Horticulture

8th Edition

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HORTICULTURE:
Horticulture is classically evolved from the Latіn words: ‘Hortus' (garden plant) and ‘Cultura' (culture),
which means cultivation of Garden plants.
AREAS OF STUDY IN HORTICULTURE:
Pomology Study of fruit crops
Olericulture Cultivation of Vegetables (NABARD-2021)
Floriculture Cultivation of flowers
Landscape plants, such as trees, plants, shrubs, turfs,
Landscape Horticulture herbaceous perennials etc. are studied under this category of
horticulture.
Field of horticulture is relevant to crops harvesting,
Post- Harvest Physiology
maintaining their quality, reducing spoilage etc.

HORTICULTURE INSTITUTES
Central Institutes of horticulture (CIH) Mediziphema, Nagaland (JAN-2006)
Institutes of Horticulture Technology (IHT) Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh
Indian Institutes of Horticultural Research ❖ Hessaraghatta, Bangalore, Karnataka. (1967)
(IIHR)
National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resource ❖ New Delhi
Centre (NBPGR)
National Horticulture Board (NHB) ❖ Gurgaon, Haryana (1984)
National Horticulture Mission (NHM) ❖ 2005-06

POMOLOGICAL RESEARCH INSTITUTES:

Central Institute of Subtropical Horticulture (CISTH)❖ Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh (1995)
Central Institute of Temperate Horticulture (CITH) ❖ Srinagar, Jammu & Kashmir (1994)
Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI) ❖ Jodhpur, Rajasthan (1952)
Central Institute of Arid Horticulture (CIAH) ❖ Bikaner, Rajasthan (1994)
National Research Centre for Banana (NRCB) ❖ Trichy, Tamil Nadu
National Research Centre for Citrus (NRCC) ❖ Nagpur, Maharashtra (1985)
National Research Centre for Grapes (NRCG) ❖ Pune, Maharashtra
National Research Centre for Pomegranate (NRCP) ❖ Solapur, Maharashtra (2005)
National Research Centre for Litchi (NRCL) ❖ Muzzafarpur, Bihar
National Research Centre for Makhana (NRCM) ❖ Darbhanga, Bihar

OLERICULTURE RESEARCH INSTITUTES:

Indian Institute of Vegetable Research (IIVR) Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh (1971)
Central Tuber Crops Research Institute (CTCRI) ❖ Sreekariyam Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala
Central Potato Research Institute (CPRI) ❖ Shimla, Himachal Pradesh (1949)

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National Horticultural Research and Development ❖ Nasik, Maharashtra
Foundation (NHRDF)
Directorate on Onion and Garlic Research (DOGR) ❖ Pune, Maharashtra
Directorate of Mushroom Research (DMR) ❖ Solan, Himachal Pradesh

FLORICULTURE RESEARCH INSTITUTES:

Directorate of Floriculture Research (DFR) Pune, Maharashtra
National research Centre for Orchids (NRCO) Pakyong, Gangtok, Sikkim
National Botanical Research Institute (NBRI) Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Institute of Himalayan Bio-resource Technology Palampur, Himachal Pradesh
(IHBT)

PLANTATION CROP RESEARCH INSTITUTES:

Central plantation Crops Research Institute (CPCRI) Kasargod, Kerala (1974)
Central Coffee Research Institute (CCRI) Chikmaglur, Karnataka
Directorate of Cashew Research (DCR) Puttur, Karnataka
Directorate of Oil Palm Research (DOPR) Pedavegi, Eluru, Andhra Pradesh
United Planters Association of Southern India (UPASI) Glenview, Conoor, Nilgiri District,
Tamil Nadu
UPASI Tea Research Foundation (UPASI TRF) Valparai, Coimbatore District, Tamil
Nadu
Tea Research Institute (TRI) Nirar dam, Valparai, Tamil Nadu
Central Arecanut and Cocoa marketing and Processing Mangalore, Karnataka
Co-operative Limited (CAMPCO)
Directorate of Cashew and Coconut Development Cochin, Kerala
(DCCD)
Directorate of Arecanut and Spices Development Calicut, Kerala
(DASD)

BOARDS:
Coconut Development Board (CDB) Cochin, Kerala (Jan-1981)
Tea Board of India ❖ Kolkata, West Bengal (1954)
Coffee Board of India ❖ Bangalore, Karnataka (1942)
❖
Cashew Export Promotion Council of India Ernakulam, Kerala
(CEPC)

SPICE RESEARCH INSTITUTES:

