Topic one: Introduction to Data Communication & Computer Network

Data Communication overview

Data communications refers to the transmission of this digital data between two or more computers and a
computer network or data network is a telecommunications network that allows computers to exchange data.
The physical connection between networked computing devices is established using either cable media or
wireless media. The best-known computer network is the Internet.
This tutorial should teach you basics of Data Communication and Computer Network (DCN) and will also take
you through various advance concepts related to Data Communication and Computer Network.

Why to Learn Data Communication & Computer Network?

Network Basic Understanding

A system of interconnected computers and computerized peripherals such as printers is called computer
network. This interconnection among computers facilitates information sharing among them. Computers may
connect to each other by either wired or wireless media.
Network Engineering
Networking engineering is a complicated task, which involves software, firmware, chip level engineering,
hardware, and electric pulses. To ease network engineering, the whole networking concept is divided into
multiple layers. Each layer is involved in some particular task and is independent of all other layers. But as a
whole, almost all networking tasks depend on all of these layers. Layers share data between them and they
depend on each other only to take input and send output.
Internet
A network of networks is called an internetwork, or simply the internet. It is the largest network in existence on
this planet. The internet hugely connects all WANs and it can have connection to LANs and Home networks.
Internet uses TCP/IP protocol suite and uses IP as its addressing protocol. Present day, Internet is widely
implemented using IPv4. Because of shortage of address spaces, it is gradually migrating from IPv4 to IPv6.
Internet enables its users to share and access enormous amount of information worldwide. It uses WWW, FTP,
email services, audio and video streaming etc. At huge level, internet works on Client-Server model.
Internet uses very high speed backbone of fiber optics. To inter-connect various continents, fibers are laid
under sea known to us as submarine communication cable.

Applications of Communication & Computer Network

Computer systems and peripherals are connected to form a network. They provide numerous advantages:
 Resource sharing such as printers and storage devices
  Exchange of information by means of e-Mails and FTP
 Information sharing by using Web or Internet
 Interaction with other users using dynamic web pages
 IP phones
 Video conferences
 Parallel computing
 Instant messaging

Computer Network Overview

A system of interconnected computers and computerized peripherals such as printers is called computer
network. This interconnection among computers facilitates information sharing among them. Computers may
connect to each other by either wired or wireless media.

Classification of Computer Networks

Computer networks are classified based on various factors. They include:

 Geographical span
 Inter-connectivity
 Administration
 Architecture

Geographical Span

Geographically a network can be seen in one of the following categories:

 It may be spanned across your table, among Bluetooth enabled devices,. Ranging not more than few
meters.
 It may be spanned across a whole building, including intermediate devices to connect all floors.
 It may be spanned across a whole city.
 It may be spanned across multiple cities or provinces.
 It may be one network covering whole world.

Inter-Connectivity

Components of a network can be connected to each other differently in some fashion. By connectedness we
mean either logically, physically, or both ways.
 Every single device can be connected to every other device on network, making the network mesh.
 All devices can be connected to a single medium but geographically disconnected, created bus like
structure.
 Each device is connected to its left and right peers only, creating linear structure.
  All devices connected together with a single device, creating star like structure.
 All devices connected arbitrarily using all previous ways to connect each other, resulting in a hybrid
structure.

Administration

From an administrator’s point of view, a network can be private network which belongs a single autonomous
system and cannot be accessed outside its physical or logical domain.A network can be public which is
accessed by all.

Network Architecture

Computer networks can be discriminated into various types such as Client-Server,peer-to-peer or hybrid,
depending upon its architecture.
 There can be one or more systems acting as Server. Other being Client, requests the Server to serve
requests. Server takes and processes request on behalf of Clients.
 Two systems can be connected Point-to-Point, or in back-to-back fashion. They both reside at the same
level and called peers.
 There can be hybrid network which involves network architecture of both the above types.

Network Applications

Computer systems and peripherals are connected to form a network.They provide numerous advantages:
Resource sharing such as printers and storage devices
 Exchange of information by means of e-Mails and FTP
 Information sharing by using Web or Internet
 Interaction with other users using dynamic web pages
 IP phones
 Video conferences
 Parallel computing
 Instant messaging
Computer Network Types
Generally, networks are distinguished based on their geographical span. A network can be as small as distance
between your mobile phone and its Bluetooth headphone and as large as the internet itself, covering the whole
geographical world,

Personal Area Network

A Personal Area Network (PAN) is smallest network which is very personal to a user. This may include
Bluetooth enabled devices or infra-red enabled devices. PAN has connectivity range up to 10 meters. PAN may
include wireless computer keyboard and mouse, Bluetooth enabled headphones, wireless printers and TV
remotes.

For example, Piconet is Bluetooth-enabled Personal Area Network which may contain up to 8 devices
connected together in a master-slave fashion.

Local Area Network

A computer network spanned inside a building and operated under single administrative system is generally
termed as Local Area Network (LAN). Usually,LAN covers an organization’ offices, schools, colleges or
universities. Number of systems connected in LAN may vary from as least as two to as much as 16 million.
LAN provides a useful way of sharing the resources between end users.The resources such as printers, file
servers, scanners, and internet are easily sharable among computers.
LANs are composed of inexpensive networking and routing equipment. It may contains local servers serving
file storage and other locally shared applications. It mostly operates on private IP addresses and does not
involve heavy routing. LAN works under its own local domain and controlled centrally.
LAN uses either Ethernet or Token-ring technology. Ethernet is most widely employed LAN technology and
uses Star topology, while Token-ring is rarely seen.
LAN can be wired,wireless, or in both forms at once.

Metropolitan Area Network

The Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) generally expands throughout a city such as cable TV network. It can
be in the form of Ethernet,Token-ring, ATM, or Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI).
Metro Ethernet is a service which is provided by ISPs. This service enables its users to expand their Local Area
Networks. For example, MAN can help an organization to connect all of its offices in a city.
Backbone of MAN is high-capacity and high-speed fiber optics. MAN works in between Local Area Network
and Wide Area Network. MAN provides uplink for LANs to WANs or internet.

Wide Area Network

As the name suggests, the Wide Area Network (WAN) covers a wide area which may span across provinces
and even a whole country. Generally, telecommunication networks are Wide Area Network. These networks
provide connectivity to MANs and LANs. Since they are equipped with very high speed backbone, WANs use
very expensive network equipment.
WAN may use advanced technologies such as Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), Frame Relay, and
Synchronous Optical Network (SONET). WAN may be managed by multiple administrations.

Internetwork

A network of networks is called an internetwork, or simply the internet. It is the largest network in existence on
this planet.The internet hugely connects all WANs and it can have connection to LANs and Home networks.
Internet uses TCP/IP protocol suite and uses IP as its addressing protocol. Present day, Internet is widely
implemented using IPv4. Because of shortage of address spaces, it is gradually migrating from IPv4 to IPv6.
Internet enables its users to share and access enormous amount of information worldwide. It uses WWW, FTP,
email services, audio and video streaming etc. At huge level, internet works on Client-Server model.
Internet uses very high speed backbone of fiber optics. To inter-connect various continents, fibers are laid
under sea known to us as submarine communication cable.
Internet is widely deployed on World Wide Web services using HTML linked pages and is accessible by client
software known as Web Browsers. When a user requests a page using some web browser located on some Web
Server anywhere in the world, the Web Server responds with the proper HTML page. The communication
delay is very low.
Internet is serving many proposes and is involved in many aspects of life. Some of them are:
 Web sites
 E-mail
 Instant Messaging
 Blogging
 Social Media
 Marketing
 Networking
 Resource Sharing
 Audio and Video Streaming
Topic Two: - Network LAN Technologies
Local Area Network (LAN) technologies refer to the various communication technologies and protocols
that are used to establish and operate local networks within a limited geographic area, such as within a
single building, campus, or office. These technologies facilitate the efficient exchange of data and resources
among connected devices within the defined local area.

Ethernet

Ethernet is a widely used LAN (Local Area Network) technology that defines the standards for the physical and
data link layers of the OSI model. It was originally developed by Xerox, and later standardized by the Institute
of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). Ethernet has evolved over the years, with various speeds and
improvements introduced.

1) Topology: Ethernet supports both bus and star topologies. In a bus topology, devices are connected to a
single communication line, while in a star topology, devices are connected to a central switch or hub.
2) Access Method: Ethernet uses a contention-based access method known as CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense
Multiple Access with Collision Detection). Before transmitting data, a device listens to the network to
ensure it is clear. If multiple devices attempt to transmit simultaneously and a collision is detected, a
backoff mechanism is used to retry transmission after a random delay.
3) Frames: Data is transmitted in discrete units called frames. An Ethernet frame typically includes source
and destination MAC addresses, type/length field, data, and a Frame Check Sequence (FCS) for error
checking.
4) Speeds: Ethernet operates at various speeds, with the most common ones being 10 Mbps (Ethernet), 100
Mbps (Fast Ethernet), 1 Gbps (Gigabit Ethernet), 10 Gbps, 40 Gbps, and 100 Gbps. Each speed represents
the maximum data transfer rate.
5) Cabling: Different types of cables are used for Ethernet, including twisted pair cables (such as Cat5e, Cat6,
and Cat6a) and fiber optic cables. The choice of cable depends on factors like distance, data rate, and
environmental considerations.
6) Switching: Ethernet networks often use network switches, which operate at the data link layer (Layer 2).
Switches improve network efficiency by creating dedicated communication paths between devices,
reducing collisions compared to traditional hubs.
7) Standards: Ethernet standards are defined by the IEEE 802.3 working group. Common Ethernet standards
include 802.3u (Fast Ethernet), 802.3ab (Gigabit Ethernet over twisted pair), and 802.3z (Gigabit Ethernet
over fiber).
8) Power over Ethernet (PoE): Ethernet can also support Power over Ethernet, allowing devices like IP
cameras and VoIP phones to receive power and data over the same Ethernet cable.

