remains
There are THREE main important poisonous plants ;
MAIZE FUNGUS
THORNE APPLE
POISON BULB
POISON BULB
This type of poison is mainly caused by bulbs such as a ONE-
LEAF CAPE TULIP
About a kilogram of leaf is enough to cause death overnight
THORN APPLE
Is a bushy plant with flowers covered with sharp spines nearly all summer
Thorn apple does not pose much threat since most animals cannot graze it
due to: BAD SMELL.BAD TASTE and THORNS
ncreased thirst
ncreased urination and defecation
omiting
QUARANTINE SERVICE
To isolate animals and prevent the spread of disease in the country
CONTROL MEASURES
IMPORT BANS
MOVEMENT PERMITS
VETERINARY SERVICE
Improving vaccines
AWARENESS CAMPAIGN
VACCINATION PROGRAMME
Notes
1. GENETIC TERMINOLOGY
- study of heredity
HEREDITY – passing of characteristics from parents to offspring
CHROMOSOME – structure that holds genes
GENE- small portion of DNA that code for characteristics
QUANTITATIVE CHARACTERISTICS - characteristics that give rise
to whole range of phenotypes. It is influenced by many genes (polygenic
inheritance)
Environment has an influence in determining this characteristics
They determine continuous variation
e.g. PRODUCTION (of eggs or milk) Colour coat
QUALITATIVE CHARACTERISTICS- characteristics that have fixed
form of phenotypes. It is influenced by one pair of genes.
Environment has no influence in determining the characteristics.
They determine discontinuous variation
e.g. Gender, Horns shape and chicken head comb
ALLELE- different forms of genes (expressed using alphabet)
e.g T= Tall and t=Short
DOMINANT- allele that mask characteristics of recessive allele
e.g TT= Tall and Tt= Tall
RECESSIVE- allele that is masked by the presence of a dominant allele.
It only appear in phenotype if the organism is homozygous
e.g tt= short
HOMOZYGOUS / PURE BRED- combination of similar allele
e.g tt and TT
MENDEL’S LAWS
Genetics laws can be summarised as follows:
(i) LAW OF DOMINANCE
On the set of characteristic one gene is dominant and the other is recessive. The
phenotype of the organism will display the characteristics of the dominant gene
(ii) LAW OF SEGREGATION
When gametes are formed during meiosis allele separates so that offspring can get
one gamete from each parent
(iii) LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT
In a DIHYBRID crosses, during gamete formation allele segregate independently
of each other.
GENETIC CROSSES
Mendel’s genetic crosses are divided into:
(i) MONOHYBRID CROSSING “mono” means one
Is a genetic cross that involve one contrasting characteristic
Meiosis:
fertlisation:
Genotype:
Phenotype: all black / 100% black
Meiosis: A, A, B, B X a, a, b, b
Fertilization:
Phenotype: 9 purple & tall : 3 purple and short: 3 white and tall: 1 white and short
PATTERN OF INHERITANCE
COMPLETE DOMINANCE
It apply mainly on a heterozygous combination where only the effect of dominant
allele is shown in the phenotype of offspring
Meiosis:
Gamates
fertilisation
f1
Genotype
Phenotype: all 100% red
CO-DOMINANCE
Both alleles in a gene pair are equally dominant
Both allele are equally shown in phenotype of offspring
Offspring become roan
Example of co-dominance
A homozygous white cow (W) is crossed with a homozygous red bull (R) to
produce red and white calves
WW RR
RW
INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE
Alleles are not always dominant or recessive as in a complete dominance
It results in the formation of offspring with a phenotype that is in between that of
the parents.
Offspring are different from parents.
Example of incomplete dominance
A homozygous red flower (R) is crossed with a homozygous white flower (W)
and produced an offspring with a phenotype that is in between that of parents
Phenotype: red flower x white flower
Genotype: RR X WW
MEIOSIS (R) (F) X (W) (W)
Fertilization
F1
Genotype: RW RW RW RW
Phenotype: all pink
Is the reappearance of ancestral characteristics after it has been absent for many
generation (Teeth in chicken or extra toes in horse). It is also known as
“throwback”
Is the ability of one parent to pass a complete set of gene to its offspring?