Indian Institutes of Spices Research (IISR) NRC on Spices), Calicut, Kerala (1975)
(Previously
National Research Centre for Seed Spices Tabiji, Ajmer, Rajasthan
(NRCSS)

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Indian Cardamom Research Institute (ICRI) Myladumpara, Idukki, Kerala
Spices Board established in 1987 Cochin, Kerala (Ministry of commerce and industry)

MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS RESEARCH CENTRES:

Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Plants (CIMAP)
Directorate of Medicinal and Aromatic ❖ Anand, Gujarat (Previously known as National
Plants Research (DMAP), Research Centre for Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
(NRCMAP)
National Medicinal Plants Board (NMPB) ❖ New Delhi

POST-HARVEST RESEARCH CENTRES IN INDIA:

Indian Institutes of Crop Processing Technology (IICPT) Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu
Fruit Preservation and Canning Institute (FPCI) Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Central Post Harvest Engineering and Technology ❖ Ludhiana, Punjab (1989)
(CIPHET)
Central Food Technological Research Institute (CFTRI) ❖ Mysore, Karnataka
Central Food Laboratory (CFL), Kolkata ❖ West Bengal
Food Research and Standardization Laboratory (FRSL) ❖ Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh
Defence Food Research laboratory (DFRL) ❖ Mysore, Karnataka
National Institute of Food Technology Entrepreneurship ❖ Kundli, Haryana
and Management (NIFTEM)
❖
National Agricultural Cooperative Marketing Federation of New Delhi (1958)
India Ltd. (NAFED)
Regional Research Laboratory (RRL) ❖ Jammu
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) ❖ Trombay, Bombay
Public Health Laboratory (PHL) ❖ Pune, Maharashtra
Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export ❖ New Delhi (1986)
Development Authority (APEDA)

HORTICULTURAL SOCIETIES:
Royal Horticultural Society (RHS) was founded in ❖ London, England (1804)
Agri-horticultural society of India (AHSI) ❖ Kolkata, India (1820)
American Society of Horticultural Science (ASHS) ❖ Duke Street Alexandria, United States of
America (1903)
Horticultural Society of India (HIS) ❖ Pusa, New Delhi (1942)
❖ Leuvien, Belgium
International Society of Horticultural Science (ISHS)
Indian Society of Ornamental Horticulture (ISOH) ❖ 1990
Indian Society of Vegetable Science (ISVS) ❖ 1973

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INTERNATIONAL HORTICULTURAL RESEARCH CENTRES:
Global Horticulture Initiative (GHI) ❖ Rome, Italy
Horticulture Research International (HRI) ❖ Wellesbourne, United Kingdom (2004)
❖
International Network for the Improvement of Montpellier, France
Banana and Plantain (INIBAP)
Biodiversity International ❖ Rome, Italy
World vegetable Centre (WVC) ❖ Taiwan (Previously known as Asian Vegetable
Research and Development Centre, AVRDC)
(1971)
International Potato Centre (CIP) ❖ Peru (1971)
❖ USA
International Registration Authority for Rose
(IRAR)
International Registration Authority for ❖ New Delhi
Bougainvillea (IRAB)
International Flower Market (IFM) ❖ Aalsmeer, Netherland
International Flower Auction Centre (IFAC) ❖ Bangalore, Karnataka
International Cut Flower Grower Association❖ USA
International American Spice Trade❖ Washington, D.C., USA
Association
Royal New Zealand Institute of Horticulture ❖ Canterbury, New Zealand
(RNZIH)

AICRP HEADQUARTERS:
AICRP on Tropical Fruits Bangalore, Karnataka
AICRP on Sub-Tropical Fruits Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
AICRP on Arid Zone Fruits Bikaner, Rajasthan
AICRP on Vegetable Crops Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh
AICRP on Tuber Crops Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala
AICRP on Potato, Shimla Himachal Pradesh
AICRP Mushroom, Solan Himachal Pradesh
AICRP on Floriculture Pune, Maharashtra
AICRP on Cashew Puttur, Karnataka
AICRP on Palms Kasaragod, Kerala
AICRP on Spices Calicut, Kerala
AICRP on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Anand, Gujarat
including Betel vine

IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS:
❖ Typical flower: The flowers commonly consist of four organs namely sepals, petals, stamens (male
organs) and pistil (female organ). Both stamens and pistil are known as reproductive parts.
❖ Complete Flower: The flower contains all four floral organs: Sepals, Petals, Stamens (Male organ),
Pistil (Female Organ) are called complete flower. E.g., Hibiscus, Soybean, etc.