Fast-Ethernet
Fast Ethernet is an evolution of traditional Ethernet technology, designed to provide higher data transfer rates.
It is standardized under the IEEE 802.3u specification and operates at a speed of 100 megabits per second
(Mbps), ten times faster than the original Ethernet standard.

Key features of Fast Ethernet LAN technology:

1) Speed: The primary feature of Fast Ethernet is its increased speed, delivering data at 100 Mbps. This
upgrade from the original 10 Mbps Ethernet was crucial for meeting the growing demands for higher
bandwidth in local area networks.
2) Backward Compatibility: Fast Ethernet is backward compatible with traditional Ethernet. This means that
Fast Ethernet devices can coexist with older Ethernet devices on the same network. However, the network
speed will be limited to the lowest common denominator if a mix of both types of devices is present.
3) Frame Format: The frame format used in Fast Ethernet is the same as in traditional Ethernet. It includes
fields for source and destination MAC addresses, type/length, data, and a Frame Check Sequence (FCS).
This compatibility ensures a smooth transition for existing Ethernet networks upgrading to Fast Ethernet.
4) Topology: Fast Ethernet supports various network topologies, including star and bus configurations. The
choice of topology depends on factors such as the network size, layout, and requirements.
5) Cabling: Fast Ethernet can operate over different types of cabling, including twisted pair and fiber optic
cables. Commonly used twisted pair cables include Category 5 (Cat5) and Category 5e (Cat5e). Fiber optic
cables can provide longer-distance connections and greater immunity to electromagnetic interference.
6) Switching: The introduction of Fast Ethernet coincided with the widespread adoption of network switches.
Switches operate at Layer 2 of the OSI model and enable full-duplex communication, improving network
efficiency by eliminating collisions. Fast Ethernet switches became a standard component in local
networks.
7) Migration to Gigabit Ethernet: As technology continued to advance, Fast Ethernet served as an
intermediate step before the widespread adoption of Gigabit Ethernet (1000 Mbps). Many networks initially
upgraded to Fast Ethernet before further transitioning to Gigabit Ethernet for even higher speeds.
8) Applications: Fast Ethernet found applications in a variety of settings, including office environments,
educational institutions, and small to medium-sized businesses. It provided a cost-effective solution for
enhancing network performance without requiring a complete overhaul of existing infrastructure.

Gigabit Ethernet LAN

Gigabit Ethernet is advancement over Fast Ethernet, providing even higher data transfer rates of 1000 megabits
per second (1 gigabit per second or 1 Gbps). Gigabit Ethernet maintains the same basic principles as traditional
Ethernet but operates at significantly faster speeds. Here are key aspects of Gigabit Ethernet LAN topology:

1) Speed: The primary feature of Gigabit Ethernet is its increased speed, offering data transfer rates of 1
Gbps. This speed enhancement is crucial for meeting the growing demands of modern networks, especially
in environments with high data transfer requirements.
2) Backward Compatibility: Gigabit Ethernet is backward compatible with both traditional Ethernet (10
Mbps) and Fast Ethernet (100 Mbps). This means that Gigabit Ethernet devices can coexist with older
Ethernet devices on the same network. However, network speed will be limited to the lowest common
denominator if a mix of different Ethernet speeds is present.
3) Cabling: Gigabit Ethernet can operate over various types of cabling, including twisted pair cables and fiber
optic cables. Commonly used twisted pair cables include Category 5e (Cat5e) and Category 6 (Cat6), while
fiber optic cables provide greater bandwidth and are suitable for longer-distance connections.
4) Switching: Gigabit Ethernet is often implemented in conjunction with network switches that operate at
Layer 2 (data link layer) or Layer 3 (network layer). Switches play a crucial role in optimizing network
performance by providing full-duplex communication and reducing collisions.
5) Topology: Gigabit Ethernet supports various network topologies, including star, bus, ring, and mesh
configurations. The choice of topology depends on factors such as the network size, layout, and specific
requirements of the organization.
6) Full-Duplex Communication: Gigabit Ethernet supports full-duplex communication, allowing devices to
transmit and receive data simultaneously. This eliminates the need for the CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense
Multiple Access with Collision Detection) protocol used in traditional Ethernet, further improving network
efficiency.
7) Applications: Gigabit Ethernet is widely used in scenarios where high-speed data transfer is essential, such
as data centers, enterprise networks, and multimedia streaming environments. It provides the necessary
bandwidth to support applications that demand rapid data exchange.
8) Migration from Fast Ethernet: Many networks initially upgraded from traditional Ethernet or Fast
Ethernet to Gigabit Ethernet as a part of their network infrastructure evolution. This allowed organizations
to take advantage of higher speeds without a complete overhaul of existing cabling and infrastructure.
9) Aggregation Links: Gigabit Ethernet is commonly used for aggregation links, where multiple Gigabit
Ethernet links are combined to form a higher-speed link. This is often seen in the backbone of large
networks where the aggregation of multiple Gigabit Ethernet connections is needed.
10) Data Center Networks: Gigabit Ethernet is a fundamental technology in data center networks, providing
the necessary bandwidth to support the high-speed communication requirements of servers, storage
systems, and other data center components.

Gigabit Ethernet has become a standard technology in modern LANs, providing the speed and capacity
required for today's data-intensive applications and services. It has paved the way for even higher-speed
Ethernet technologies, such as 10 Gigabit Ethernet and beyond, as networks continues to evolve.

Virtual LAN

A Virtual LAN (VLAN) is a logical grouping of network devices in a way that they behave as if they are on
their own independent network, regardless of their physical location. VLANs are often used to segment a larger
physical network into smaller, more manageable broadcast domains.

These VLAN topologies provide flexibility and scalability in network design, allowing administrators to
optimize network resources, enhance security, and streamline network management

Common VLAN topologies:

1) Port-Based VLANs: In port-based VLANs, devices are assigned to a VLAN based on the physical switch
port to which they are connected. This is a simple and common method of VLAN assignment.
2) 802.1Q Tagging: IEEE 802.1Q is a standard for VLAN tagging on Ethernet networks. It allows for the
insertion of a 4-byte VLAN tag into the Ethernet frame, indicating the VLAN to which the frame belongs.
This method enables the use of multiple VLANs on a single physical network.
3) Router-on-a-Stick: This topology involves using a router to route traffic between different VLANs. The
router is connected to the switch through a single link (the "stick"), and each VLAN is configured as a
subinterface on the router. The router performs inter-VLAN routing, allowing communication between
VLANs.
4) Layer 3 Switching: Layer 3 switches have the capability to perform routing at wire speed, allowing them
to route traffic between VLANs without the need for an external router. This provides faster inter-VLAN
communication.
5) VLAN Trunking: VLAN trunking involves the use of a trunk link between switches, carrying traffic for
multiple VLANs. This allows VLANs to span multiple switches, extending the VLAN configuration across
the network.
6) Voice and Data VLANs: In environments where both voice and data traffic exist, it's common to configure
separate VLANs for voice and data. This helps in prioritizing and managing the traffic appropriately,
ensuring quality of service for voice communications.
7) Private VLANs (PVLANs): PVLANs provide additional segmentation within a VLAN. Devices within a
PVLAN can communicate with each other, but communication is restricted between devices in different
PVLANs. This is useful in scenarios where additional isolation is required within a VLAN.
8) VLAN Hopping Mitigation: VLAN hopping is a security vulnerability that attackers could exploit to gain
unauthorized access to VLANs. Mitigation strategies include using VLAN access control lists (VACLs),
implementing proper switchport configurations, and disabling unused switchports.
9) VLAN Membership Policies: VLAN membership can be assigned based on various policies, such as
MAC address, protocol type, or subnet. This allows for more granular control over which devices belong to
specific VLANs.
10) Dynamic VLAN Assignment: Dynamic VLAN assignment involves dynamically assigning devices to
VLANs based on factors such as user credentials (802.1X authentication) or device characteristics. This is
common in enterprise environments where users move between different physical locations.
In this diagram, different VLANs are depicted in different color codes. Hosts in one VLAN, even if connected
on the same Switch cannot see or speak to other hosts in different VLANs. VLAN is Layer-2 technology which
works closely on Ethernet. To route packets between two different VLANs a Layer-3 device such as Router is
required.

