Module 3 S Memory Management + Memory management is a method in the operating system to manage oper during process execution. +The main aim of memory management is + Toachieve efficient utilization of memory. + Toallocate and de-allocate memory before and after process execution. To keep track of used memory space by processes. ‘To maintain data integrity while executing of process. Address Binding? + High-level programs are loaded into the memory for their execution in the CPU, ‘The CPU transforms programs into processes and generates log! memory. addresses to communicate with the main Logical addresses are internal references in the virtual address space of a process. Processes know only the log eical address, whereas they need to access physical memory to fetch the instruction and data, Physical addresses index the locations in the ‘The Memory Management | ‘Mapping a logical address main memory. Unit (MMU) translates logical addresses into physical (RAM) addresses. to a physical address is called address binding or address mapping, ‘The Context of Address Binding + masource code, we have symbolic addresses. They are the ident other constructs. ‘The assembler maps them to relative numerical addresses, Relative address: point of the memory that the code will take. es show the offset to the starting However, the intial address isn’t determined in this phase. The assembler outputs object files and gives them to the linker. ‘The linker takes object files and other pleces of code to generate an. f8 of the variables, functions, classes, and executable file. First, it searches for all th lraries needed to execute the object fle and appends themto it one after another, After that, it establishes correctly so the modules can reference each other. * finally the output is passed tothe loader. Specifically, the loader allocates memory for the executable code a loads it ‘+ After that, we can execute the code. {Load time ==] eae @ scanned with OKEN Scanner- Types of Address Binding there are three mechanisms for address binding 1 2 3 4: Compile-Ti ‘compiler ean do the compile-time bindin, lati pi compile-time binding during compilation. inthis type of binding, it translates th + The symbolic addresses into absolute addresses. ‘An absolute address is an address expression with a fixed value that doesn’t depend it lepend on run-time considerations. Forit + we code 2.Load-Time Binding + Theload-time address binding ‘The load-time address binding takes place during the loading of a program into the memory. The operating tem memory manager (lade) ithe et ‘clement in charge. » Here, the compiler doesn’t do sym adresses. The loader then ransates relative 2 clive addresses to absolut adresses Tneeds to know the base address inthe ain memory rom which to star the allocation ‘Therefore, when loading a program, we compute the physical address + Inthe 3. Execution-Time Binding the memory requirements may not © ifthe be if, for example, we loa for the data before we rea: ‘Similarly, ifthe program is © Execut todo + Some binding. Logical and Physical Address «© Inoperating systems, logical and physical addres * Logical address: also known as @ vit ‘An example of a system with compile-time address binding is MS-DOS. Oho, iz ‘compile time Load time ‘Run Time/ Execution Time. ime Binding nan a oeatonin te memory remains the same throughout program executi inow where the program will reside in mem arene now where the protran 1ory atthe compile time, we can generate an absolute (static) ding but translates symbolic addresses from the source code torelative ses by adding them to the base address: abcde Regier |= Mu image above, the relative address 250 becomes the absolute address 142500 because the base is 14000. jown in advance. However, ved we can't determine how much space we need program Is compiled, all the variables ae kn id some data from a file dynamically, d the file. interpreted, not urs these cases. can be considered before execution. fe reserved dynamically, Ie, when we need all variable: tion-time binding cove! ‘Addresses and memory ar that during execution. ; inux practically implement dyn mic address (05s like Windows and Lit amic loading, dynamic linking, and dyna ces are used to manage and access memory: ing program ral address, san address generated PY the CPU di ‘Alogical address, execution. itis the address seen by the process and is relative to memory using gical adresse The process accesse: physical addresses. ee ae Tenner FALICUT 12 @ scanned with OKEN Scanner the program’s address space: spent tne are translated by the operating SY"a iol address isthe actual address in the main memory where datais stored. 7 1d to a virtual address. . Jocation in physical memory, a5 oppose’ 7 - : thea aooess are used bythe memory management unit (MMU) to translate logeal addr, physical addresses. 7 4s Then sesa page table to translate logical addresses into physical addresses. «The page table maps each ogleal page number toa physical frame number. + Physical Address tities a physical location of required data in a memory. ‘The user never directly deals withthe physical address but can access it by its corresponding logical adéres, ‘The ser program generates the logical address and thinks that the program is running in this logical addr the program needs physical memory fo its execution, therefore, the fogical address must be mapped to thy physical address by MMU before they are used. ‘The term Physical Address Space i Lopical address space. ‘used for all physical addresses corresponding to the logical addressesin Logical Address v/s Physical Address ress, Logical Address Space is a set of al ir aT Bue roses neat 2 program. | to the corresponding log eer itable The logical