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 ❖ Incomplete flower: The flower lacks one or two of these floral organs. Crops belonging to grass
family including corn, sorghum, and paddy lack petals and sepals. The flowers of buckwheat and
sugar beet lack petals.
❖ Perfect flower: They bear only the stamen and pistil. For example: Cotton, Wheat, etc.
❖ Imperfect flower: These contain either stamens or pistil but not in the same flower.
❖ Dioecious: The plants which bear male and female flowers on different plants are called dioecious.
E.g., Papaya.
❖ Monoecious: The plants which bear male and female flowers on same plant are called as monoecious.
E.g., Cucurbits, strawberries etc.
❖ Fertilization: The Fusion of male and female gamete is known as fertilization. The pollen grains
germinate on the stigma and slender pollen tube grows through the style and enters embryo sac, where
fusion of male and female gametes occurs which is called fertilization.
DEVELOPMENT STAGES OF FRUIT AND SEEDS:
Ovary Fruits
Ovule Seed
Integuments Seed coat
Nucleus Perisperm
2 Polar nuclei + sperm nucleus Endosperm (triploid, 3n)
Egg nucleus + sperm nucleus Zygote- embryo (diploid, 2n)

POLLINATION:
The process by which pollen grains are transferred from anthers to stigma is referred as pollination.
❖ Pollination is carried by Agents
Agents carry Pollens Pollination
Air Anemophily
Water Hydrophily
Insects Entomophily
Animals Zoophily
Birds Ornithophily

TYPES OF POLLINATION:
❖ Self-Pollination: Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of same flower is known as
autogamy or self-pollination. Autogamy is the closest form of inbreeding. Autogamy leads to
homozygosity. For Example: Tomato, Brinjal, Okra, Soybean, Potato etc.
❖ Geitonogamy: Geitonogamy is another form of self-fertilization. In this form, pollination occurs
between two flowers of the same plants which has same genetic consequence as autogamy.
❖ Cross Pollination: Transfer of pollen grains of one plant to the flower of another plant is called cross
pollination. The resultants fertilization is known as cross fertilization or allogamy. For example:
Radish, Cabbage, Spinach, Onion, Garlic, Muskmelon, Watermelon etc.

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MECHANISM PROMOTING SELF POLLINATION:
❖ Bisexuality: Presence of male and female organs in the same flower is known as bisexuality. The
presence of bisexual flowers is a must for self-pollination. All the self-pollinated plants have
hermaphrodite flowers.
❖ Homogamy: Maturation of anthers and stigma of a flower at the same time is called homogamy. As
a rule, homogamy is essential for self-pollination.
❖ Cleistogamy: When pollination and fertilization occur in unopened flower bud, it is known as
cleistogamy. It ensures self-pollination and prevents cross pollination. Cleistogamy has been reported
in some varieties of wheat, barley, oats and several other grass species.
❖ Chasmogamy: Opening of flowers only after the completion of pollination is known as
Chasmogamy. This also promotes self-pollination and is found in crops like wheat, barley, rice and
oats.
❖ Position of Anthers: In some species, stigmas are surrounded by anthers in such a way that self-
pollination is ensured. Such situation is found in tomato and brinjal. In some legumes, the stamens
and stigma are enclosed by the petals in such a way that self-pollination is ensured. Examples are
green gram, black gram, soybean, chickpea and pea.
MECHANISM PROMOTING CROSS-POLLINATION
❖ Dicliny: It refers to unisexual flowers. This is of two types: Monoecy, Dioecy
❖ Monoecy: When male and female flowers are separate but present in the same plants.
❖ Two conditions in Monoecy:
➢ When present on same inflorescence: In some crops, the male and female flowers are present in the
same inflorescence such as in mango, castor and banana.
➢ When present on different inflorescence: In some cases, they are on separate inflorescence as in
maize. Other examples are cucurbits, grapes, strawberry, cassava and rubber.
❖ Dioecy: When staminate and pistillate flowers are present on different plants, it is called dioecy. It
includes papaya, date palm, Betel vine, Nutmeg, Kiwi, Palmyra palm spinach, hemp and asparagus.
❖ Dichogamy: It is derived from Greek word. It refers to maturation of anthers and stigma of the same
flowers at different times. Dichogamy promotes cross pollination even in the hermaphrodite species.
TYPES OF DICHOGAMY:
❖ Protogyny: When pistil matures before anthers, it is called protogyny such as in Banana, fig,
pomegranate, Plum, Annona sp. except A. muricata.
❖ Protandry: When anthers mature before pistil, it is known as protandry. It is found in coconut, Aonla,
sapota, walnut, A. muricata and passion fruit and several other species.
❖ Duo dichogamy: Flowering plants commonly separate male and female function in time, but rarely
are the two stages synchronized within and among individuals. One such temporal mating system is
duo dichogamy in which each plant produces two batches of male flowers that are temporally
separated by a batch of female flowers, with within-individual synchrony and among-individual
asynchrony to ensure mating partners. (RRB-SO 2019) E.g.: Chestnut
❖ Heterostyly: When styles and filaments in a flower are of different lengths, it is called heterostyly.
It promotes cross pollination such as linseed.
a. Pin type: Sapota, Litchi, Pomegranate
b. Thrum Type: Almond, carambola, litchi