Wi-Fi (Wireless LAN)

ChatGPT
Wi-Fi, short for Wireless Fidelity, refers to a set of wireless communication standards used for Local Area
Networks (LANs). Wi-Fi allows devices to connect to a network without the need for physical cables,
providing flexibility and convenience for users. Here are key aspects of Wi-Fi (Wireless LAN):
1) Standards: Wi-Fi standards are defined by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
802.11 working group. Common Wi-Fi standards include 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g, 802.11n, 802.11ac,
and 802.11ax (Wi-Fi 6). Each standard specifies different frequencies, data transfer rates, and modulation
techniques.
2) Frequency Bands: Wi-Fi operates in the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz frequency bands. The 2.4 GHz band is more
crowded but has better range, while the 5 GHz band offers higher data transfer rates but with a shorter
range. Dual-band routers support both frequency bands, providing greater flexibility.
3) Wireless Access Points (APs): Wi-Fi networks typically consist of one or more wireless access points
(APs). APs act as the communication hub for Wi-Fi-enabled devices, allowing them to connect to the wired
network infrastructure.
4) Security: Wi-Fi networks can be secured using encryption protocols such as WEP (Wired Equivalent
Privacy), WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access), and WPA2/WPA3. Security measures also include the use of
pre-shared keys (PSKs) or more advanced methods like 802.1X authentication.
5) SSID (Service Set Identifier): An SSID is a unique identifier for a Wi-Fi network. When a device searches
for available Wi-Fi networks, it identifies them by their SSIDs. SSIDs are used to distinguish between
different networks in the vicinity.
6) Modes: Wi-Fi devices can operate in different modes, such as Infrastructure mode (connecting to a
wireless router or access point) and Ad-Hoc mode (peer-to-peer communication between devices without a
central access point).
7) MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output): MIMO technology involves the use of multiple antennas for
both the transmitting and receiving devices. It enhances signal quality and data transfer rates by exploiting
spatial diversity.
8) Wireless Standards Evolution: Wi-Fi standards have evolved over time to meet increasing demands for
speed and capacity. The latest standards, such as 802.11ax (Wi-Fi 6), offer improved efficiency, better
performance in crowded environments, and increased data rates.
9) Roaming: Wi-Fi-enabled devices can roam seamlessly between different access points within the same
network. This is essential for maintaining a continuous connection as users move throughout a Wi-Fi-
covered area.
10) Hotspots: Wi-Fi hotspots are areas where Wi-Fi access is provided, often in public spaces such as cafes,
airports, and hotels. Users can connect to these hotspots to access the internet or other network resources.
11) Mesh Networks: Mesh Wi-Fi networks use multiple interconnected access points to extend coverage and
improve overall performance. This is particularly useful in larger spaces or areas with challenging signal
propagation.
Wi-Fi technology has become integral to modern connectivity, enabling wireless communication for a wide
range of devices, including smartphones, laptops, tablets, smart TVs, and IoT (Internet of Things) devices. It
has transformed the way people access information and communicate in both residential and business
environments.
Bluetooth LAN Technologies
Bluetooth is a wireless communication technology that facilitates short-range data exchange between devices.
While Bluetooth is not typically associated with Local Area Networks (LANs) in the traditional sense, it can be
considered a technology that enables personal area networking or PAN.
Bluetooth is a versatile technology that has found widespread adoption in consumer electronics and various IoT
applications, offering a convenient and efficient way for devices to communicate wirelessly over short
distances. Its continual evolution ensures that it remains relevant for a wide range of use cases in the ever-
expanding landscape of wireless connectivity
Key features of Bluetooth technology and its use in wireless communication:
1) Range: Bluetooth is designed for short-range communication, typically within a range of about 10 meters
(Bluetooth Classic) or up to 100 meters (Bluetooth Low Energy). This short-range nature makes it suitable
for personal area networking.
2) Frequency Band: Bluetooth operates in the 2.4 GHz ISM (Industrial, Scientific, and Medical) band, using
frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) to reduce interference from other wireless devices operating in
the same frequency range.
3) Bluetooth Classic vs. Bluetooth Low Energy (LE): Bluetooth Classic is the original version of Bluetooth,
designed for higher data transfer rates and more traditional use cases. Bluetooth Low Energy (LE),
introduced with Bluetooth 4.0, is optimized for lower power consumption, making it suitable for IoT
devices, wearables, and applications where extended battery life is critical.
4) Applications: Bluetooth is commonly used for wireless communication between devices such as
smartphones, tablets, laptops, headphones, speakers, printers, and various IoT devices. It facilitates the
transfer of files, audio streaming, and the connection of peripherals.
5) Piconet and Scatternet: In Bluetooth, a piconet is a network of devices connected wirelessly using
Bluetooth technology. A piconet consists of one master device and up to seven slave devices. Multiple
piconets can be interconnected to form a scatternet, enabling communication between devices in different
piconets.
6) Profiles: Bluetooth profiles define the communication capabilities and requirements for specific use cases.
Common profiles include Hands-Free Profile (HFP), Advanced Audio Distribution Profile (A2DP), and
Human Interface Device (HID) profile, among others.
7) Security: Bluetooth incorporates security features to protect data during transmission. Pairing processes,
encryption, and authentication mechanisms are used to establish secure connections between devices.
8) Bluetooth Mesh:Bluetooth Mesh is an extension of Bluetooth Low Energy that enables the creation of
large-scale, self-healing mesh networks. It is particularly suitable for applications in smart homes, industrial
IoT, and other scenarios requiring reliable and scalable connectivity.
9) Version Evolution: Bluetooth technology has undergone several version updates, with each version
introducing improvements in terms of speed, range, and features. Bluetooth 5.0 and later versions offer
enhanced data transfer rates, increased range, and improved coexistence with other wireless technologies.
10) Integration with LANs: While Bluetooth is primarily used for short-range communication, it can be
integrated into LAN scenarios when used as part of a broader connectivity strategy. For example, a device
 may use Bluetooth for local communication and then connect to a LAN or the internet via Wi-Fi or cellular
data.
Topic Three: - Computer Network Topologies
A Network Topology is the arrangement with which computer systems or network devices are connected to
each other. Topologies may define both physical and logical aspect of the network. Both logical and physical
topologies could be same or different in a same network.
Types of Computer Network Topologies

Point-to-Point

A point-to-point network contains exactly two hosts such as computer, switches or routers, servers connected
back to back using a single piece of cable. Often, the receiving end of one host is connected to sending end of
the other and vice-versa.

If the hosts are connected point-to-point logically, then may have multiple intermediate devices. But the end
hosts are unaware of underlying network and see each other as if they are connected directly.

Bus Topology

 In case of Bus topology, all devices share single communication line or cable. Bus topology may have
problem while multiple hosts sending data at the same time.
 Therefore, Bus topology either uses CSMA/CD technology or recognizes one host as Bus Master to
solve the issue.
 It is one of the simple forms of networking where a failure of a device does not affect the other devices.

 But failure of the shared communication line can make all other devices stop functioning.
  Both ends of the shared channel have line terminator.

 The data is sent in only one direction and as soon as it reaches the extreme end, the terminator removes
the data from the line.

Star Topology

All hosts in Star topology are connected to a central device, known as hub device, using a point-to-point
connection. That is, there exists a point to point connection between hosts and hub. The hub device can be any
of the following:
 Layer-1 device such as hub or repeater
 Layer-2 device such as switch or bridge
 Layer-3 device such as router or gateway
As in Bus topology, hub acts as single point of failure. If hub fails, connectivity of all hosts to all other hosts
fails. Every communication between hosts, takes place through only the hub. Star topology is not expensive as
to connect one more host, only one cable is required and configuration is simple.

Ring Topology

In ring topology, each host machine connects to exactly two other machines, creating a circular network
structure. When one host tries to communicate or send message to a host which is not adjacent to it, the data
travels through all intermediate hosts. To connect one more host in the existing structure, the administrator may
need only one more extra cable.
Failure of any host results in failure of the whole ring. Thus, every connection in the ring is a point of failure.
There are methods which employ one more backup ring.

Mesh Topology

In this type of topology, a host is connected to one or multiple hosts. This topology has hosts in point-to-point
connection with every other host or may also have hosts which are in point-to-point connection to few hosts
only.
Hosts in Mesh topology also work as relay for other hosts which do not have direct point-to-point links. Mesh
technology comes into two types:
 Full Mesh: All hosts have a point-to-point connection to every other host in the network. Thus for every
new host n(n-1)/2 connections are required. It provides the most reliable network structure among all
network topologies.
 Partially Mesh: Not all hosts have point-to-point connection to every other host. Hosts connect to each
other in some arbitrarily fashion. This topology exists where we need to provide reliability to some hosts
out of all.

Tree Topology

Also known as Hierarchical Topology, this is the most common form of network topology in use presently.
This topology imitates as extended Star topology and inherits properties of bus topology.
This topology divides the network in to multiple levels/layers of network. Mainly in LANs, a network is
bifurcated into three types of network devices. The lowermost is access-layer where computers are attached.
The middle layer is known as distribution layer, which works as mediator between upper layer and lower layer.
The highest layer is known as core layer, and is central point of the network, i.e. root of the tree from which all
nodes fork.
All neighboring hosts have point-to-point connection between them.Similar to the Bus topology, if the root
goes down, then the entire network suffers even.though it is not the single point of failure. Every connection
serves as point of failure, failing of which divides the network into unreachable segment.

Daisy Chain

This topology connects all the hosts in a linear fashion. Similar to Ring topology, all hosts are connected to two
hosts only, except the end hosts.Means, if the end hosts in daisy chain are connected then it represents Ring
topology.

Each link in daisy chain topology represents single point of failure. Every link failure splits the network into
two segments.Every intermediate host works as relay for its immediate hosts.

Hybrid Topology

A network structure whose design contains more than one topology is said to be hybrid topology. Hybrid
topology inherits merits and demerits of all the incorporating topologies.
The above picture represents an arbitrarily hybrid topology. The combining topologies may contain attributes
of Star, Ring, Bus, and Daisy-chain topologies. Most WANs are connected by means of Dual-Ring topology
and networks connected to them are mostly Star topology networks. Internet is the best example of largest
Hybrid topology
Topic Four: - Computer Network Models
Computer network models provide a conceptual framework for understanding and designing communication
systems.
Two fundamental models that help describe and standardize networking concepts are the OSI (Open Systems
Interconnection) model and the TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) model.

Networking engineering involves software, firmware, chip level engineering, hardware, and electric pulses.
 To ease network engineering, the whole networking concept is divided into multiple layers.

 Each layer is involved in some particular task and is independent of all other layers.

 But as a whole, almost all networking tasks depend on all of these layers.