Dominant genes from the male are passed to offspring
INHERITANCE
Mechanism of inheritance in which genetic characteristics is controlled by many
genes.
Each gene add to value of a certain phenotype
Each gene may have an additive allele or non-additive allele
An additive allele adds a set of amount to the phenotype while a non-additive
allele does not add anything to the phenotype
VARIATION
Is the difference amongst organism of same species
All individual of same species differ slightly from each other with
characteristics such as; HEIGHT , WEIGHT and COAT COLOUR
IMPORTANCE OF VARIATION
k)
TYPES OF VARIATION
(i) Continuous variation
Is a variation in which there is a complete range of form
It is determined by quantitative characteristics (determined by many genes)
e.g. Height, Milk production, weight gain, yield of field crops
(ii) Discontinuous variation
Is a variation in which characteristics has fixed form with no intermediate form in
between
It is determined by qualitative characteristic
e.g. There are four types of chicken head comb (there are no other type comb and
chicken cannot have a mixed comb-type) and Gender
CAUSES OF VARIATION
Variation is caused by two factors “ internal factors and external factors”
(i) INTERNAL FACTOR (genetic factors)
Meiosis
Fertilisation
Mutation
(ii) EXTERNAL FACTOR ( environmental factor)
Climate
Animals kept in colder region have thicker hair than those in warmer
region
Topography
Goats kept on steeper slope have longer and strong legs than goats
kept on flat slope
Nutrition
Animals are shorter than other animals with same gene for tallness
due to nutrient deficiency
Disease
Animals that are constantly exposed to disease develop immunity
from the disease while some does not develop immunity
Light intensity
Animals on higher altitude have darker pigment than those on lower
altitude
MUTATION
Is the sudden change in the structure of gene
Mutation can be harmful or beneficial
An organism affected by mutation is a MUTANT
TYPES OF MUTATION
(i) GENE MUTATION – sudden change in nucleotide sequence of the
DNA
:
Deletion- one or more nitrogen bases are removed from the gene sequence
Insertion – one or more nitrogen base is added into the gene sequence
Substitution – one nitrogen base is replaced with another nitrogen base
Inversion- the order of one or more nitrogen bases is reversed
IMPORTANCE OF MUTATION
CAUSES OF MUTATION
Substitution
SELECTION
Is the process of choosing individuals with desired characteristics for
breeding purpose
IMPORTANCE OF SELECTION
It help to improve the characteristics livestock and crops over few
generation
PRINCIPLES OF SELECTION
HERITABILITY
Is the degree in which a characteristic is determined by genetic factor than
environmental factors.
INTERPRETING HERITABILITY
Characteristic with heritability above 50% (0.5) i.e. 𝟓𝟎/𝟏𝟎𝟎=𝟎.𝟓
IT IS DETERMINED BY GENETIC FACTORS
THERE IS HIGH CHANCES THAT CHARACTERISTICS WILL
BE PASSED ON TO OFFSPRING DURING BREEDING
Characteristic with heritability less than 50% (0.5) i.e 60/100= 0.6
IS DETERMINED BY ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
THERE IS LESS CHANCE THAT CHARACTERISTICS ARE PASSED
ON TO OFFSPRING DURING BREEDING
BIOMETRIC
Is the use of statistics to analyze biological data
Measure unique characteristics using a computer technology
IMPORTANCE OF BIOMETRIC
It improve accuracy of selecting individual for breeding programme
METHOD OF SELECTION
Example: a horse farmer wants to calculate EBV for weight of a breed she
bought at an agricultural show. The farmer’s farm records gave the
following information:
Weaning weight of horse = 350 kg
Average weaning weight of all the horse in the farm = 310 kg
Heritability %: 60
Formula:
EBV= (WEANING WEIGHT – AVERAGE WEANING WEIGHT) X HERITABILITY %
Calculation:
EBV= (WW - AWW) X 60/100
= (350 - 310) X 60/100
= 40 X 0.6
= +24
∴310 + 24 = 334 KG
IMPORTANCE OF EBV
BREEDING
Is the production of offspring by sexual reproduction
Example of inbreeding
Mating of parents with their offspring (backcrossing)
Mating of siblings with each other (brother and sister)
2. Line breeding
Breeding of two individuals that are less closely-related to each other
homozygocity of offspring
Inbreeding depression
Gradual decrease in performance from generation to generation
ly adapted to the environment
ncreased variation
re not uniform
2. SPECIES CROSSING
