 Electric potential

 Potential difference
 Electric potential due to a
point charge, a dipole and
system of charges
 Equipotential Surface
 Potential energy of a system
of two point in charges and of
electric dipole in an
electrostatic field.

Electric Potential difference

Suppose Q is placed and test charge q is placed in its electric field
Work has to be done in moving test charge against repulsive force
exerted by Q
Potential difference is defined as the amount of work done in
bringing a unit charge from one point to another against
electrostatic force.
𝑊
VP-VQ= Its SI unit is volt V
𝑞0
Electric Potential
Electric potential at a point is defined as the amount of work done in
bringing a unit charge from infinity to that point against
electrostatic force without acceleration. Its SI unit is volt V.
Electric potential at a point is said to be 1 volt if 1 joule of work is
done in moving a one coulomb charge from infinity to that point.
𝑊
V= Electric potential is a scalar quantity
𝑞0

For Q < 0, V < 0, i.e., work done (by external

force) per unit positive test charge in
bringing it from infinity to the point is
negative.

Electric potential due to point charge

Small amount of work done in moving through small distance dx is

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO AN ELECTRIC DIPOLE AT AN
AXIAL POINT

Potential at P due to charge at A

−𝑘𝑞
𝑉𝐴 =
(𝑟+𝑎)
Potential at P due to charge at B
𝑘𝑞
𝑉𝐵 =
(𝑟−𝑎)
Net V is
1 1
V = kq [ - ]
(𝑟−𝑎) (𝑟+𝑎)
2𝑎
=kq[ ]
(𝑟 2 −𝑎2 )
𝑘𝑞𝑋2𝑎
=
𝑟 2 −𝑎2
 𝑘𝑝
= 2 2
𝑟 −𝑎
For a short dipole r>>a
𝑘𝑝
V= 2
𝑟

AT EQUATORIAL POINT

Potential at P due to charge at A

−𝑘𝑞
𝑉𝐴 = 2 2
√𝑟 +𝑎
Potential at P due to charge at B
𝑘𝑞
𝑉𝐵 = 2 2
√𝑟 +𝑎
Net V is
V = 𝑉𝐴 + 𝑉𝐵
=0

The electric dipole potential falls off as

1 1
2
while , potential due to a single
𝑟 𝑟
1
charge falls off as ,
𝑟
Electric Potential due to a Group of Charges

Since potential is a
scalar quantity so the net electrostatic potential at a point due
to a group of charges is the algebraic sum of their individual
potentials at that point.
VP = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 + …………+ Vn
𝑘𝑞 𝑘𝑞 𝑘𝑞 𝑘𝑞
= + + +………………………
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟3 𝑟𝑁

Electric POTENTIAL ENERGY

a) System of two charges Suppose,first the charge q1
is brought from infinity to
the point r1. There is no
external field against which
work needs to be done, so
work done in bringing q1
from infinity to r1 is zero.
W1=0
This charge produces a
potential at P2 due to charge
q1
𝑘𝑞1
V1=
𝑟12
Work done in bringing charge q2 from infinity to the point r2 is
q2 times the potential at r2 due to q1:
W=q2 X V1
𝑘𝑞1 𝑞2
=
𝑟12
This work gets stored in the form of potential energy of the system.
Thus, the potential energy of a system of two charges q1 and q2 is
𝑘𝑞1 𝑞2
U=
𝑟12

b) System of three charges

To bring q1 first
from infinity , no work is
required.
W1=0
Next we bring q2 from
infinity to P2
Work done in this is
W2=q2 X V1
𝑘𝑞1 𝑞2
=
𝑟12
The charges q1 and q2
produce a potential at P3
Thus Work done in bringing
q3 from infinity to the point
P3 is
W3=q2 X V1
𝑘𝑞1 𝑞3 𝑘𝑞2 𝑞3
= +
𝑟13 𝑟23
Total work done is
W=W1+W2+W3
𝑘𝑞 𝑞 𝑘𝑞 𝑞 𝑘𝑞 𝑞
= 𝑟 1 2 + 𝑟1 3 + 𝑟2 3
12 13 23
This work done is stored as potential energy
𝑘𝑞 𝑞 𝑘𝑞 𝑞 𝑘𝑞 𝑞
U= 𝑟 1 2 + 𝑟1 3 + 𝑟2 3
12 13 23

 If q1q2 > 0, potential energy is positive.