 Layers share data between them and they depend on each other only to take input and send output.
Layered Tasks

In layered architecture of Network Model, one whole network process is divided into small tasks. Each small
task is then assigned to a particular layer which works dedicatedly to process the task only. Every layer does
only specific work.
In layered communication system, one layer of a host deals with the task done by or to be done by its peer layer
at the same level on the remote host. The task is either initiated by layer at the lowest level or at the top most
level. If the task is initiated by the-top most layer, it is passed on to the layer below it for further processing.
The lower layer does the same thing, it processes the task and passes on to lower layer. If the task is initiated by
lower most layer, then the reverse path is taken.

Every layer clubs together all procedures, protocols, and methods which it requires to execute its piece of task.
All layers identify their counterparts by means of encapsulation header and tail.

OSI Model

OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection):

The OSI model is a conceptual framework that standardizes the functions of a telecommunication or computing
system into seven abstraction layers. Each layer serves a specific purpose and communicates with the layers
above and below it.

Open System Interconnect is an open standard for all communication systems. OSI model is established by
International Standard Organization (ISO). This model has seven layers, discuss bfrom the top to bottom are:
 Application Layer: The top layer that interacts directly with end-user applications. It provides network
services directly to end-users and applications. This layer is responsible for providing interface to the
application user. This layer encompasses protocols which directly interact with the user.
 Presentation Layer: Deals with data format translation, encryption, and compression. It ensures that the
data is presented in a readable format between applications
 Session Layer: This layer maintains or Manages sessions or connections between applications or remote
hosts. It establishes, maintains, and terminates communication sessions.. For example, once user/password
authentication is done, the remote host maintains this session for a while cryptographic algorithms and does
not ask for authentication again in that time span.
 Transport Layer: This layer Provides end-to-end communication, error recovery, and flow control. It
ensures that data is reliably delivered between devices.
 Network Layer: This layer is responsible for address assignment and uniquely addressing hosts in a
network. Handles routing, addressing, and logical addressing (such as IP addresses). It is concerned with
the efficient delivery of data between devices that may not be directly connected.
 Data Link Layer: This layer is responsible for reading and writing data from and onto the line. Link errors
are detected at this layer. Manages the framing of data, error detection, and access to the physical medium.
It is responsible for creating a reliable link between two directly connected nodes.
 Physical Layer: This layer defines the hardware, cabling wiring, power output, pulse rate etc. Concerned
with the physical medium and transmission of raw bits over a physical link. It includes specifications for
cables, connectors, and hardware.

The TCP/IP Model Layers

The TCP/IP model is a more practical and widely used networking model, especially in the context of the
Internet.
The TCP/IP model uses four layers that logically span the equivalent of the top six layers of the OSI reference
model; this is shown below. (The physical layer is not covered by the TCP/IP model because the data link layer
is considered the point at which the interface occurs between the TCP/IP stack and the underlying networking
hardware.) This model has the following layers:

 Application Layer (combines functionalities of OSI Session, Presentation, and Application Layers):
This layer defines the protocol which enables user to interact with the network. It includes various protocols
for specific applications, such as Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) for web browsing, Simple Mail
Transfer Protocol (SMTP) for email, and File Transfer Protocol (FTP) for file transfer.
 Transport Layer (equivalent to OSI Transport Layer): This layer defines how data should flow
between hosts. Major protocol at this layer is Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). This layer ensures data
delivered between hosts is in-order and is responsible for end-to-end delivery.
 Internet Layer (equivalent to OSI Network Layer): Internet Protocol (IP) works on this layer. This layer
facilitates host addressing and recognition. This layer defines routing.
 Link Layer (equivalent to OSI Data Link and Physical Layers): This layer provides mechanism of
sending and receiving actual data. Unlike its OSI Model counterpart, this layer is independent of underlying
network architecture and hardware.
Relationship between OSI and TCP/IP Models:
The TCP/IP model is often used as a practical implementation of the OSI model. The layers in the TCP/IP
model map roughly to the corresponding layers in the OSI model, but the number of layers is reduced for
simplicity and practicality. The relationship can be summarized as follows:
 Link Layer and Physical Layer in OSI map to the Link Layer in TCP/IP.
 Network Layer in OSI maps to the Internet Layer in TCP/IP.
 Transport Layer in OSI maps to the Transport Layer in TCP/IP.
 Session, Presentation, and Application Layers in OSI map to the Application Layer in TCP/IP.
Both models provide a structured approach to understanding and implementing network protocols, and they are
essential for network administrators, engineers, and developers to design and troubleshoot computer networks
effectively.
Topic Five: - Transmission Media
The transmission media is nothing but the physical media over which communication takes place in computer
networks.

Magnetic Media

 One of the most convenient ways to transfer data from one computer to another, even before the birth of
networking, was to save it on some storage media and transfer physical from one station to another. Though
it may seem old-fashion way in today’s world of high speed internet, but when the size of data is huge, the
magnetic media comes into play.
 For example, a bank has to handle and transfer huge data of its customer, which stores a backup of it at
some geographically far-away place for security reasons and to keep it from uncertain calamities. If the
bank needs to store its huge backup data then its, transfer through internet is not feasible. The WAN links
may not support such high speed. Even if they do; the cost is too high to afford
 In these cases, data backup is stored onto magnetic tapes or magnetic discs, and then shifted physically to
remote places.
Twisted Pair Cable

 A twisted pair cable is made of two plastic insulated copper wires twisted together to form a single media.
Out of these two wires, only one carries actual signal and another is used for ground reference.
 The twists between wires are helpful in reducing noise (electro-magnetic interference) and crosstalk.

There are two types of twisted pair cables:

 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable
STP cables comes with twisted wire pair covered in metal foil. This makes it more indifferent to noise and
crosstalk.
UTP has seven categories, each suitable for specific use. In computer networks, Cat-5, Cat-5e, and Cat-6 cables
are mostly used. UTP cables are connected by RJ45 connectors.

Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable has two wires of copper. The core wire lies in the center and it is made of solid conductor. The
core is enclosed in an insulating sheath. The second wire is wrapped around over the sheath and that too in turn
encased by insulator sheath. This all is covered by plastic cover.

Because of its structure, the coax cable is capable of carrying high frequency signals than that of twisted pair
cable. The wrapped structure provides it a good shield against noise and cross talk. Coaxial cables provide high
bandwidth rates of up to 450 mbps.
There are three categories of coax cables namely, RG-59 (Cable TV), RG-58 (Thin Ethernet), and RG-11
(Thick Ethernet). RG stands for Radio Government.
Cables are connected using BNC connector and BNC-T. BNC terminator is used to terminate the wire at the far
ends.

Power Lines

Power Line communication (PLC) is Layer-1 (Physical Layer) technology which uses power cables to transmit
data signals. In PLC, modulated data is sent over the cables. The receiver on the other end de-modulates and
interprets the data.
Because power lines are widely deployed, PLC can make all powered devices controlled and monitored. PLC
works in half-duplex.
There are two types of PLC:
 Narrow band PLC
 Broad band PLC
Narrow band PLC provides lower data rates up to 100s of kbps, as they work at lower frequencies (3-5000
kHz).They can be spread over several kilometers.
Broadband PLC provides higher data rates up to 100s of Mbps and works at higher frequencies (1.8 – 250
MHz).They cannot be as much extended as Narrowband PLC.

Fiber Optics

Fiber Optic works on the properties of light. When light ray hits at critical angle it tends to refracts at 90
degree. This property has been used in fiber optic. The core of fiber optic cable is made of high quality glass or
plastic. From one end of it light is emitted, it travels through it and at the other end light detector detects light
stream and converts it to electric data.
Fiber Optic provides the highest mode of speed. It comes in two modes; one is single mode fiber and second is
multimode fiber. Single mode fiber can carry a single ray of light whereas multimode is capable of carrying
multiple beams of light.
Fiber Optic also comes in unidirectional and bidirectional capabilities. To connect and access fiber optic
special type of connectors are used. These can be Subscriber Channel (SC), Straight Tip (ST), or MT-RJ.
Wireless Transmission
Wireless transmission is a form of unguided media. Wireless communication involves no physical link
established between two or more devices, communicating wirelessly. Wireless signals are spread over in the air
and are received and interpreted by appropriate antennas.
When an antenna is attached to electrical circuit of a computer or wireless device, it converts the digital data
into wireless signals and spread all over within its frequency range. The receptor on the other end receives
these signals and converts them back to digital data.
A little part of electromagnetic spectrum can be used for wireless transmission.

Radio Transmission

Radio frequency is easier to generate and because of its large wavelength it can penetrate through walls and
structures alike. Radio waves can have wavelength from 1 mm – 100,000 km and have frequency ranging from
3 Hz (Extremely Low Frequency) to 300 GHz (Extremely High Frequency). Radio frequencies are sub-divided
into six bands.
Radio waves at lower frequencies can travel through walls whereas higher RF can travel in straight line and
bounce back. The power of low frequency waves decreases sharply as they cover long distance. High
frequency radio waves have more power.
Lower frequencies such as VLF, LF, MF bands can travel on the ground up to 1000 kilometers, over the earth’s
surface.
Radio waves of high frequencies are prone to be absorbed by rain and other obstacles. They use Ionosphere of
earth atmosphere. High frequency radio waves such as HF and VHF bands are spread upwards. When they
reach Ionosphere, they are refracted back to the earth.

Microwave Transmission

Electromagnetic waves above 100 MHz tend to travel in a straight line and signals over them can be sent by
beaming those waves towards one particular station. Because Microwaves travels in straight lines, both sender
and receiver must be aligned to be strictly in line-of-sight.
Microwaves can have wavelength ranging from 1 mm – 1 meter and frequency ranging from 300 MHz to 300
GHz.

Microwave antennas concentrate the waves making a beam of it. As shown in picture above, multiple antennas
can be aligned to reach farther. Microwaves have higher frequencies and do not penetrate wall like obstacles.
Microwave transmission depends highly upon the weather conditions and the frequency it is using.