Mating of two animals of different species results in the offspring being
sterile
ve digestive programme
3. UPGRADING
Is the repeated mating of inferior cow with a superior male animal
generation after generation
e.g. Crossing a COMMERCIAL MIXED-BREED COW with a
HOSLTEN STUD BULL generation after generation
DISADVANTAGES OF UPGRADING
-bred
-breed bulls should be bought outside
4. OUT CROSSING
Is the mating of two breeds that are not related
ADVANTAGES OF OUTCROSSING
AGROBACTERIUM TUMEFECIENS
A bacterium called tumefeciens transfer a piece of its DNA into the plant cell
This bacterium is used as a vector to transfer desired genes into the plant cell
Gmo produced tissue culture Plasmit its gene in the plasmid inserted
4 3 2 1 Desired
gene
Cells are placed in a solution containing desired gene. An electric current is passed
through the solution and opens the pores in the cell membrane allowing desired
genes to enter the cell.
It involves using fats as carriers of desired genes through the cell membrane into
the nucleus
Health benefit
ntal condition
Seeds from GM crops cannot be replanted , which means farmers have to buy
seeds every year
High seed cost
Reduce biodiversity
Insect resistant plant can kill beneficial insects
Production of super weed
Excess use of herbicides may damage the soil
Social risk
Developing countries will depend on developed countries for seeds
Some people think it is unethical using GMO
Notes
QUESTION 3
FACTORS
There are four production factors in agriculture. Namely LAND, LABOUR,
CAPITAL and MANAGEMENT
1. LAND/SOIL
This production factor is involved in the production of goods and services
It includes all the natural resources available to the farmer
2. LABOUR
Is the combination physical and mental endeavor (skill) performed in expectation
of remuneration (salary)
It is one of the major cost items in agricultural industry and has a significant
impact in the success of a farming operation.
TYPES OF LABOUR
PERMANENT LABOUR
48 hours a week)
People are illegally and forcibly removed from farms where they have living
It is illegal to employ a child under 15 years of age, and child must be given task
that are suited for a person of that age
FAILURE OF EMPLOYER TO ADHERE TO LEGISLATION
It is considered illegal for an employer not to adhere to legislation such as the
Basic Conditions Of Employment Act
LABOUR LEGISLATION
It is placed to protect employees and employers as both parties will know what
their rights and responsibilities are. It prevents unfair labour practices on farms.
LABOUR CONTRACT
Is the legal written agreement between the employer and the employee.
responsibility leave
s for termination (valid and fair reason for termination)
3. CAPITAL
This money or equipment that are used in production process
all the goods and assets such as building, equipment and
vehicles that are used in production process.
Asset – item of economic value that you own
TYPES OF CAPITAL
Fixed capital
Capital invested on fixed assets
e.g. building, land borehole and dam
Capital invested on short-term assets and used to pay short term operational
expenses
e.g. feed, fertilizers, chemicals, seeds ,fuel, wages &
telephone bill
TYPES OF ASSETS
GENERATION/CREATION OF CAPITAL
SOURCE OF FINANCE
CREDIT
TYPES OF CREDITS
-term credit
Credit given and repaid over long period
Used to expand fixed assets (such as building, land and dam and borehole)
Repayment period: over 10 years
Medium-term credit
Credit given and repaid over medium term period
Used to improve movable assets (such as machine and equipment)
Repayment period:1-5 years
Short-term credit
Credit given and repaid over short period of time
Used to cover operational expenses (current assets) e.g. wages, seeds, fuel
and fertilisers
Repayment period: less than 1 year
ATEMENT
Opening balance
Income
Expenditure
Profit /loss
Closing balance
Cash items
BUDGET- is the written document that shows the estimation how much you
think you will spend and earn over a period of time
TYPES OF BUDGETS
MANAGEMENT
-ordination of human, physical and financial resources
to achieve a certain goal
Able to interact effectively with different people (negotiate deals and contracts)
Able to make other people understand you and be able to understand what others
are trying to say to you
Manager must have a thorough knowledge of the farm operation. They should
know the requirements of the enterprise.
