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ARTICLE

Aerobic Granulation for a Future Wastewater Treatment

Technology: Challenges Ahead
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Received 00th January 20xx, a,c* b*

Accepted 00th January 20xx S. J. Sarma, and J. H. Tay
DOI: 10.1039/x0xx00000x Aerobic granules were discovered around 20 years back. These are spherical aggregates of mixed microbial culture,
typically around 0.5-3 mm in diameter. Aerobic granule based wastewater treatment technology has been successfully
www.rsc.org/
used in full-scale for real wastewater treatment. It is argued that the aerobic granule based technology can potentially
replace the traditional activated sludge process. First of all advantages, aerobic granule based wastewater treatment
plants can be built within around one fourth of the land occupied by conventional activated sludge based plants.
Additionally, this technology can reduce the operating cost by nearly 25%. Reduction in sludge production and reduction in
energy consumption (around 30%) are other benefits of this technology. Granule formation is a relatively slow process. In
fact, the time taken for granule formation is a challenge for full-scale application of this technology. The mechanism
behind aerobic granule formation is not fully understood. Thus, further investigation of the molecular mechanism of
granule formation would be crucial for successful commercialization of this technology.

have a specific gravity ranging from 1.004 to 1.1 kg dry weight per
3
Water Impact Statement m , and this value is significantly higher than around 1.002 to
3 8
1.006 g dry weight per m of activated sludge flocs. Likewise,
Aerobic granulation technology has many advantages over
conventional activated sludge process for wastewater treatment
conventional activated sludge process of wastewater treatment. It
uses large secondary clarifier tanks to hold the wastewater for as
can reduce the cost and energy requirement for wastewater
treatment. Without reducing the daily wastewater handling long as 12 hours to separate the sludge by gravimetric settling. On
capacity, this new technology can reduce the size of the wastewater the contrary, if aerobic granules are used for wastewater
treatment plant by 75%. treatment, the same reactor can be used for both treatment and
clarification. For instance, SVI30 (Sludge Volume Index) of 80 to 120
is considered appropriate for activated sludge process and this
Introduction value is usually lower than its SVI5. However, the SVI30 of aerobic
granules could be around 47 and this value is usually similar to its
Compared to activated sludge process, the aerobic granulation is a
SVI5. This indicates excellent settling ability of aerobic granules. It
relatively new technology for wastewater treatment. Extensive
1-4 would save the land and capital required for constructing the
research work on this subject was started in late 1990s. Aerobic
clarifier tanks. Thus, by switching to the aerobic granulation
granules are auto-immobilized microspheres of mixed microbial
technology, land requirement for construction of new wastewater
species. They are generated during wastewater treatment using
treatment plant could be reduced by nearly 75%. Reduction in
aerobic sequencing batch reactor. Aerobic granules are denser and
sludge/biomass production is another advantage of aerobic
heavier than small microbial flocs found in conventional activated 9,10
granules. The cost of sludge dewatering and transportation for
sludge process. These granules can settle down faster than
1,5,6 final disposal is a major contributor of total wastewater treatment
microbial flocs. This helps in quick separation of the sludge from 11
cost. Thus, reduction in sludge production directly reduces the
treated liquid fraction of the wastewater. Conventional wastewater
total treatment cost. This new technology can reduce the energy
treatment process uses polymeric flocculants for enhanced sludge
7 requirement for wastewater treatment by 30 % and overall
settling. Owing to their fast settling ability; aerobic granules can be 12,13
operation cost is reduced by 25%.
effectively separated from the wastewater without the need of any
The basic mechanism behind aerobic granule formation is a subject
flocculating agents. It has been reported that aerobic granules may
of current fundamental research even after nearly 20 years of its
discovery. Numbers of hypotheses have been proposed to explain
the underlying mechanism of granule formation. However, these
14
mechanisms are not well-settled. This article discusses the recent
theories on granule formation and provides a roadmap for further
fundamental investigations to explore the underlying mechanism.
Similarly, it discusses the role of reactor design and process

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21
parameters on granule formation and wastewater treatment. rate and starvation are crucial for stable granule formation.
Aerobic granules are known to have nitrogen and phosphorus However, how do the alternating organic loading rate and
removal mechanisms different from that of conventional activated starvation influence granule formation is not known. Further
sludge. Thus, the article discusses recent theories on nitrogen and investigations on the role of these two parameters in EPS synthesis

Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology Accepted Manuscript

phosphorus removal mechanisms of aerobic granules. Aerobic may provide valuable information on their role in granule
granules have been successfully used for biodegradation of organic formation. Thus, granule formation mechanism is still a subject of
pollutants and heavy metal removal from wastewater. Recent fundamental investigation.
advances on this subject have also been discussed. There are
certain examples of full-scale implementation of aerobic granules
for real wastewater treatment. Such reports have been evaluated Reactor and process parameters
to determine the actual potential of this technology. Finally, the Aerobic granules are usually developed during wastewater
Published on 10 October 2017. Downloaded by Gazi Universitesi on 11/10/2017 03:37:25.

challenges of real application of this technology and their potential treatment using sequencing batch reactors (SBR).
22,23
SBRs have
solutions have been summarized. Thus, it is a comprehensive well-defined operation cycle where each cycle could be of certain
review of all aspects of aerobic granulation technology for duration such as 3-6 hours. Each cycle is further divided into
wastewater treatment. definite filling period, aeration or mixing period, settling period and
24
effluent drawing period. Operation cycle and its periods are the
characteristics of SBR. Therefore, they are directly related to the
Aerobic granule formation mechanism mechanism behind granule formation. For instance, short settling
As mentioned in the introduction section, there are different period of SBR is of great importance for stable granule formation.
hypotheses to explain aerobic granule formation mechanism. Qin et al (2004) investigated the effect of settling time on granule
However, there is no convincing experimental evidence to support formation. Settling time of 5, 10, 15 and 20 minutes were
any one of such hypotheses. Recently, a new hypothesis of aerobic evaluated. It was observed that a settling time of 5 minute was
25
granule formation has been proposed by this author. According to most effective for granule development.
this hypothesis, granule formation is initiated by newly germinated Reactor height to the diameter (H/D) ratio is another crucial
15
fungal spores. An initial fungal hyphae matrix could be developed parameter for aerobic granule formation. Awang et al (2016) have
either by newly germinated fungal spore or by small fragment of demonstrated that increase in H/D ratio proportionally increases
fungal hyphae detached from an already established matrix. the maximum specific growth rate of the microorganisms of a
26
Bacteria gradually started to colonize within a newly developed SBR. Linlin et al (2005) have used a cylindrical reactor with a
27
fungal hyphae matrix. Thus, instead of developing into a proper height to diameter (internal) ratio of 50 cm/17.6 cm. Similarly, Val
fungal pellet, the matrix is developed into an aerobic granule del Rio et al (2012) have used a SBR for aerobic granule
dominated by bacteria. development which had a height to internal diameter ratio of 465
28
Barr et al (2010) have suggested that there could be two distinct mm/85 mm. Usually the SBR used for aerobic granule formation
27-29
mechanisms behind aerobic granule formation. Compact and are operated at a temperature of 15 to 27 ºC. Activated sludge
smooth granules could be formed by gradual growth of a single collected from wastewater treatment plant is usually used as
29, 30
colony of microorganisms. Whereas, relatively loose granules could inoculum for granule development. An influent COD of around
29
be developed by aggregation of many independent colonies of 600 mg/L is effective for granule formation. The liquid volume
16
microorganisms. Usually, reactor operated under sequencing exchange ratio of 50% is commonly used for each cycle of the SBR
31
batch mode is suitable for aerobic granule formation. Recently, Wu used for aerobic granule formation. It is widely believed that
et al (2015) have investigated the granule formation mechanism periodic starvation imposed by the cyclic operation of SBR is a
32
under continuous flow condition. The authors have concluded that driving force of granule formation. Shear force generated by the
high organic loading rate and high selection pressure are two crucial up-flow air velocity is another process parameter to determine the
17 33
factors for aerobic granules formation under continuous flow. quality of the granules. Tay et al (2001) have found that when the
Another hypothesis suggests that precipitated metal ions such as supercritical up-flow air velocity was 0.3 cm/s, small microbial flocs
3+
Fe are responsible for formation of an inorganic substratum on were dominants. However, by increasing this velocity to 1.2 cm/s,
33
which microorganisms are attached to form the core of the granule. dense aerobic granules were obtained. Likewise, Beun et al (1999)
Shear stress generated by aeration is also essential for mature have concluded that high shear force and short hydraulic retention
18 34
granule formation. Oh et al have suggested that there are three time (HRT) are appropriate for aerobic granule formation.
major steps in granule formation. According to the authors, physical Thus, the process parameters such as settling time, HRT, up-flow air
movement is responsible for initial self-aggregation among velocity, organic loading rate, starvation period and H/D ratio are
microbial cells. As a second step, microbial aggregations are some of the parameters directly related to granule formation. Most
stabilized by attractive forces such as Van der Waals forces. Finally, of these parameters have been optimized for compact and stable
mature granules are formed by the help of extracellular polymeric aerobic granule formation. However, the molecular biological
substances (EPS) synthesis, growth of immobilized cells and mechanisms behind the effect of these parameters on granule
19
hydrodynamic forces among others. Gao et al (2011) have formation are largely unexplored. There is a need to study the
suggested that cell surface hydrophobicity is responsible for initial effect of these parameters on the microorganisms involved in
20
cell-to-cell aggregation involved in granule formation. Recently, granule formation. How does the microorganism recognize and
Zhang et al (2017) have concluded that alternating organic loading respond to the changes in process parameters is a poorly

