Better your dreams

This document is sponsored by

The Science Foundation college Kiwanga-Namanve,
Uganda East Africa
Senior one to Senior six,
+256 778 633 682 +256 753 802709
Based on sciences, Best for Sciences
Dr. Bbosa Science Obtain free notes, tests, making guides from: digitalteachers.co.ug

Cell division
Specific objectives
The learner should be able to:
(i) Describe mitosis and meiosis
(ii) Compare mitosis and meiosis
(iii) Explain the significance of the changes in the nucleus during cell division
(iv) State the significance of mitosis and meiosis to living organisms.
(v) Identify stages of mitosis from prepared slides
(vi) Draw cells at different stages of mitosis and meiosis

Overview
Growth, reproduction and replacement of old cells involve the multiplication cells. In order to
multiply cells under cell division: there are two types of cell division.

Mitotic cell division

This type of cell division; leads to the formation of two daughter cell each with exactly the same
number of chromosomes as the parent cells.

Mitosis takes place in five stages. Interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. At
each of these stages certain crucial events take place, particularly in regards to chromosome. It is
a continuous process that takes about an hour.

1. Interphase
It is some times described as a resting stage. During this stage, there is protein synthesis,
formation of organelles and replication of DNA. It also builds up a sufficiently large store of
energy to carry the cell through the remaining stage of mitosis.

During interphase the chromosomes are not visible or distinct bodies either under light
microscope or electron microscope. Just before mitosis begin the centrioles are among the most
prominent organelles in the cell.
 2. Prophase
(i) Early prophase
Chromosomes become visible as they contract, and nucleus shrinks, centrioles move to the
opposite sides of nucleus. Spindle fiber start to form

(ii) Late prophase

Chromosomes become shorter and fatter-each seen to consist of a pair of chromatid joined at the
centromere. Nucleolus disappears. Prophase ends with the breakdown of the nuclear envelop.

Chromatid
Centromere

3. Metaphase
Chromosomes arrange themselves on the equator of a spindle

4. Anaphase
Chromatid separate and migrate to opposite pol of the cell. The centromere leading

5. Telophase
Chromosomes unwound. Nuclear envelope and nucleoli form.
 The two silent features of mitosis that ensure that chromosome constitution of the cell is
preserved are

a. DNA replicates before mitosis

b. The chromosomes arrange themselves at the equator before migration to opposite
side.

Importance of mitosis
1. Genetic stability: It ensures that the daughter cells carry the exact genetic material as the
parent cells
2. Growth: growth results in increase in the number of cells by mitosis.
3. Body repair: worn out cells are replaced b the cells produced by mitosis
4. Asexual reproduction

Meiosis
This is a type of cell division where each parent cell divides into four haploid cells. The leads to
formation of gametes. By having the number of chromosomes prior to fertilization, meiosis
ensure that the zygote has normal diploid condition

Meiosis occurs into two successive divisions, the parent cell splints into two (first meiotic
division) and the product then divides again (second meiotic division) giving a total of four
daughter cells.

Stages in meiosis

Meiotic division 1
1. Interphase
Cells in normal non-dividing conditions with chromosomes long and threadlike.
2. Prophase 1
This is the longest phase and is subdivided into 5 stages
(a) Leptotene
(b) Zygotene
(c) Pachytene
(d) Diplotene
(e) Diakinesis

(a) Leptotene
The chromosomes are single, long and scattered
(b) Zygotene
The single chromosomes begin to pair up with homologous chromosome the
process called synapsis and each pair is called a bivalent
 (c) Pachytene

Chromosomes become intimately coiled around each other. The chromosomes replicate
into chromatids that move slightly apart. The chromatids of homologous chromosomes
remain in contact at certain points called the chiasmata. The chiasmata is the site of
genetic exchange called crossing over.

Chiasmata

(d) Diplotene
Chromosomes in the bivalents begin to separate but remain joined at the chiasmata in
each bivalent. The number of chiasmata in each bivalent varies but they tend to be more
on long chromatids.

(e) Diakinesis
Internal coiling continues and the bivalents are most contractive stage.

Metaphase 1
The homologous chromosomes (bivalents) arrange themselves opposite each other on the
equator of the spindle

Anaphase 1
The homologous chromosomes each made up a pair of chromatid joined at the
centromere move towards opposite pole of the spindle. The sister chromatids also
separate from each other’s along their length except at the centromere.

Telophase 1
 When the chromosomes reach their respective pole, the cell start to divided across the
middle, and as in mitosis, nuclear envelop form around the two new nuclei

Meiotic division II
Separation of homologous chromosomes that make up a bivalent is achieved by the first meiotic
division. The purpose of the second division is to separate the chromatids from one another

Prophase II
The two daughter cells prepare for the second meiotic division: centrioles have replicated and a
new spindle is formed.