Infrared Transmission
Infrared wave lies in between visible light spectrum and microwaves. It has wavelength of 700-nm to 1-mm
and frequency ranges from 300-GHz to 430-THz.
Infrared wave is used for very short range communication purposes such as television and it’s remote. Infrared
travels in a straight line hence it is directional by nature. Because of high frequency range, Infrared cannot
cross wall-like obstacles.

Light Transmission

Highest most electromagnetic spectrum which can be used for data transmission is light or optical signaling.
This is achieved by means of LASER.
Because of frequency light uses, it tends to travel strictly in straight line. Hence the sender and receiver must be
in the line-of-sight. Because laser transmission is unidirectional, at both ends of communication the laser and
the photo-detector need to be installed. Laser beam is generally 1mm wide hence it is a work of precision to
align two far receptors each pointing to lasers source.

Laser works as Tx (transmitter) and photo-detectors works as Rx (receiver).

Lasers cannot penetrate obstacles such as walls, rain, and thick fog. Additionally, laser beam is distorted by
wind, atmosphere temperature, or variation in temperature in the path.
Laser is safe for data transmission as it is very difficult to tap 1mm wide laser without interrupting the
communication channel.
Topic Six: Digital Transmission Fundamentals
Digital transmission is the process of sending digital signals over a communication channel to transmit
information. It is a fundamental concept in modern telecommunications and networking.

Data or information can be stored in two ways, analog and digital. For a computer to use the data, it must be in
discrete digital form. Similar to data, signals can also be in analog and digital form. To transmit data digitally,
it needs to be first converted to digital form.

Digital-to-Digital Conversion
This section explains how to convert digital data into digital signals. It can be done in two ways, line coding
and block coding. For all communications, line coding is necessary whereas block coding is optional.

1) Line Coding
The process for converting digital data into digital signal is said to be Line Coding. Digital data is found in
binary format. It is represented (stored) internally as series of 1s and 0s.

Digital signal is denoted by discreet signal, which represents digital data. There are three types of line coding
schemes available:

 Uni-polar Encoding
Unipolar encoding schemes use single voltage level to represent data. In this case, to represent binary 1, high
voltage is transmitted and to represent 0, no voltage is transmitted. It is also called Unipolar-Non-return-to-
zero, because there is no rest condition i.e. it either represents 1 or 0.
  Polar Encoding
Polar encoding scheme uses multiple voltage levels to represent binary values. Polar encodings is available in
four types:
a) Polar Non-Return to Zero (Polar NRZ)
It uses two different voltage levels to represent binary values. Generally, positive voltage represents 1 and
negative value represents 0. It is also NRZ because there is no rest condition.
NRZ scheme has two variants: NRZ-L and NRZ-I.

NRZ-L changes voltage level at when a different bit is encountered whereas NRZ-I changes voltage when a 1
is encountered.
b) Return to Zero (RZ)
Problem with NRZ is that the receiver cannot conclude when a bit ended and when the next bit is started, in
case when sender and receiver’s clock are not synchronized.

RZ uses three voltage levels, positive voltage to represent 1, negative voltage to represent 0 and zero voltage
for none. Signals change during bits not between bits.
c) Manchester
This encoding scheme is a combination of RZ and NRZ-L. Bit time is divided into two halves. It transits in the
middle of the bit and changes phase when a different bit is encountered.
d) Differential Manchester
This encoding scheme is a combination of RZ and NRZ-I. It also transit at the middle of the bit but changes
phase only when 1 is encountered.

 Bipolar Encoding
Bipolar encoding uses three voltage levels, positive, negative and zero. Zero voltage represents binary 0 and bit
1 is represented by altering positive and negative voltages.
 2) Block Coding
To ensure accuracy of the received data frame redundant bits are used. For example, in even-parity, one parity
bit is added to make the count of 1s in the frame even. This way the original number of bits is increased. It is
called Block Coding.
Block coding is represented by slash notation, mB/nB.Means, m-bit block is substituted with n-bit block where
n > m. Block coding involves three steps:
 Division,
 Substitution
 Combination.
After block coding is done, it is line coded for transmission.

Analog-to-Digital Conversion

 Analog-to-Digital Conversion (ADC) is a process that involves converting continuous analog signals into
discrete digital signals.
 In many real-world applications, information is naturally in analog form, such as the voltage variations in
an audio signal or the continuous fluctuations of light in an image.
 However, many modern systems, including computers and digital communication devices, process and
transmit data in digital form.
 ADC is essential in bridging the gap between the analog and digital domains.
 Microphones create analog voice and camera creates analog videos, which are treated is analog data. To
transmit this analog data over digital signals, we need analog to digital conversion.
 Analog data is a continuous stream of data in the wave form whereas digital data is discrete. To convert
analog wave into digital data, we use Pulse Code Modulation (PCM).
 PCM is one of the most commonly used methods to convert analog data into digital form. It involves three
steps:
a) Sampling
b) Quantization
 c) Encoding.
Sampling

The first step in ADC is sampling, where the continuous analog signal is measured at discrete intervals. The
rate at which samples are taken is called the sampling rate or frequency. According to the Nyquist-Shannon
sampling theorem, the sampling rate must be at least twice the highest frequency component of the analog
signal to accurately reconstruct it.

The analog signal is sampled every T interval. Most important factor in sampling is the rate at which analog
signal is sampled. According to Nyquist Theorem, the sampling rate must be at least two times of the highest
frequency of the signal.

Quantization

After sampling, the amplitude of each sample is assigned a digital code. This process is known as quantization.
The number of bits used to represent each sample determines the precision or resolution of the digital
representation. For example, an 8-bit ADC can represent each sample with one of 2^8 (256) possible values

Sampling yields discrete form of continuous analog signal. Every discrete pattern shows the amplitude of the
analog signal at that instance. The quantization is done between the maximum amplitude value and the
minimum amplitude value. Quantization is approximation of the instantaneous analog value.

Encoding
Once quantized, each sample is encoded into a binary number. The most common encoding methods include
straight binary encoding, Gray coding, and two's complement encoding.

In encoding, each approximated value is then converted into binary format.

Key aspects of Analog-to-Digital Conversion

Resolution: The resolution of an ADC is the number of bits used to represent each sample. Higher resolution
allows for a more accurate representation of the analog signal. Resolution is often expressed in bits (e.g., 8-bit,
12-bit, 16-bit ADC).

Sampling Theorem and Aliasing: The Sampling Theorem states that to accurately reconstruct an analog
signal from its samples, the sampling rate must be at least twice the highest frequency component of the signal.
Failure to adhere to this theorem can result in aliasing, where high-frequency components are incorrectly
represented at lower frequencies.

Anti-Aliasing Filter: To prevent aliasing, an anti-aliasing filter is often used before the ADC. This filter
removes or reduces frequencies above the Nyquist frequency, ensuring that only the desired signal frequencies
are sampled.

Types of ADCs: There are different types of ADCs, including:

 Successive Approximation ADC: Iteratively approximates the analog input.

 Flash ADC: Uses a parallel array of comparators to quickly determine the digital code.
 Delta-Sigma ADC: Uses oversampling to achieve high resolution.
Applications: ADC is used in various applications, including audio processing, image processing,
telecommunications, medical devices, and sensor networks. Virtually any system that involves the processing
of analog signals at some point requires ADC.

Digital Signal Processing (DSP): Once the analog signal is converted to digital, it can be processed using
Digital Signal Processing techniques. This includes filtering, modulation, demodulation, compression, and
other operations that are more efficiently performed in the digital domain.
ADC Accuracy and SNR: The accuracy of an ADC is often characterized by parameters such as Signal-to-
Noise Ratio (SNR), which measures the ratio of the signal power to the noise power. A higher SNR indicates
better accuracy.

Analog-to-Digital Conversion is a fundamental process in modern technology, enabling the integration of

Error Detection and Correction in ADC

Error detection and correction mechanisms are crucial in the context of Analog-to-Digital Conversion (ADC)
to ensure the accuracy of the digitized representation of analog signals. Errors can arise due to various factors,
including noise, interference, and imperfections in the ADC itself. Here are some methods used for error
detection and correction in ADC:

Error Detection:

a) Parity Bit: Parity checking is a simple form of error detection. A parity bit is added to the digital code, and
its value is adjusted to ensure that the total number of bits with a value of 1 (or 0, depending on the parity
type) is either even or odd. If the parity condition is not met, an error is detected.
b) Checksums: Checksums involve the addition of a special value (checksum) calculated based on the data
bits. The receiver recalculates the checksum and compares it with the received checksum. If they don't
match, an error is detected.
c) Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC): CRC is a more sophisticated error detection technique. It involves
generating a polynomial code based on the data bits. The receiver performs a similar calculation and checks
the received CRC. If there is a mismatch, an error is detected.
d) Hamming Code: Hamming codes are a type of error-detecting and error-correcting code. They add
redundant bits to the data bits, allowing the detection and correction of single-bit errors.

Error Correction:

a) Forward Error Correction (FEC): FEC is a technique that allows the receiver to correct errors without
requesting retransmission. Additional redundant information is included in the transmitted data, enabling
the receiver to reconstruct the original data even if errors occur during transmission.
b) Interleaving: Interleaving is a technique where bits from different blocks of data are spread across multiple
transmitted frames. If errors affect a small portion of each frame, the interleaving process can help in
distributing and minimizing the impact of errors.
c) Error Correction Codes (ECC): ECC is a more powerful form of error correction that goes beyond
simple parity or checksum methods. Various ECC algorithms, such as Reed-Solomon codes, are used to
correct multiple errors in a block of data.
d) Redundancy: Redundancy involves adding extra bits to the transmitted data to provide additional
information for error correction. The redundancy is carefully designed to allow the receiver to reconstruct
the original data even in the presence of errors.