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understood subject. Further investigation of this topic would be common mechanism of phosphorus removal, aerobic granules are
useful for this technology. capable of removing phosphorus by precipitation. EDX assisted SEM
analysis has shown that phosphorus was precipitated in the core
zone of aerobic granules mostly as Ca5(PO4)3OH. The report

Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology Accepted Manuscript

Nutrient removal by aerobic granules concluded that precipitation was responsible for removing as high
42
Nutrient (carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus) removal efficiency of as 45% of total phosphorus removed by aerobic granules. Further
aerobic granules is comparable to that of conventional biological studies would be needed to understand the phosphorus
nutrient removal process. It has been claimed that the aerobic precipitation mechanism of aerobic granules. Factors involved in
granules are capable of simultaneous nitrification, denitrification as phosphorus precipitation and solubilisation dynamics need to be
well as phosphorus removal in a single step process involving only identified for better understanding of this subject.
35
one reactor. This is a technical advantage of the aerobic
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granulation technology. During simultaneous nitrogen and

phosphorus removal, nitrification and phosphorus removal could be
Biodegradation of pollutants
seen even without proper granule development; however for Since its discovery in late 1990s aerobic granulation technology has
efficient denitrification, development of mature granule is been successfully used for biodegradation of a range of organic
35
necessary. Mature granules have an anoxic zone at the center and pollutants. Phenol is one of the organic pollutants efficiently
35
most probably this anoxic zone is responsible for denitrification. degraded by aerobic granules. Adav et al (2007) have demonstrated
Bao et al (2009) have evaluated the effect of low temperature (10 that as high as 1000 mg/L of phenol could be degraded by aerobic
36 43
ºC) on aerobic granule development and nutrient removal. It has granules at an impressive degradation rate of 49 mg/gVSS/h.
been reported that the granules with a diameter of around 3.4 mm Candida tropicalis, a strain capable of degrading phenol at high
could be formed in that temperature and the granules developed initial concentration was isolated from the phenol degrading
36
effective denitrification capability after maturation. A decrease in aerobic granules. This strain was mostly detected in the surface
43
influent COD concentration was found to reduce the denitrification layer of the granules. Yi et al (2006) developed p-nitrophenol
36
ability. These observations suggest that heterotrophic degrading aerobic granules. The granules were capable of
denitrification in the anoxic core of the granule was the main degrading 40.1 mg/L of p-nitrophenol at a degradation rate of 19.3
44
mechanism of denitrification. Apart from nitrification and mg/gVSS/h. Aerobic granules grown in 500 mg/L of phenol have
subsequent heterotrophic denitrification, anaerobic ammonium been shown to degrade as high as 250 to 2500 mg/L of pyridine.
oxidation (Anammox) is a new possibility offered by aerobic Maximum pyridine degradation rate was found to be around 73
45
granules. Anoxic/anaerobic core region of aerobic granules should mg/gVSS/h. Basheer et al (2012) have evaluated p-cresol
support the growth of anammox bacteria. Theoretically, therefore, biodegradation by aerobic granules. It has been reported that as
aerobic granules composed of anammox bacteria should be suitable high as 88% of 800 mg/L of p-cresol could be degraded by aerobic
for the treatment of low strength wastewater such as municipal granules. Maximum p-cresol degradation rate of 960 mg/gVSS/d
wastewater. could be achieved when the initial p-cresol concentration was
46
Kagawa et al (2015) have designed a model to explain the nutrient around 400 mg/L.
removal performance of aerobic granules. The authors have Similarly, application of aerobic granules for biodegradation of 4-
concluded that nutrient removal performance of aerobic granules chloroaniline has been reported by Zhu et al (2011). Maximum
37
depends on DO concentration of the medium. Recently, specific degradation rate of 270 mg/gVSS/d could be achieved when
Lashkarizadeh et al (2016) have evaluated the effect of pH shock on the 4-chloroaniline concentration was more than 400 mg/L. It has
nutrient removal efficiency of aerobic granules. It was found that been reported that the granules were capable of completely
47
high alkaline pH (pH 9) can irreversibly reduce the nitrogen removal removing around 8 g/L of 4-chloroaniline. Likewise, application of
efficiency from 88% to 66% and phosphorus removal efficiency aerobic granules for biodegradation of Acid Red 18 has been
38
from 98% and 50%. However, a mild acidic pH shock (pH 6) did not evaluated by Sadri et al (2016). A sequencing batch reactor with
have any irreversible effect on nutrient removal efficiency of the both anaerobic and aerobic phases was used for granule
aerobic granules. Nutrient removal from low strength wastewater, development and Acid Red 18 removal. It has been reported that
such as municipal wastewater is a challenge for aerobic granules around 50 mg/L of Acid Red 18 could be removed by the aerobic
mostly because of the time taken for granule development. Kang et granules without any difficulty. However, an increase in the dye
al (2017) have evaluated the possibility of growing the granules in concentration for 50 to 100 mg/L was found to have negative effect
48
high strength wastewater and their subsequent application for on the stability of the granules and their dye removal efficiency.
nutrient removal from low strength wastewater. It has been From the above discussion it can be concluded that aerobic
concluded that maintaining an appropriate food to microorganism granules are capable of degrading a range of pollutants. Various
39
ratio would be crucial for success of this strategy. reports on pollutant biodegradation by aerobic granules suggest
Coma et al (2012) have investigated phosphorus removal from that in addition of municipal wastewater treatment, aerobic
domestic wastewater using aerobic granules. It was found that granulation technology would be effective for industrial wastewater
phosphorus removal by the granules could be inhibited by nitrite treatment. Pollutant specific optimization of the process
40
concentration higher than 5 mg nitrite-nitrogen/L. Phosphorus is parameters might be needed for efficient removal. Concomitant
usually removed from the wastewater by bioaccumulation by biodegradation and adsorption seems to be responsible for removal
41
phosphorus accumulating microorganisms. Apart from this of pollutants such as dyes and relatively hydrophobic compounds.