since for like charges(q1q2>0),
electrostatic force is repulsive and a
positive amount of work is needed to be
done against this force to bring the
charges from infinity to a finite distance
apart.
 For unlike charges (q1 q2 < 0), the
electrostatic force is attractive. So a
positive amount of work is needed
against this force to take the charges
from the given location to infinity. In
other words,a negative amount of work
is needed for the reverse path (from
infinity to the present locations), so the
potential energy is negative.
Potential energy of a dipole in an external field

Consider a dipole placed in a uniform

electric field E, as shown in Fig.
As in a uniform electric field,
the dipole experiences no net force;
but experiences a torque τ given by
τ = p×E
which will tend to rotate it
(unless p is parallel or antiparallel to E).
Small amount of work done to rotate a
Dipole through small angle dθ against the
torque is
dW=τ dθ
Total work done in rotating dipole from
Θ1 to θ2 is

𝜃
W=∫𝜃 2 𝑝𝐸𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃
1
𝜃
= pE[−𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃]𝜃21
= pE[Cos Θ1 -Cos θ2]
This work is stored as the potential energy of the system
U= pE[Cos Θ1 -Cos θ2]
If initially dipole is perpendicular to field and is rotated
through angle θ then
U (θ ) = pE [cos π/2 – cosθ] = –pE cosθ
 Stable Equillibrium
When θ=0 U=-pE Minimum Potential energy
Zero Energy
When θ=90 U=0
Unstable Equillibrium
When θ=180 U=+pE Maximum Potential energy

Relation between Electric field and potential

Let A and B be two points separated by distance dl. V and V+dV be

potentials at two points
Work done to move test charge from A to B is W=-qEdr…..(1)
Also, work done to move test charge from A to B is W=-q(dV)…(2)
From (1) and (2)
𝑑𝑉
E= -
𝑑𝑟
(i) Electric field is in the direction in which the potential
decreases steepest.
(ii) Its magnitude is given by the change in the magnitude of
potential per unit displacement(called potential gradient)
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO A CHARGED SPHERICAL SHELL

a) For a points outside the spherical shell

Electric field outside the shell is as if the entire charge is
concentrated at the centre. Thus, the potential outside the shell
is given by
𝑘𝑞
V=𝑟
b) For a points on the surface of the spherical shell
𝑘𝑞
r=R V=𝑅
c) For a points inside the spherical shell
As electric field inside the shell is zero, which implies that potential is
constant inside the shell .
𝑑𝑉
E=--
𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑉
0=-- Thus V = constant
𝑑𝑟
Thus electric potential inside the shell equals its value at the surface
Note :-
 At equatorial point of dipole, V=0 but E ҂ 0.
 Inside a changed spherical shell, E=0 but V҂ 0.

EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACE
An equipotential surface is a surface that has same electric potential at every
point on it. For ex.Surface of a charged conductor
PROPERTIES OF EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACE
1. No work is required to move a test charge over an
equipotential surface
WAB=q X(VB-VA)
As VB=VA
=0
2. Electric field is always normal to the equipotential surface at
every point
 If the field were not normal to the equipotential surface , it would
have non- zero component along the surface . Thus , work have to be
done to move a charge against the component of field but no work is
required to move a charge on equipotential surface .

3.Equipotential surface cannot intersect each other.

If they will intersect, then at the point of intersection two different
values of potential exist at a point which is not possible.

4. Equipotential surfaces are closer together in the regions of

strong field and far apart in weak field
𝑑𝑉
E=-
𝑑𝑟
1
For constant dV we have dr α Thus when E is strong spacing is less
𝐸

EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES FOR

1) POSITIVE CHARGE
For a single charge q, the
potential is given
𝑘𝑞
by V =
𝑟
This shows that V is a constant
if r is constant . Thus
equipotential surfaces of a
single point charge are
concentric spherical surfaces
centred at the charge.
2) For a dipole

They are closer

together in
between the two
charges where
field is strong
 3) For two equal positive charges

They are far apart in the region between the two charges where
field is weak.
4) For uniform electric field
Since E must be normal to equipotential surface

CONDUCTORS
Conductors are those substances which contain free charge carriers and
so allow easy flow of current
When a conductor is placed in
uniform electric field,negative
charge gets induced on left end
and positive charges gets
induced on right end Due to the
redistribution of charges, an
electric field is set up in the
conductor in a direction opposite
to that of the applied field. This
process continues till induced E
becomes equal to external field
Hence Net E=0
2) Excess charge always reside on the surface of conductor only.
As electric field inside the conductor is zero
𝑞
From Gauss’s law ∫ ⃗⃗⃗𝐸. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑆 =
𝜀𝑜
𝑞
0=
𝜀𝑜