Signal Processing Techniques:

a) Filtering: Filtering techniques can be applied to the received signal to suppress noise and interference,
reducing the likelihood of errors.
b) Signal Averaging: Signal averaging involves taking multiple samples of the same signal and averaging
them to reduce the impact of random noise.
c) Dithering: Dithering is a technique that introduces low-amplitude noise to the signal to spread quantization
error, making it less perceptible or disruptive.
d) Oversampling: Oversampling involves sampling the signal at a rate higher than the Nyquist rate. This
allows for more accurate representation of the signal and simplifies error detection and correction
processes.

Digital Transmission Modes

The transmission mode decides how data is transmitted between two computers. The binary data in the form of
1s and 0s can be sent in two different modes: Parallel and Serial.

Parallel Transmission:

The binary bits are organized in-to groups of fixed length. Both sender and receiver are connected in parallel
with the equal number of data lines. Both computers distinguish between high order and low order data lines.
The sender sends all the bits at once on all lines. Because the data lines are equal to the number of bits in a
group or data frame, a complete group of bits (data frame) is sent in one go. Advantage of Parallel transmission
is high speed and disadvantage is the cost of wires, as it is equal to the number of bits sent in parallel.

Serial Transmission

In serial transmission, bits are sent one after another in a queue manner. Serial transmission requires only one
communication channel.
Serial transmission can be either asynchronous or synchronous.

Asynchronous Serial Transmission

It is named so because there’s no importance of timing. Data-bits have specific pattern and they help receiver
recognize the start and end data bits. For example, a 0 is prefixed on every data byte and one or more 1s are
added at the end.

Two continuous data-frames (bytes) may have a gap between them.

Synchronous Serial Transmission

Timing in synchronous transmission has importance as there is no mechanism followed to recognize start and
end data bits. There is no pattern or prefix/suffix method. Data bits are sent in burst mode without maintaining
gap between bytes (8-bits). Single burst of data bits may contain a number of bytes. Therefore, timing becomes
very important.

It is up to the receiver to recognize and separate bits into bytes.The advantage of synchronous transmission is
high speed, and it has no overhead of extra header and footer bits as in asynchronous transmission.

Analog Transmission

To send the digital data over an analog media, it needs to be converted into analog signal. There can be two
cases according to data formatting.

Band Pass: The filters are used to filter and pass frequencies of interest. A bandpass is a band of frequencies
which can pass the filter.

Low-pass: Low-pass is a filter that passes low frequencies signals.

When digital data is converted into a bandpass analog signal, it is called digital-to-analog conversion. When
low-pass analog signal is converted into bandpass analog signal, it is called analog-to-analog conversion.

Digital-to-Analog Conversion
When data from one computer is sent to another via some analog carrier, it is first converted into analog
signals. Analog signals are modified to reflect digital data.

An analog signal is characterized by its amplitude, frequency, and phase. There are three kinds of digital-to-
analog conversions:

 Amplitude Shift Keying

In this conversion technique, the amplitude of analog carrier signal is modified to reflect binary data.

When binary data represents

digit 1, the amplitude is held; otherwise it is set to 0. Both frequency and phase remain same as in the original
carrier signal.
  Frequency Shift Keying

In this conversion technique, the frequency of the analog carrier signal is modified to reflect binary data.

This technique uses two frequencies, f1 and f2. One of them, for example f1, is chosen to represent binary digit
1 and the other one is used to represent binary digit 0. Both amplitude and phase of the carrier wave are kept
intact.

 Phase Shift Keying

In this conversion scheme, the phase of the original carrier signal is altered to reflect the binary data.
When a new binary symbol is encountered, the phase of the signal is altered. Amplitude and frequency of the
original carrier signal is kept intact.

 Quadrature Phase Shift Keying

QPSK alters the phase to reflect two binary digits at once. This is done in two different phases. The main
stream of binary data is divided equally into two sub-streams. The serial data is converted in to parallel in both
sub-streams and then each stream is converted to digital signal using NRZ technique. Later, both the digital
signals are merged together.

Analog-to-Analog Conversion

Analog signals are modified to represent analog data. This conversion is also known as Analog Modulation.
Analog modulation is required when bandpass is used. Analog to analog conversion can be done in three ways:

 Amplitude Modulation

In this modulation, the amplitude of the carrier signal is modified to reflect the analog data.
Amplitude modulation is implemented by means of a multiplier. The amplitude of modulating signal (analog
data) is multiplied by the amplitude of carrier frequency, which then reflects analog data.

The frequency and phase of carrier signal remain unchanged.

 Frequency Modulation

In this modulation technique, the frequency of the carrier signal is modified to reflect the change in the voltage
levels of the modulating signal (analog data).
The amplitude and phase of the carrier signal are not altered.

 Phase Modulation

In the modulation technique, the phase of carrier signal is modulated in order to reflect the change in voltage
(amplitude) of analog data signal.
Phase modulation is practically similar to Frequency Modulation, but in Phase modulation frequency of the
carrier signal is not increased. Frequency of carrier is signal is changed (made dense and sparse) to reflect
voltage change in the amplitude of modulating signal

Topic Seven: Networking Devices

Introduction to Networking devices

 Networking means connecting two or more devices for the purpose of sharing data and resources.

 Setting a small network is fairly simple task but once the network start to grow and become a local area
network it may need to cover more distance than its media can handle effectively.
 Or the number of station may be too great for efficient communication or management of the network and
the network may need to be subdivided.

When two or more separate networks are connected for exchanging data or resources, they become an
internetwork (or internet). The devices required to link number of LANs into an Internet are known as
internetworking devices.

There is several ways that you can expand network capability such as:

 Physically expanding to support additional computers

 Segmenting to filter network traffic

 Extending to connect separate LANs

 Connecting two separate computing environments

There are many devices available to accomplish these tasks. Following diagram will help to understand
different types of connective devices.

Figure; Networking & Internetworking Devices

Connecting Devices

Networking Devices Internetworking Devices

Hub Bridge Switch

Router Gateway
Repeater

Networking Devices
 Networking devices are hardware devices that facilitate communication and data exchange between
different devices within a computer network. These devices play a crucial role in the functioning of
networks by enabling the transmission of data across various network topologies.

Expansion within a single network, called network connectivity, and to expand a single network the following
networking devices can be used.

1) Hub

2) Switch

3) Repeaters

4) Bridges
Hub

 Hubs are simple networking devices that connect multiple devices in a LAN. Unlike switches, hubs do not
have the ability to intelligently forward data; instead, they broadcast data to all connected devices.

 A hub is a device for connecting multiple twisted pair or fiber optic Ethernet devices together and making
them act as a single network segment. Hubs work at the physical layer (layer 1) of the OSI model. The
device is a form of multiport repeater.

 A hub is a fairly unsophisticated broadcast device. Hubs do not manage any of the traffic that comes
through them, and any packet entering any port is regenerated and broadcast out on all other ports. Since
every packet is being sent out through all other ports, packet collisions result—which greatly impedes the
smooth flow of traffic.

Switch

 In a telecommunications network, a switch is a device that channels incoming data from any of multiple
input ports to the specific output port that will take the data toward its intended destination.

 A switch operates at the data link layer of the OSI model and is used to connect devices within the same
local area network (LAN). It uses MAC addresses to forward data to the correct destination device.

 In the traditional circuit-switched telephone network, one or more switches are used to set up a dedicated
though temporary connection or circuit for an exchange between two or more parties.

 On an Ethernet local area network (LAN), a switch determines from the physical device (Media Access
Control or MAC) address in each incoming message frame which output port to forward it to and out of.

 In a wide area packet-switched network such as the internet, a switch determines from the IP address in
each packet which output port to use for the next part of its trip to the intended destination.
 In the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) communications model, a switch performs the Layer2 or Data-
link Layer function. That is, it simply looks at each packet or data unit and determines from a physical
address (the "MAC address") which device a data unit is intended for and switches it out toward that
device.

Repeater

 Because of the electrical and mechanical limitations of any wiring system a network has physical
limitations. Such as:

 Attenuation: Loss of signal strength as the signal travels along a medium.

 Segment length: longest successful data transmission through a continuous single cable.

 Node capacity per segment: number of nodes can be connected on a media

 Signal that carry information within a network can travel a fixed distance before attenuation or other
interference from noise endangers the integrity of the data.

 A repeater installed on a link receive the signal before it becomes too week or corrupted, regenerates the
original bit pattern, and puts the refreshed signals back onto the link. A repeater allows is to extend only
physical length of the network.

 Repeaters operate at the physical layers of the OSI model and have no concern for the type of data being
transmitted, the packet address, or the protocol being used.

 They are unintelligent electronic device unable to perform any filtering or translation on the actual data.

Incoming weak signals Regenerated signals

 Repeaters retransmit the data at the same speed as the network. However there is a slight delay as the
repeater regenerate the signal. If there are a number of repeaters in a row, a significant propagation delay
can be crated. Therefore, many network architectures limits the number of repeaters on the network.
 The location of a repeater on a link is vital. A repeater must be placed so that a signal reaches it before any
noise changes the meaning of any of its bits.
 A little noise can alter the precision of a bit‘s voltage without destroying its identity. If the corrupted bit
travels much farther, however, accumulated noise can change its meaning completely. At that point the
original voltage become unrecoverable and the error can be corrected only by retransmission.
Strengths and Limitations of Repeaters
Strength:
 Allows easy expansion of the network over large distance.
 Has very little impact on the speed of the network.
 Allows connection between different media.

Limitations:
 Provide no addressing information.
 Cannot connect two different architectures.
 Does not help ease congestion problem.
 The number of repeaters in a network is limited.