For an example: In beef enterprise;
The manager must have adequate knowledge of veld management to know how
many animals should graze in a certain camp, and when to move them to a new
camp
Manager must identify potential risk and come up with a strategy to reduce, control
and eliminate the risk.
More competition
Production fails
LEGAL RISK
When the manger is taken to court for having ignored some regulatory standard
that lead to an injury or death.
HUMAN or PEOPLES RISK
It takes place when the skill is lost due to death, disability, divorce, illness etc.
INSURANCE
It is good to insure the property, machinery against things like storms, hail damage,
injury of the visitor etc.
RISK SHARING
Allow farmer to share risk with other parties
DIVERSIFICATION
Having number of different enterprise on the farm
Example of diversification;
Planting of different crops (i.e. mixed farming)
A farmer can spread his/her investment over several enterprises (pig farming,
poultry farming cattle farming etc.)
Geographical diversification (have different land types wherein there are different
soil types and different climatic conditions)
PROCESSING or VALUE ADDING
Changing raw form of gods into a form that can easily be used by customers
Example of processing;
Processing milk into cheese, yogurt and chocolate
SPECIALISATION
Specialising with one enterprise that is product suited
HEDGING
Entering in future contract with supermarkets
EXTERNAL FORCES
These are forces that the employer cannot have control over
For an example;
Notes
PAPER 2
QUESTION 2
AGRICULTURAL MARKETING
MARKETING
Is the process involving the movement of a product from the farm to the consumer
It can also be a place whew buyers and sellers meet
MARKETING FUNCTIONS
ivery
2. STORAGE
It includes holding raw products until they needed.
Food is kept for later use to guarantee food security
ADVANTAGES OF STORAGE
3. PACKAGING
The science of enclosing products for distribution and distribution
ADVANTAGES OF PACKAGING
product handling easier
FACILITATING FUNCTION
It does not involve direct handling of the product
It includes:
(i) Standardization
It is about setting standards or specification for a product
(ii) Grading
Is the process of sorting agricultural products according to set
standards
MARKETING POLICY INSTRUMENT (4ps)
1. PRODUCT DESIGN
Producer needs to be aware of what the consumer wants
2. PRICE
Producer determines how much the consumer will pay for the product
3. PLACEMENT
Producer should know where the consumer wants to buy product
4. PROMOTION
Producer needs to communicate information about the produce
Amount of goods that the consumer are willing to buy at a given price
1. DEMAND
LAW OF DEMAND
Shows a negative relationship between price and quantity demanded:
HIGHER the price the LOWER the demand
Meaning: If the price of a product increases less customers will buy the product
: If the product is cheap customers will buy more of the product
DEMAND SCHEDULE
Is the table that shows relationship between price of goods and quantity demanded
Price (R/Box) Quantity
(Box/week)
2800 10
2100 15
1600 30
800 35
600 40
DEMAND CURVE
Is the graph showing the relationship between price of goods and quantity
demanded
2. SUPPLY
LAW OF SUPPLY
Shows a positive relationship between price and quantity supplied
higher the price the higher the supply
Meaning: If the price of a product increases the producer will supply more
products (taking advantage of the price to affect profit)
When the price of a product increases the producer supply more products to gain
more money from the products
SUPPLY SCHEDULE
owing the relationship between price and quantity supply of product
Price Quantity
(R/box) (box/week)
200 10
400 15
800 20
1000 25
1400 30
SUPPLY CURVE
Is the graph showing the relationship between price and quantity supplied
roduction costs
PRICE ELASTICITY
Is the relationship between the change in price and demand and supply
MARKET EQUILIBRIUM
Is the point where demand and supply is equal
FLOOR PRICE
Is a situation where price charged for a product is higher than equilibrium price.
It is imposed by the government to prevent prices from falling below certain levels
CEILING PRICE
Is a situation where price charged is below the equilibrium price.