Metaphase II
The chromosomes move to the equator of the spindle, the chromatids orienting towards opposite
pole.

Anaphase II
Chromatid separate and move apart from each other

Telophase II
When the chromosomes reach the end of the spindle the cell divides, the spindle apparatus
disappear and chromosome begin to regain their threadlike form. New nuclear envelops and
nucleoli form.
Significance of meiosis

1. Sexual reproduction: Meiosis results in half the number of chromosomes, during fertilization
the nuclei of the two gametes fuse to form a zygote restore the diploid number of
chromosomes for its species.
2. Genetic variation: Meiosis provided opportunities for new recombination of genes to occur in
the gametes and off springs in two ways
(i) Crossing over
(ii) Independent assortment i.e., random distribution of chromosomes into the gametes at
metaphase 1

Differences between mitosis and meiosis

Mitosis meiosis
1. Homologous chromosomes remain Homologous chromosomes pair up
separate
2 There no crossing over Crossing over occurs
3. No formation of chiasmata Formation of chiasmata
4. Single division Two series of division
5. Results into two diploid daughter cells Results in four haploid daughter cells
6. Occurs in somatic cells Occurs in gonards
Exercise
1. Which one of the following events occurs both in mitosis and meiosis?
A. Synapsis
B. DNA synthesis
C. Crossing over
D. Halving of chromosomes number

2. The function of meiosis in gamete formation is to

A. Maintain the chromosome number and produce genetically similar gametes
B. Halve the chromosome number and produce genetically similar gametes
C. Halve the chromosome number and produce genetically variable gametes
D. Maintain the chromosome number and produce genetically variable gametes

3. At which one of the following stages of cell division does a cell have the same nucleic
content as that in metaphase I?
A. Anaphase I
B. Metaphase II
C. Telophase II
D. Prophase II

4. Gametes are haploid because

A. Two replications of DNA occur during meiosis
B. Homologous chromosomes separate during meiosis
C. Crossing over during prophase I
D. Chromatids do not separate during meiosis
5. It is difficult to observe individual chromosomes during interphase because
A. The DNA is not yet replicated
B. They uncoil to form long thin strands
C. They are dispersed
D. Homologous chromosomes do not pair up until division starts

6. Which of the following statements is true?

A. Meiosis produces gametes for sexual reproduction or spores for asexual reproduction
B. Only diploid cells can divide by meiosis but both haploid and diploid cells can divide by
mitosis
C. If mitosis produces a multicellular organism after fertilization, but before meiosis, that
organism is haploid
D. If mitosis produces a multicellular organism but meiosis occurs before fertilization, that
organism is haploid

7. The figure below represents a stage of cell division.

Which one of the following stage is represented in the figure?
A. Metaphase of mitosis
B. Interphase
C. Anaphase of mitosis
D. Metaphase I of meiosis

8. Which one of the following is true of the first meiotic division but untrue for mitosis?
A. The chromosome number is maintained in the daughter cells
B. Four daughter cells are formed
C. The chromosome number is doubled in daughter cells
D. Homologous chromosomes come together at the equator

9. In sexually reproducing organism, maintenance of a species is achieved at meiosis by

A. Halving DNA
B. Doubling DNA
C. Maintaining DNA amount
D. Increasing DNA amount by two fold

10. The figure below shows animal cell during meiosis

Which one of the following stage is illustrated?

A. Prophase I
B. Prophase II
C. Metaphase I
D. Metaphase II

11. During what stage of prophase 1 of meiosis are homologous chromosomes attracted to each
other and come together?
A. Leptotene
B. Zygotene
C. Pachytene
D. diplotene

12. During meiosis crossing over occurs between one of the following
A. two centromeres of homologous chromosomes
B. two homologous chromosomes
C. two non-homologous chromatids
D. two homologous chromatids
13. Which of the following is correct about the first division of meiosis but not that of mitosis?
A. Nucleolus disappears
B. Spindle is formed
C. Centrioles move to opposite pole of the nucleus
D. Homologous chromosomes associate to form bivalents

14. Which of the following is synthesized at interphase during mitosis?

A. tRNA
B. mRNA
C. DNA
D. tRNA

15. Which one of the following events occur during telophase of mitosis in the meristematic cell
of a root tip?
A. Cleavage of the cytoplasm
B. Replication of the centrioles
C. Replication of the cell plate

16. (a) Illustrating with a cell of one pair of homologous chromosome, draw diagrams in
the space below to show
(i) Mitotic metaphase (2marks)
(ii) Meiotic metaphase I (2marks)
(iii) Meiotic metaphase II (2marks)
(b) Explain how meiosis contribute to genetic variation (4marks)

18. (a) outline the function of the cell nucleus. (2marks)

(b) Describe the changes that occur in the nucleus during meiosis (13marks)
(c) Explain the significance of meiosis and mitosis in organisms. (5marks).
19. Give an account of meiosis in a reproductive cell. (Diagrams not required) (20mark)
20. How does the behavior of chromosomes in mitosis differ from that in the 1st meiotic division
(20marks)
Answers to objective
1 B 5 B 9 A 13 D
2 C 6 A 10 D 14 C
3 A 7 D 11 C
4 B 8 D 12 D

17. Solution

(i) Mitotic metaphase.