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Heavy metal removal by aerobic granules around 58% to 63% less than that of common activated sludge
54
based process. Li et al (2014) had demonstrated wastewater
Bio-sorption by aerobic granules is a potential tool to remove heavy
treatment by aerobic granules in a full-scale SBR with a working
metals from both municipal and industrial wastewater. Based on 3 55
volume of 50000 m /d. Mature aerobic granules were obtained

Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology Accepted Manuscript

SEM-EDX (scanning electron microscope- energy dispersive X-ray)
after around 337 days of operation of the full-scale reactor.
analysis it has been reported that not only the surface, but the
49 Compared to traditional wastewater treatment processes, aerobic
whole granule including the core zone can adsorb heavy metals.
granular sludge developed in the full-scale reactor was denser with
Pores found in the granules play a crucial role in transfer of these
better settling ability. Average diameter of these granules was
pollutants into the inner zones of the granules. FTIR and XPS 55
around 0.5 mm.
analysis showed that functional groups such as carboxylate,
Stubbe et al (2016) had investigated phosphorus precipitation
alcoholic and ether groups found in the aerobic granules would act
49 within the aerobic granules developed in a full-scale aerobic
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as binding sites for heavy metals. It was found that the ratio 56
granular sludge process. XRD (X-ray diffraction) analysis confirmed
between initial heavy metal concentration and initial aerobic
the presence of SiO4 (quartz) crystals inside the granules. However,
granule concentration is one of the factors to determine the bio-
50 the mature granules did not have any significant amount of
sorption efficiency. Studies on Zn (II) bio-sorption showed that by
precipitated phosphorus. It has been concluded that phosphorus
a maximum of 270 mg of Zn (II) could be adsorbed by each g of
precipitation and dissolution is a dynamic process and at different
aerobic granules. Thus, it could be an effective tool for industrial
50 point of a cycle of SBR operation, the amount of precipitated
wastewater treatment. Luo et al (2016) investigated Cu (II) bio- 56
phosphorus found in the granule could be different. According to
sorption by aerobic granules. It has been concluded that complex
Niermans et al (2014), 20 full-scale aerobic granular sludge
formation and ion exchange were the two major mechanisms of Cu ®
processes, under the brand name Nereda , are in different stages of
(II) bio-sorption. Distribution of Cu (II) on the granule surface was
construction in different countries including UK, Australia,
following a similar trend to that of metal ions usually found in the 57
2+ 2+ Switzerland, Netherlands and Brazil among others. Full-scale
granules such as Ca and Mg . pH and ionic strength were found
Nereda process can offer an excellent effluent quality with less than
to have beneficial effect on Cu (II) bio-sorption by aerobic
51 5 mg/L of total nitrogen and around 0.3 mg/L of total phosphorus.
granules. 57
Additionally, the Nereda process can save energy by around 40%.
Both bacteria and fungi are involved in aerobic granule formation.
Thus, a few full-scale aerobic granule based processes have been
Based on process parameters, either bacteria or the fungi could be
successfully installed for real wastewater treatment. Further
the dominant microbial community of the granule. Wang et al
information on the design, cost, process conditions and efficiency of
(2015) compared heavy metal removal potential of bacteria
52 these treatment plants will be useful for rapid propagation of this
dominated and fungi dominated granules. It was reported that
technology.