Hence there can be no charge inside the conductor so excess charge

will resides on its surface.
3) At the surface of a charged conductor, electric field must be normal to the
surface of the conductor
If E were not normal to the surface, it would have some non-zero
component along the surface which will cause the flow of charges
which is not possible in the static situation, therefore, E should have
no tangential component. Thus electrostatic field at the surface of a
charged conductor must be normal to the surface at every point.

4) Electrostatic potential is constant throughout the volume of the conductor

Since E = 0 inside the conductor and has no tangential component
𝑑𝑉
on the surface, so E = - =0 so V=constant
𝑑𝑟
𝝈
5) Electric field at the surface of a charged conductor is
𝜺𝟎

Choose a pill box (a short cylinder) as the

Gaussian surface about any point P on the
surface, as shown in Fig. The pill box is partly
inside and partly outside the surface of the
conductor.
Just inside the surface, the electrostatic field is
zero; just outside, the field is normal to the
surface with magnitude E.
Thus, the contribution to the total flux through
the pill box comes only from the outside
(circular) cross-section of the pill box.
𝑞
By Gauss’s law ф 𝐸. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
= ∫ ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑆 =
𝜀𝑜

𝜎𝑑𝑆 𝜎
EdS= Thus E=
𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑜
6 ) The electric field inside a cavity of any conductor is zero.

Whatever be the charge and field configuration outside, any cavity in a

conductor remains shielded from outside electric influence: the field inside
the cavity is always zero. This is known as electrostatic shielding. The
effect can be made use of in protecting sensitive instruments from outside
electrical influence

DIELECTRICS
Dielectrics are non conducting substance. In contrast to
conductor, they have no (or negligible number of) charge
carriers. In a dielectric free movement of charges is not
possible.
When dielectric is placed in an external electric field, field
induces dipole moment by stretching or reorienting molecules
of the dielectric. The collective effect of all the molecular dipole
moments is net charges on the surface of the dielectric which
produces a field that opposes the external field.
Unlike in a conductor, however, the opposing field so induced
does not exactly cancel the external field. It only reduces it.
NON POLAR DIELECTRIC
In a non polar molecule, the centers of positive and negative charges coincide .
The molecules then has no permanent or intrinsic dipole moment.Examples are O2
and H2

POLAR DIELCTRIC
A polar molecule is one in which the center of positive and negative are
separated. Such molecules have a permanent dipole moment. An ionic molecule
such as HCl and H2O are examples of polar molecule

NON POLAR MOLECULES IN EXTERNAL ELECTRIC FIELD

In the absence of E centres of positive and negative charges

of the molecules coincide so net dipole moment is zero.
In an external electric field, the positive and negative charges of a
non polar molecule are displaced in opposite directions. The non
polar molecules thus develop an induced dipole moment. The
dielectric is thus said to be polarized by the external field.

POLAR DIELECTRIC IN EXTERNAL ELECTRIC FIELD

In the absence of E molecules are randomly oriented so net dipole

moment is zero.But when an external field is applied, the dipole
moments of different molecules tend to align with the field, i:e; the
dielectric is polarized .

A dielectric (polar or non polar) develops a net dipole moment in

the presence of an external field, which is known as polarization.
It is defined as the dipole moment (developed) per unit volume is
called polarization
Why polarization of dielectric reduces the electric field inside the dielectric

Consider a rectangular dielectric slab placed in a uniform external

field parallel to two of its faces. Anywhere inside the dielectric, the
volume element Δv has no net charge (though it has net
dipole moment). This is, because, the positive charge of one
dipole sits close to the negative charge of the adjacent dipole.
However the positive ends of the dipoles remain unneutralised at
the right surface and the negative ends at the left surface. The
unbalanced charges are the induced charges due to the external
field.The field produced by these surface charges oppose the
external field. The total field in the dielectric is, thereby, reduced
from the case when no dielectric is present.