Centromer
e
spindle

centriole

Chromosome at equatorial region

(ii) Meiotic metaphase
Homologous chromosome
spindle

centriole

Chromosome at equatorial region

(iii) Meiotic metaphase II

spindle

centriole

centromere
(b) During prophase of meiosis I, homologous chromosomes pair, from chiasmata and there is
subsequent crossing over, this result in exchange of genetic material between the two
homologues. The bivalents are randomly oriented and distributed in metaphase 1 and anaphase 1
respectively. This leads to new combinations of genetic material leading to genetic variation in
the population.

18. Solution

(a) The nucleus contains the DNA

 It controls the process of the cell division.
 It controls all the metabolic activities of the cell by controlling the synthesis of the
enzyme required (protein synthesis)
 The nucleus manufactures ribosomes.
(b) This question requires that you point out what happens in the nucleus in all stages of
meiosis. That is identify the stage of meiosis in a chronological order and state what happens
in the nucleus at each stage.

Interphase

DNA replication occurs.

Prophase 1

 Chromosomes condense and become visible.

 Homologous chromosomes pair up.
 Chromatids of homologous chromosomes crossover at chiatsmata. This produces gene
recombination.
 The nucleus fades.

Metaphase 1

Nuclear envelop breaks down and disappears.

Microtubules of the spindle attach to the centromere and the pairs of homologous chromosomes
move to the equator.
Anaphase 1

Homologous chromosomes part company. One of a pair of homologous chromosomes is pulled to

opposite pole by the micro tubules of the spindle attached to their centromeres.

Telophase 1

 Chromosomes separate into two different cells.

 Chromosomes disappear and the nuclear membrane reforms in either cell.

Prophase II

Chromosomes condense.

Metaphase II

Nuclear envelops breaks down and disappear.

Chromosomes move to the equator

Aanpahse II

Chromatids separate.

Telophase

Sister chromatids now called chromosomes condense.

Nuclear envelope appears and the cells divided leading to formation of four daughter cells.

(c) Significance of meiosis

- It helps to maintain the diploid condition in sexually reproducing organisms. Meiosis results in
formation of haploid (n) gametes which fuse during fertilization to form a diploid (2n) zygote,
restoring the diploid condition.
- It leads to genetic variation in the offspring of sexually reproducing organisms. This occurs as a
result of independent assortment and crossing over during meiosis I.

Significance of meiosis.
- Growth in multicellular organisms occur by meiosis. Cells within multicellular orgainsms
divide mitotically thereby increasing in number. This leads to increase in size (growth) of the
organisms.
- Repair and replacement of worn out cells occur by mitosis. This is possible because mitosis
producers daughter cells which are identical to the parent cell.

Others

- A sexual reproduction is unicellular organisms like amoeba occurs by mitosis. This is possible
because mitosis ensures that the daughter cells are identical to the parent cell.
- Regeneration of body parts, such as whole legs in organisms like crustaceans occur by a
process which involves mitosis.

6. (a) Explain the meaning of the following

(i) Genetic isolation

(ii) Reproductive isolation

(b) Explain how the gene frequency of a population may be altered.

Solution

(a) (i) Genetic isolation occurs when mating can occur but fertilization is not possible and/or
even when it occurs, the product is a sterile or inferior offspring. This is due to incompatible
genetic constitution between organisms of a population.

(ii) Reproductive isolation involves failure of interbreeding among organisms of population.

This may be as a result of lack of attractiveness between males and females or non-
correspondence of genitals.

(b) Change in gene frequency of a population occurs when;

 There is non-random breeding. In such cases sexual selection occurs whenever the presence
of one or more inherited characteristics increases the likelihood of bringing about successful
fertilization of gametes. As a result, the frequency of some genes increases while that of
others reduces in the population.
 The population is small and leads to genetic drift. There is usually chance appearance or
disappearance of genes in a small population, leading to change in frequency of the gene in
question.
 Genotypes are not equally fertile. In this case, the more advantageous (fertile) alleles are
transferred to offspring at the expense of other alleles. This leads to change in frequency of
such genes.
 Gene flow occurs between populations. Interbreeding between populations always leads to
flow of genes within the populations involved. This causes instability in the gene frequency
of the populations.
 Mutations occur. Occurrence of a mutant gene in the population can lead to change in
frequency of the gene over generations.

Gene reshuffling occurs. During meiosis, crossing over occurs that results in new gene
recombination. At fertilization, these altered alleles are transmitted to offspring and over
generations, the allele frequency of a gene changes.