both these granules could be used as bio-sorbent for Zn (II), Cu (II)
and Ni (II) removal. However, they were not effective in Sb (V). It
was observed that surface modification of both the granule types Challenges of aerobic granulation technology
52
using Fe (III) could improve their Sb (V) removal efficiency.
Nancharaiah et al (2006) demonstrated that aerobic granules are It is not possible to develop a process where 100% of the sludge is
capable of uranium bio-sorption. It was observed that bio-sorption in granular form. For instance, a process may have around 50 % of
2+ 2+ +
of uranium was followed by release of Ca , Mg , Na and K to the
+ the sludge as proper granules and the remainder may be found as
liquid phase. It indicates that there might be an ion exchange dense microbial flocs. A process with 100% granular sludge is
mechanism involved in uranium bio-sorption by aerobic granules.
53 expected to have better settling ability with very low sludge volume
From the above discussion it is evident that aerobic granules could index (SVI). Increasing the total percentage of proper granules in
be an effective bio-sorption tool for heavy metal removal from the granular sludge is still a challenge for this technology. SBR is the
municipal as well as industrial wastewater. most suitable reactor for aerobic granule development. Almost all
studies on aerobic granules reported so far were conducted using
SBR. However, for real wastewater treatment, continuous-flow
58
Full-scale real wastewater treatment using reactors are mostly used all over the world. Therefore,
aerobic granules development of aerobic granules in full-scale continuous-flow
reactor can be considered for further investigation. Granules are
Domestic wastewater treatment in an aerobic granule based full- microspheres of mixed microorganisms. It takes a few weeks to
scale wastewater plant has been demonstrated by Pronk et al months to develop the granules. However, sometimes granules are
(2015). The study was conducted in Garmerwolde wastewater not stable enough to withstand the changes in process
54
treatment plant of the Netherlands. It took around 5 months to conditions.
59-61
Thus, disintegration of the granules due to unknown
develop a sludge bed with mature granules and the biomass process conditions is a challenge which needs further
concentration of the bed was as high as 8g/L. The granular sludge investigation.
62-66

bed was effective in nitrogen and phosphorus removal both in Aerobic granulation technology is a new wastewater treatment
54
summer and winter seasons. It was capable of maintaining the technology. It has been predicted that in future it would replace the
effluent nitrogen and phosphorus level below the recommended conventional activated sludge process used for wastewater
limit of 7 mg/L and 1 mg/L, respectively. Moreover, the energy treatment. However, the reactors presently being used for
requirement of the full-scale aerobic granule based process was activated sludge process are not suitable for aerobic granulation

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technology. Thus, converting an existing activated sludge process to

67
Acknowledgements
an aerobic granulation process would be a challenge. This aspect
The authors are thankful to the City of Calgary and The Natural
needs further investigations. At relatively low dissolved oxygen
Sciences and Engineering Research Council- Industrial
concentration aerobic granules can remove nitrogen through

Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology Accepted Manuscript

Research Chair (NSERC-IRC) of Canada for financial assistance.
simultaneous nitrification and denitrification. However, low oxygen
concentration is not suitable for granule formation. Thus, it is a
challenge to grow the granules at low dissolved oxygen
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