Ep

Reultant E= E0-Ep
Ratio of original field and the reduced field in the dielectric is called dielectric
constant.
𝐸0 𝐸0
K= =
𝐸 𝐸0−𝐸𝑝

ELECTRIC SUSCEPTIBILITY OF DIELECTRIC

It has been observed that the polarization P is directly proportional to the net
electric field intensity applied on it from an external source.
P α E or P = χ𝜀0 E
Where χ is the dimensionless proportionality constant called
SUSCEPTIBILITY . It describes the behavior of a dielectric.

CAPACITANCE
Capacitance of a conductor is related to its ability to store the
electric charge or energy.
When a conductor is given some charge, its electric potential
increases. If a charge Q given to the conductor raises its potential by
V, then it is found that
Q α V or Q=CV , where C is a constant of proportionality and is called
capacitance of the conductor .
𝑄
C=
𝑉
Capacitance is the ratio of charge given to the conductor to the rise
in its potential.
If V=1, C=Q,
Thus , capacitance of a conductor is numerically equal to the charge
required to raise its potential by unity. SI unit of capacitance is
coulomb/volt which is written as farad(F).
A conductor is said to have a capacitance of one farad, when a
charge of one coulomb raises its potential by one volt.
Capacitance is scalar quantity

CAPACITORS
A capacitor is an arrangement for storing large amounts of electric
charge and hence electric energy.
Usually, a capacitor consists of a system of two conductors
separated by an insulating medium. Often the two conductors are
charged by connecting them to the two terminals of a battery.

In most practical applications, each conductor initially has zero net

charge and electrons are transferred from one conductor to another.
This is called charging of conductor. Then, the two conductors have
charges with equal magnitude and opposite sign and the net charge
on the capacitor as a whole remains zero. When we say that a
conductor has a charge q we mean that the conductor at higher
potential has a charge +q and the conductor at lower potential has a
charge –q.

PRINCIPLE OF A CAPACITOR
Working of a capacitor is based on the fact that the capacitance of an
insulated conductor is increases considerably by bringing near it an
unchanged conductor connected to earth.
To understand the principle of a capacitor, let us consider an
insulated metal plate A. let some positive charge be given to this
plate, till its potential becomes maximum. No further charge can be
given to this plate as it would leak out.

Now, consider another insulated metal plate B held near plate A. by

induction, a negative charge is produced on the nearer face of B and
equal opposite charge developed on the further face of B.
The induced negative charge tends to decrease the potential of A
and the induced positive charge tends to increase the potential of A.
as the induced negative charge is closer to A, it is more effective. The
overall potential of A reduces and hence some more charge can be
given to A to raise its potential to maximum. Thus, capacity of the
conductor A has increased, by bringing another uncharged
conductor B in its vicinity.

Now, connect the plate B to earth. The induced positive charge on B

being free, flows to earth. The induced negative charge on B,
however stays on as it is bound to positive charge on A. due to
induced negative charge on B, potential of A is greatly reduced. Thus
a large amount of charge can be given to A to raise it to the
maximum potential.
Note
𝑄
Equation C = shows that for large C, V is small for a given Q. This
𝑉
means a capacitor with large capacitance can hold large amount of
charge Q at a relatively small V. This is of practical importance. High
potential difference implies strong electric field around the
conductors. A strong electric field can ionise the surrounding air and
accelerate the charges so produced to the oppositely charged plates,
thereby neutralising the charge on the capacitor plates, at least
partly. In other words, the charge of the capacitor leaks away due to
the reduction in insulating power of the intervening medium.
The maximum electric field that a dielectric medium can withstand
without break-down (of its insulating property) is called its
dielectric strength; for air it is about 3 × 106 Vm–1. Thus, for a
capacitor to store a large amount of charge without leaking, its
capacitance should be high enough so that the potential difference
and hence the electric field do not exceed the break-down limits.

PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR AND ITS CAPACITANCE

A parallel plate capacitor consists of two large plane parallel
conducting plates separated by a small distance

Plate 1 has surface charge density σ = Q/A and plate 2 has a surface
charge density –σ.
Electric field in different regions is:
Outer region I (region above the plate 1),E
𝜎 𝜎
E1= − E2= +
2𝜀0 2𝜀0
Net E= 0
Region 2
𝜎 𝜎
E1= E2= −
2𝜀0 2𝜀0
Net E= 0
Region 3
𝜎 𝜎
E1= E2=
2𝜀0 2𝜀0
𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 𝑄
Net E= ( + )= =
2𝜀0 2𝜀0 𝜀0 𝐴𝜀0
Potential difference between the plates
 𝑄𝑑
V= Ed=
𝐴𝜀0