Bridge

Bridges operate in both the physical and data link layer of OSI model. Like repeaters, bridges also can be used
to connect two network segments and can connect dissimilar physical media. However, bridges can also limit
the traffic on each segment and eliminate bottlenecks.

How Does Bridge Works?

 A bridge‘s primary function is to filter traffic between network segments.

 As a packet is received from a network segment, the bridge looks at the physical destination address of the
packet before forwarding the packet on to other segments. If the packet‘s destination is on another network
segment, the bridge retransmits the packet.

 However, if the destination is on the same network segment, on which the packet was received, the bridge
assumes the packet has already reached its destination and the packet is discarded. As a result, network
traffic is greatly reduced.

 Bridges work at the data link layer of the OSI model. At this layer the hardware address, both source and
destination, is added to the packet. Because bridges function at this layer, they have access to this address
information.

 Each computer in the network is given a unique address. Bridges analyze these address to determine
whether or not to forward a packet.
 C to K

C to K

LAN1 Bridge

C to K C to K

LAN2

In above figure, the packet generated by computer C is intended for computer K. The bridge allows the packet
to cross and relay it to the entire lower segment where it is received by computer K. IF a packet is destined on a
same segment (for example from computer A to computer F) the bridge will block the packet from crossing
into lower segment to reduce the traffic.

Strengths and Limitations of Bridges

Strength:
 Easy to extend network distances
 Can filter traffic to ease congestion
 Can connect network with different media
 Translation bridges can connect different network architectures
Limitation:
 Slower than repeaters
 More expensive than repeaters
 Cannot handle multiple paths
Internetworking Devices

Expansion that involves and joins two separate networks called internetworking connectivity. Following
devices can be used for internetworking.

1) Routers
2) Brouters
3) Gateways
4) Switches
Router

 Routers are combination of hardware and software and used to connect separate networks to form an
internetwork. Router can be used like bridges to connect multiple network segments and filter traffic. Also,
unlike bridges, routers can be used to connect two or more independent networks.
 A router connects different networks together. It directs data traffic between devices on the same network
or between different networks. Routers use routing tables to determine the best path for data to travel.
 Routers can connect complex networks with multiple paths between network segments. Each network
segment, also called a sub network, is assigned a network address. Each node on a subset is assigned an
address as well. Using a combination of the network and node address, the router can route a packet from
the source to a destination address somewhere else on the network.

 Router has access to first three layers (physical, data link, and network) but works in the network layer. To
successfully route a packet through the internetwork, a router must

 determine packet‘s path. When the router receives a packet, it analyzes the packet‘s destination network
address and look up that address in its routing table. The router than repackages the data and sends it to the
next router in the path.

 Because operate at the higher layers of the OSI model than bridges do, routers can easily send information
over different network architectures. For example, a packet received from a token ring network can be sent
over an Ethernet network. The router removes the token ring frame, examines the packet to determine the
network address, repackages the data into Ethernet frames, and sends the data out onto the Ethernet
networks.

 With this kind of translation, however, network speed is affected. As an example, Ethernet frames have a
maximum data frame size of approximately 1,500 bytes, whereas token ring frames range in size from
4,000 to 18,000 bytes. So, for a single token ring frame of maximum size (18,000 bytes), 12 Ethernet
frames must be created. Although routers are very fast, this type of translation does affect the network‘s
speed.

 Unlike bridges routers have ability to select the best path that is faster and economical. When a router
receives a packet whose destination address is unknown, it simply discards the packet but if the same
packet received by a bridge the bridge will forward it to all connected network segments

Routing Table

Routing has a routing table that contains network addresses and the address of the routers that handle those
networks. Following table shows a sample routing table for router A. it includes the next hop (i.e., where
transmission will go next) and cost (i.e., number of hops the packet must take).

1. Static Routing

If router uses static routing, the routing table must be updated manually by the administrator. Each individual
route must be added manually. The router will always use the same path to a destination, even if it is not
necessarily the shortest or most efficient route.

2. Dynamic Routing
Dynamic routers communicate with each other and are constantly receiving receiving updated routing tables
from other routers. If multiple routes are available to a particular network, the router will decide which route is
best and enter that route into its routing table.

Strengths and Limitations of Routers

Strength:
 Can connect networks of different physical media and network architectures
 Can choose the best path for a packet through an internetwork
 reduces network traffic by not forwarding corrupt packets
Limitation:

 More expensive a more complex than bridges or repeaters.

 Slower than bridge because they perform more complex calculations on the packet
 Only work with routable protocols (TCP/IP, IPX/SPX, DECnet, OSI, XNS).
Brouters: Brouters combines the best of both bridges and routers. When brouters receive packets that are
routable, they will operate as a router by choosing the best path for the packet and forwarding it to its
destination. However, when a nonroutable packet is received, the brouter functions as a bridge, forwarding the
packet based on hardware address.

To do this brouters maintain both bridging table, which contains hardware address, and a routing table, which
contains network address.

Gateway: Gateways operate in all seven layers of OSI model. A gateway is a protocol converter. A router
itself transfers, accepts, and relays packets only across network using similar protocols. A gateway on the other
hand, can accept a packet formatted for one protocol (e.g. AppleTalk) and convert it to a packet formatted for
another protocol (e.g. TCP/IP) before forwarding it

Netware SNA
Gateway
Network
Network

A gateway is generally software installed within a router. The gateway understands the protocol used by each
network linked into the router and is therefore able to translate from one to another.

Strengths and limitations of Gateway

Strength:
 Can connect completely different systems.
  Dedicated to one task and perform that task well.
Limitation:
 More expensive than other devices.
 More difficult to install and configure.
 Greater processing requirements and they are slower than other devices.
Topic Eight: SWITCHING TECHNIQUES
Introduction to Switching

The main objective of networking is to connect all the devices so that resources and information can be shared
efficiently. Whenever we have multiple devices, we have problem of connecting them to make one-to-one
connection possible.

One solution is to install a point to point link between each pair of devices such as in mesh topology or between
a central device and every other device as in star topology. These methods, however, are impractical and
wasteful when applied to very large network. The number and length of the links require too many
infrastructures to be cost efficient; and majority of those links would be idle most of the time.

A better solution is to uses switching. A switch network consists of a series of inter- linked nodes, called
switches. Switches are hardware and/or software capable of creating temporary connection between two or
more devices linked to switch but not to each other.

Traditionally, three methods of switching have been important:

a) Circuit switching

b) Packet switching and

c) Message switching
Circuit Switching

Communication via circuit switching implies that there is a dedicated communication path between two
stations. The path is a connected sequence of links between network nodes. On each physical link, a channel is
dedicated to the connection. A common example of circuit switching is the telephone network.

Communication via circuit switching involves three phases:

B 2
1 D
3

A 6 E
4

7
F

Network Station Node

Dedicated Connection

Non Dedicated Connection

Figure; Circuit Switching Network

Circuit Establishment
Before any signals can be transmitted, an end-to-end (station to station) circuit must be established. For
example, station A wants to communicate with station E. station A sends a request to node 4 requesting a
connection to station E. typically, the link from A to 4 is a dedicated line, so that part of connection already
exists. On the basis of routing information and measures availability and perhaps cost, lets assume that node
4,5, and 6 are used to complete the connection. In completing the connection, a test is made to determine if
station E is busy or is prepared to accept the connection.

Information Transfer

Information now can transmit from A through the network to E the transmission may be analog voice, or binary
data. Generally the connection is full duplex, and signals may be transmitted in both directions simultaneously.

Circuit Disconnection

One the transmission is completed, the connection is terminated, usually by the action of one of the two
stations. Signals must be propagated to the nodes 4, 5, and 6 to deallocate the dedicated resources.

Circuit switching can be rather inefficient. Channel capacity is dedicated for the duration of a connection, even
if no data are being transferred. The connection provides for transmission at a constant data rate. Thus, each of
the devices that are connected must transmit and receive at the same data rate as the other.

Packet Switching

In a packet switching data are transmitted in short packets. A typical packet length is 1000 byte. If a source has
longer message to send, the message is broken up into a series of packets. Each packet contains a portion (or
the entire short message) of the user‘s data plus some control information. These packets

A B C
A B
A B
2
1 D
3

C A
5
B C A B

A C 6 E
4 C

7
F
Network Station

Node

Dedicated Connection

Non Dedicated Connection

are routed to the destination via different available nodes.

Figue: Packet Switching Networks

Above figure illustrate the basic operation. A transmitting computer or other device sends a message as a
sequence of packets. Each packet includes control information including the destination station. The packets
are initially sent to the node to which the sending station attaches. As each packet arrives at these nodes, the
node stores the packet briefly, and determines the next available link. When the link is available, the packet is
transmitted to the next node. The entire packet eventually delivered to the intended node.

There are two popular approaches to packet switching: datagram and virtual circuit.

Datagram Approach

In the datagram approach to packet switching, each packet is treated independently from all others and each
packet can be sent via any available path, with no reference to packet that have gone before. In the datagram
approach packets, with the same destination address, do not all follow the

A B C

B 2
1 D
3

A 5
A B C

A B 6 E
4 C

7
Network Station

Node

Dedicated Connection Non Dedicated

Connection

same route, and they may arrive out of sequence at the exit point.

Figure: Virtual Switching Network

Virtual Circuit

In this approach, a preplanned route is established before any packets are sent. Once the route is established, all
the packets between a pair of communicating parties follow this same route through the network. Each packet
now contains a virtual circuit identifier as well as the data. Each node on the pre-established route knows where
to direct such packet. No routing decisions are required. At any time, each station can have more than one
virtual circuit to any other station and can have virtual circuits to more than one station.