address can be | = Evers ise ete Tee changed. the physical address will not chang Real address, anies Classification of me, ‘Management schemes a }ALKEES, KJOTIPTC rarer i @ scanned with OKEN Scannert ped trot Shhan is Groymamie Partitioning Memory Management Schemes: 5 Ti Nomber of partitions i spcified at the time of system segmentation. contiguous memory management schemes ina Non-Contiguous memory management scheme, the program is divided into different blocks and loaded at different portions of the memory that need not necessarily be adjacent to one another. ‘his scheme ean be classified depending on the size of the blocks and whether the blocks reside in the main memory oF not. + Twoschemes are: 1. Paging 2, and Segment: 2, Non: 1. Posing ‘Paging isa technique that eliminates the requirements of contiguous allocation of man memory. + Inti the main memory ved into ese locks of physical memory ele rae, + The size of a frame should be kept the same as that of a page to maximize the main memory ic These of ae et ry and avoid external ‘Advantages of paging: ‘+ Pages reduce external fragmentation. ‘++ Simple to implement, + Memory efficient. ‘+ Due to the equal size of frames, swapping becomes very easy. + Itis used for faster access to data, 2. Segmentation ‘+ Segmentation is a technique that eliminates the requirements of contiguous allocation of main memory. ‘+ Inthis, the main memory is divided into variable-size blocks of physical memory called segments. ‘+ Itis based on the way the programmer structures their programs, * With segmented memory allocation, each job is divided into several segments of different sizes, one for each module. + Functions, subro 1, etc, are examples of such modules. Strategies Used for Contiguous Memory Allocation + One of the simplest methods for allocating memory isto divide memory into several fixed-sized partitions and each partition contains exactly one process. + Multiple partition allocation: tn this method, a process is selected from the input queue and loaded into the free ‘© Initially, all memory is available for user processes and Is considered one large block of available memory. This available memory Is known as a “Hole”. + When the process arrives and needs memory, we search for a hole that is large enough to store this process. + ifthe requirement is fulfilled then we allocate memory to process, otherwise keeping the rest available to satisty future requests. + While allocating a memory sometimes dynamic storage allocation problems occur, satisfy a request of size n froma list of free holes. which concerns how to First Fit quirement In the lest Flt, the first available free hole fulfills the re of the process allocated. * Here, in this diagram, a 40 KB memory blockis the first available free hole that can store process A (size of 25 KB}, because the first two blocks did not have sufficient memory space. BALKEES K, JDTIPTC CALICUT 12 @ scanned with OKEN Scannerae mie is ordered by size. . fos Lor Test, we traverse the complete Fist 27 1d find «Roemer fre hare 3, Worst Fit aja the Worst it allocate the largest available hole to Process: ‘Tais method produces the largest leftover hole, 4s Hoven this example, Proce A (Size 25 KB) is allocated to the largest available memory block which is 60K + Inefficient memory utization is a major issue in the worst ft. | What is Fragmentation? ‘+ Fragmentation s an unwanted problem inthe operating system in which the processes are loaded and unloads! from memory, and free memory space is fragmented. Processes can't be assigned to memory blocks due to thelr small size, and the memory blocks stay unused, [As the process is loaded and unloaded from memory, these areas are fragmented into small pleces of memory that cannot be allocated to incoming processes. Its called fragmentation. 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Ths state nth 1 ype basic concept Involved Is that if a proc folng to be reduced or neyttga Theron page aut. sls alloated ooo tan wemeslt,no vakiable Work would be Hee Memory thereby increasing the degree. a imerytunatly, this would esutin a further in afurth faults followed by an her decrease in ulpraneanhtggenga thalned enon af heher called thrashing. thn thre wl Paba sales ca he CPU tation wed th ste tating couesiianion causes of Thrashing Seorceolmtiorogamning 0 roprams or workloads m: rw ay cause thrashing, and it resul * a plobal page replacement algorithm is used. The CPU cere te deening CU lean a Actin persicae tig lor ees the decreasing CPU ulation and increases |. cpU utilization is plotted against the degree of multiprogramming * Aethe degree of multiprogramming increases, CPU utlization also Increases. {ifthe degre of mitipropramming is increased further, tha sets and CPU utilation drops shah sn ee eeint toincressecPUtiuaton and stop tring werust ees seaenea te multiprogramming. How to Eliminate Thrashing te not configured correaty, disk thrashing can also happen to You id more RAM + Adjust the swap file sizes Ifthe system swoP. « eerrease the amount of RAM: As insufiient memory can use disk thrashing, one solution Isto ad tothe laptop. «Decrease the number of applications running the computer there ae too many aplation smn the Packground, your system resources will ONS 8 lot. «+ Replace programs: Replace those ProBrams that have heavy memory. memory occupied with equivalents that se ess Golden questions Short type: 1. What isthe local address of @ proces 2. Define Address Binding 3, What is runtime binding? 4, Define Paging 5. Define Segmentation 6 Define Page Fault 7. What is virtual Memory wn internal 9, List any two types of fragmentation J and external fragmentation 2 BALKEES Ki yoriete CALICUT # @ scanned with OKEN Scanner