Capacitance is given by
𝑄 𝜀
C= = 𝑜A
𝑉 𝑑

A capacitor with fixed capacitance is symbolically shown as ---||---,

while the one with variable capacitance is shown as --||---,

Energy stored in a capacitor

A capacitor is a device to store charge. Process of charging
the capacitor involves transferring of charges from one plate
to another.This work done is stored as electrical energy.
A capacitor is a system of two conductors with charge Q and –Q.
Consider initially two uncharged conductors 1 and 2. Imagine next a
process of transferring charge from conductor 2 to conductor 1 bit
by bit, so that at the end, conductor 1 gets charge Q. By charge
conservation, conductor 2 has charge –Q at the end .

In transferring positive charge from conductor 2 to conductor 1,

work will be done externally, since at any stage conductor 1 is at a
higher potential than conductor 2. To calculate the total work done,
we first calculate the work done in a small step involving transfer of
small amount of charge.
At this stage, the potential difference V′ between conductors 1 to 2 is
Q′/C
dW= V′dQ’
𝑄′
= dQ’
𝐶
Total work done in transferring charge Q from plate 2 to plate 1 is
𝑄 𝑄′
W=∫0 dQ’
𝐶
𝟏 𝑸𝟐
U=
𝟐 𝑪

𝟏
U= 𝑪𝑽𝟐
𝟐

This work done is stored as electrical potential energy of the

capacitor
𝟏
U= 𝑪𝑽𝟐
𝟐

Energy density of an electric field

𝜎 𝑄
Electric field between the capacitor plates is E= =
𝜀0 𝐴𝜀0

Q=𝐴𝜀0 𝐸
𝜀
Since C= 𝑜A
𝑑

𝟏 𝑸𝟐
Thus Energy stored in the capacitor is U=
𝟐 𝑪

𝟏 (𝐴𝜀0 𝐸)𝟐 𝟏
= 𝜀𝑜 = 𝐴𝑑𝜀0 𝐸 2
𝟐 𝐴 𝟐
𝑑

𝑈 𝟏
Energy stored per unit volume= = 𝜀0 𝐸 2
𝐴𝑑 𝟐
COMBINATIONS OF CAPACITORS
(1) SERIES COMBINATION
In series combination of capacitors, positive plate of one capacitor is connected
to the negative plate of other. In series combination, charge on each capacitor is
same.

Sum of potential differences of all the capacitors is equal to the applied potential
difference

V=V1+V2+V3

𝑄 𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
= + +
𝐶 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3

1 1 1 1
= + +
𝐶 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3

(2) PARALLEL COMBINATION

In parallel combination, the positive plates of all the capacitor are connected to
one common point and all negative plate to another common point.

Total charge on capacitor is

Q=Q1+Q2+Q3
CV= C1V+C2V+C3V
C=C1+C2+C3

EFFECT OF DIELECTRIC SLAB ON CAPACITANCE

When a dielectric slab of thickness t<d is placed between the plates

Net field inside the dielectric is E= E0-Ep
𝐸0
Since K=
𝐸
So field E exists over a distance t and E0 over a remaining distance
(d-t)
Thus potential difference between the capacitor plates is
𝐸
V= Eo(d-t)+ 0t
𝐾
𝑡
= Eo[d-t+ ]
𝐾
𝑄 𝑡
= [d-t+ ]
𝜀0 𝐴 𝐾
𝑄 𝜀0 𝐴
Hence capacitance is C= = 𝑡
𝑉 [d−t+ 𝐾]

NOTE If t= d( Entire space is filled with dielectric)

 𝜀0 𝐴
C= K
𝑑
= KC0
𝐶
Thus K=
𝐶0

EFFECT OF CONDUCTING SLAB ON CAPACITANCE

Potential difference between the plates will be

V= Eo(d-t)
𝑄
= [d-t]
𝜀0 𝐴

𝑄 𝜀0 𝐴
Hence capacitance is C= =
𝑉 [d−t]
INSERTION OF DIELECTRIC SLAB WHEN BATTERY REMAINS CONNECTED
On inserting the dielectric slab, the electric field and hence electric potential difference
between the plates gets reduced. The battery which remains connected will compensate for
the loss in potential by giving more change to the capacitor
.
INSERTION OF DIELECTRIC SLAB AFTER DISCONNECTING THE BATTERY
On inserting the dielectric slab, the electric field and hence electric potential
difference between the plates gets reduced .