Message Switching

 The descriptive term store and forward best known message switching, in this mechanism, a anode (usually
a special computer with number of disks) receives a message, stores it until the appropriate route is free,
then send it along.

 Note that in message switching the messages are stored and relayed from the secondary storage (disk),
while in packet switching the packets are stored and forward from primary storage (RAM).

 The primary uses of message switching have been to provide high-level network service (e.g. delayed
delivery, broadcast) for unintelligent devices.

 Since such devices have been replaced, message switching has virtually disappeared. Also delays inherent
in the process, as well as the requirement for large capacity storage media at each node, make it unpopular
for direct communication.

Topic Nine: MULTIPLEXING

Introduction to multiplexing
 \

Multiplexing is the process of combining separate signal channels into one composite stream. It is carried out
to increase the utilization of transmission channel. In a multiplexed system, n devices share the capacity of one
link. In the following figure, four devices on the left direct their transmission stream to a multiplexer (MUX)
which combines them into a single stream (many to one). At the receiving end, the stream is fed into a
demultiplexer (DEMX), which

Computer D Computer

1 path
M E

Computer Computer
Three
U Input Line M

Computer Computer

separates the stream back into its component transmissions (one to many) and directs them to their receiving
devices.

Frequency Division Multiplexing

FDM is an analogue technique that works by dividing slicing the total bandwidth of a media into a number of
narrow bandwidth units known as channels.

Channel 1

Total Bandwidth Guard Band

Of Media Channel 2

Guard Band

Channel 3
 Time

Figure: Frequency Division of Media Bandwidth

These channels are separated by further narrower slices, known as guard bands, to prevent inter-channel
interface. This actual waste of bandwidth is offset by the lower costs of the filter (frequency selection device).
The closer the channels are together (the narrower the guard bands (the more critical and expensive the channel
filter become.

Below figure gives a conceptual view of FDM. In this illustration, the transmission path is divided into three
parts (based on different frequencies), each representing a channel to carry one transmission.

D
Computer Computer
Computer Computer
Channel 2
M Channel 3 E

U M

Computer

Figure: Frequency
Division Multiplexing
As an analogy, imagine a point where three separate narrow roads merge to form a three-lane highway. Each of
the three roads corresponds to a lane of the highway. Each car merging into the highway from one of the road
still has its own lane and can travel without interfering with cars in other lane.

Example: Cable Television

A familiar application of FDM is cable television. The coaxial cable used in a cable television system has a
bandwidth of approximately 500 MHz. An individual television channel requires about 6 MHz of bandwidth
for transmission. The coaxial cable, therefore, can carry many multiplexed channels (theoretically 83 channels,
but actually fewer to allow for guard band). A demultiplexer at your television allows you to select which of
those channels you wish to receive.
Time Division Multiplexing

Synchronous TDM

Computer

Computer

C A C A C B A

Computer

Figure: Synchronous TDM

In this method, multiplexer allocates the same time slot to each device at all time, whether or not
a device has anything to transmit. IF there are n input line than there must be n time slots in the
frame (time slots are grouped into frames). Time slot (lets say T), for example, is assigned to
device (lets say D) alone and can not be used by any other device. Each time its allocated time
slot comes in (in a round robin fashion), Device D has the opportunity to send a portion of its
data for time slot T. If the device D is unable to transmit or does not have data to send, its time
slot remains empty and no other device can use it, another words it is wasted.

Asynchronous TDM(Statistical TDM)

Asynchronous TDM provide better utilization of media. Like synchronous TDM, asynchronous
TDM allows a number of lower speed input lines to be multiplexed to a single higher speed line.
Unlike synchronous TDM, however, in asynchronous TDM the total speed of input line can be
greater than the capacity of the media. In asynchronous TDM the number of slots in the frame is
less than numbers of input lines. Slots are not preassigned, each slot is available to any of the
attached input lines that has data to send. The multiplexer scans the input line, accepts the
portion of data until a frame is filed, and then sends the frame across the link.

Computer

M A C A C B A 1

Computer

Computer

Figure: Asynchronous TDM

Since the slots are not pre-assigned for each input line, line address must be added along with the
data to send.

Topic Ten: Network Security and Management

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Network security and network management are two critical aspects of maintaining a secure and
efficient computer network.

Network Security: Network security involves implementing measures to protect the integrity,
confidentiality, and availability of data in a computer network. It encompasses the policies,
procedures, and technologies designed to prevent unauthorized access, misuse, modification, or
denial of the network and its resources.

Key Components:

a) Firewalls: Firewalls act as a barrier between a secure internal network and external
networks, controlling incoming and outgoing traffic based on predetermined security rules.

b) Encryption: This involves encoding data to make it unreadable without the appropriate
decryption key. It's crucial for securing data during transmission and storage.

c) Authentication: Ensuring that users and devices are who they claim to be before granting
access to network resources. This can involve the use of usernames, passwords, biometrics,
or multi-factor authentication.

d) Intrusion Detection and Prevention Systems (IDPS): These systems monitor network or
system activities for malicious activities or security policy violations and can take action to
prevent or stop such activities.

e) Antivirus and Anti-malware Software: Protects against malicious software that can
compromise the security of a network.

f) Virtual Private Networks (VPNs): VPNs create a secure, encrypted connection over a less
secure network, such as the internet, to provide remote users with secure access to the
network.

g) Security Policies: Establishing and enforcing policies that dictate how users and systems
should interact with the network, including access controls, data handling, and incident
response procedures.

Importance: Network security is crucial to safeguard sensitive information, maintain the trust of
users, comply with regulations, and prevent disruptions to network operations. Breaches in
network security can lead to data breaches, financial losses, and damage to an organization's
reputation.

Network Management: Network management involves the administration, monitoring, and

optimization of network infrastructure to ensure its smooth operation, efficiency, and
availability. It encompasses both hardware and software components and aims to achieve the
goals of reliability, performance, and security.

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Key Components:

a) Network Monitoring: Continuously observing the network to identify and address

performance issues, security threats, and other anomalies.

b) Configuration Management: Ensuring that network devices are correctly configured and
managing changes to configurations to prevent errors or vulnerabilities.

c) Fault Management: Identifying, isolating, and resolving problems in the network to

minimize downtime and disruptions.

d) Performance Management: Optimizing network performance by monitoring and adjusting

parameters such as bandwidth usage, response times, and error rates.

e) Security Management: Implementing and updating security measures, policies, and

protocols to protect the network from unauthorized access and potential threats.

f) Traffic Analysis: Studying network traffic patterns to make informed decisions about
capacity planning, resource allocation, and overall network design.

g) Asset Management: Keeping track of all network assets, including hardware, software, and
configurations.

Importance: Effective network management is essential for ensuring the reliability and
performance of a network. It helps organizations proactively address issues, allocate resources
efficiently, and adapt to changes in network demands. Without proper network management,
organizations may experience downtime, increased operational costs, and a decreased ability to
meet user and business requirements.

In summary, network security and network management are interrelated disciplines that work
together to create a robust, secure, and efficient computer network infrastructure. While network
security focuses on protecting the network from unauthorized access and cyber threats, network
management is concerned with optimizing and maintaining the network for reliable and efficient
operation. Both are crucial for the success of modern organizations that rely heavily on
interconnected digital systems.

Topic Eleven: Emerging Technological Advancements in Networking

Some trends and advancements that is notable

1) 5G Technology: The rollout and expansion of 5G networks were underway. 5G promises

faster data speeds, lower latency, and increased capacity, enabling a wide range of
applications, including IoT, augmented reality (AR), and virtual reality (VR).

65
2) Edge Computing: Edge computing involves processing data closer to the source of
generation, reducing latency and improving efficiency. This is particularly important for
applications that require real-time processing, such as IoT devices and autonomous systems.

3) Software-Defined Networking (SDN): SDN separates the control plane from the data plane,
allowing for more flexible and programmable network management. It enhances agility,
scalability, and the ability to implement policies dynamically.

4) Network Function Virtualization (NFV): NFV involves virtualizing traditional network

functions, such as routers and firewalls, making them software-based and more flexible. This
reduces hardware dependence, accelerates service deployment, and enhances scalability.

5) Intent-Based Networking (IBN): IBN is a network architecture that interprets high-level

business policies and translates them into network configurations. This approach simplifies
network management, reduces manual configuration errors, and enhances automation.

6) Wi-Fi 6 (802.11ax): Wi-Fi 6, the latest generation of Wi-Fi technology, provides faster data
transfer speeds, improved performance in crowded environments, and better support for IoT
devices. It aims to enhance the overall wireless connectivity experience.

7) Blockchain in Networking: Blockchain technology is being explored for enhancing network

security, transparency, and trust. It can be applied to secure transactions, manage identities,
and improve the integrity of data in network environments.

8) Quantum Networking: Quantum networking explores the application of quantum

mechanics principles to network communication. Quantum key distribution (QKD) is one
example, offering ultra-secure communication through quantum cryptography.

9) Network Slicing: Network slicing is a concept within 5G that allows the creation of multiple
virtual networks within a single physical network infrastructure. Each slice is customized for
specific applications or user groups, providing flexibility and efficient resource utilization.

10) Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Networking: AI and machine learning (ML) are increasingly
used for network monitoring, predictive analytics, and security. These technologies can
analyze vast amounts of data to detect patterns, anomalies, and potential security threats.

11) Augmented Reality (AR) for Network Troubleshooting: AR is being leveraged for remote
assistance and troubleshooting in network maintenance. Technicians can use AR applications
to visualize network components, access information, and receive guidance in real-time.

12) Zero Trust Security Model: The Zero Trust model assumes that threats can originate from
both outside and inside the network. It requires strict identity verification for anyone trying to
access resources, regardless of their location.

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