It is imposed by the government to prevent prices from rising above certain levels
and this lead to shortage of product
EQUILIBRIUM
Shortage (deficit)
When price of a product is below the equilibrium price the following occur;
1. Demand of the product increase
2. Supply of the product decrease
Demand exceeds the supply this results in more product demanded and less
is supplied
SHIFT SUPPLY
Is one factor that influence changes of supply (other than price). The equilibrium
price change if the supply for a product change
Example of shift supply
As summer arrives the fruits such as mangoes come to season (increased supply).
The market will set a new equilibrium price that is lower than the old
equilibrium price. Meaning the sellers will shift their prices down.
MARKET DEVELOPMENT
Is a strategic step taken by producer to develop existing market rather than looking
for new market
DEVELOPING A MARKET YOU MUST;
1. Conduct market research
Study the market you would like to sell your product to
Market research includes:
Collecting information about customers
Collecting information competition
2. Developing marketing strategy
It includes conducting the 4ps:
(i) PRODUCT (what product to make and sell)
(iv) Promotion(how are you going to convince people to buy your product)
MARKETING APPROACH
It allows you to select few segments and develop a marketing strategy that fit
well.
This is typically done by offering different levels of quality to different levels of
income.
Example multi-segment
Offering Class 1 fruits to consumers with high income and Class 3 fruit to
consumers with low income.
SUSTAINABLE MARKETING
Involves the application of an environmental friendly marketing approach
MARKETING SYSTEM
Is the mechanism through which goods reach different places
Marketing systems are divided into: Free marketing, co-oparative marketing &
controlled markrting
TYPES OF MARKETING SYSTEM
1. FREE-MARKETING
System where goods and services are exchanged freely without restriction and
control
t is usually cash
-scale)
2. AGRICULTURAL COOPARATIVES
Is the marketing system where two or more independent farms or group of people
work together to meet their common needs
ADVANTAGES OF COOPARATIVES
There is consistent supply (work together to supply large volumes)
Middleman is eliminated
Better infrastructure (get facilities that and individual farmer cannot afford)
Bargain power (greater chance of negotiating good price their product)
k purchasing (able to negotiate good price for their inputs)
(government make funding available for cooperative)
Branding (can develop a brand for their product)
TYPES OF COOPARATIVES
PRODUCTION COOPARATIVE-produce collectively
SERVICE COOPARATIVE-provide service to members
MARKETING COOPERATIVE-negotiate with markets on behalf of members
PURCHASING COOPERATIVE-purchase inputs on behalf of members
CONSUMER COOPRATIVE-buy products in bulk and sell to their members at
a discount
3. CONTROLLED MARKETING
Is the marketing system in which buying and selling is manipulated or
controlled by the government (government may decide on the price of a
product)
ADVANTAGES OF CONTROLLED MARKETING
MARKETING LEGISLATION
Notes
Question 2
Paper 2
AGRICULTURAL ENTREPRENEUSHIP
AND BUSINESS PLANNING
PHASES OF ENTREPRENURSHIP
1. Identify an opportunity
2. Evaluate opportunity
BUSINESS PLAN
Is a document that describes how a business will operate. It also states the business
goals, the reasons they can be achieved and the plan for how to achieve them
idea
SWOT ANALYSIS
Is a strategic planning tool that helps you to evaluate your business
It is an acronym for: S- STRENGTH W- WEAKNESS O- OPPORTUNITY
T- THREATS
1. STRENGTH
For an example:
Good reputation
Skills and labour experience
Latest equipment or latest technology (out-dated machinery)
Good infrastructure
Good management skill
2. WEAKNESS
business
For an example:
Lack of latest equipment or latest technology (out-dated machinery)
poor location of the business
lack of skills
undercapitalisation
bad reputation
having large debts
poor management skill
3. OPPORTUNITY
External motivating factors that are needed for a farming business to be
successful
It help to improve performance of business
For an example:
Changes in tax laws
Market growth
New trends
Lifestyle changes
A competitor went bankrupt
4. THREATS
The external factors that can put your farming business at risk.
For an example:
Increased interest rates
Products become unfashionable
Increased competition
Notes