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❖ Herkogamy: Hinderance to self-pollination due to some physical barriers such as presence of hyline
membrane around the anther is known as herkogamy. Such membrane does not allow the dehiscence
of pollen and prevents self-pollination such as in alfalfa.
❖ Self-Incompatibility: The inability of fertile pollens to fertilize the same flower is referred to as self-
incompatibility. It prevents self-pollination and promotes cross pollination. Self-incompatibility is
found in several crop species like Brassica, Radish, Nicotiana, and many grass species.
❖ Male sterility: In some species, the pollen grains are nonfunctional. Such condition is known as male
sterility. It prevents self-pollination and promotes cross pollination. It is a useful tool in hybrid seed
production.
CLASSIFICATION OF CROPS AS PER POLLINATION:
❖ Natural or Normally Self-Pollinated crops: These crops show high degree of self-pollination
(>95%) and cross pollination is <5%. E.g., Barley, Ragi, Wheat, Beans, Grams, Groundnut, Sesamum
and Tobacco.
❖ Naturally or normally Cross-Pollinated Crops: In these crops cross pollination occurs
predominantly (>95%) with a very little (i.e., 5 %) self-pollination.
➢ Horticulture Crops: Almond, Apples, Banana, Cherries, Chestnut, Citrus, Date palm, Grapes
(muscadine), Fig, Papaya, Mango, etc.)
➢ Vegetables: All Cruciferous plants.
❖ Often Cross- Pollinated Crop: These crops are normally self-pollinated. However, cross pollination
in these crops usually exceeds 5 % to 30 % due to various agency. E.g., Sorghum, Cotton, Safflower,
etc.
CLASSIFICATION OF FRUIT BASED ON TYPE OF BREEDING SYSTEM (WHICH
PROMOTES AUTOGAMY/ALLOGAMY):
Self-Pollination Cleistogamy Papaya, Grape (Vitis), sapota
(Autogamous) Homogamy Apricot, citrus, peach, phalsa, dwarf coconut
Cross Pollination Monoecious muscadine grape
(Allogamous) Dioecious Papaya, kiwi, pistachio nut, betel vine, nutmeg
Andromonoecious Mango
Gynodioecious Fig
Dichogamy Protandry Coconut, sapota, Walnut, Annona muricata
Protogyny Banana, fig, pomegranate, plum, Annona sp
except A. muricata
Heterodichogamy Peacanut, Pistachionut
Duodichogamy Chestnut
Protogynous diurnally Avocado
synchronous dichogamy
(PDSD)
Heterostyly Pin type Sapota, Litchi, pomegranate
Thrum type Almond, carambola
Self-incompatibility Heteromorphic No fruit crop
Homomorphic Sporophytic Mango, aonla, cocoa

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 Gametophytic Ber, pineapple, apple,
pear, apricot, almond,
cherry, loquat
Vivipary Grapefruit, Cocao, Jack fruit

❖ Asexual Propagation:
➢ Parthenogenesis:
✓ Fruits develop parthenocarpically still they produce viable seeds e.g., mangosteen, strawberry.
✓ Produce genetically uniform seedlings.
➢ Parthenocarpy: Parthenocarpy refers to the development of fruit without fertilization. The process
produces a sterile fruit that lacks seeds. This means that the pollination results in a production of
berries that are completely seedless
➢ Difference between parthenocarpy and parthenogenesis
Parthenocarpy Parthenogenesis
It is the process of fruit development without It is the process of development of a new
fertilization of seeds in plants organism without fertilization of an ovum
This process leads to the formation of seedless The organism produced by this process are a
fruits clone of female and they cannot reproduce
sexually
Cannot produce the offspring Only haploid offsprings can be produced
It occurs only in plants It occurs in invertebrate animals and lower plants.

➢ Apomixis: Asexual reproduction through seeds

Parthenocarpy Natural Parthenocarpy/Obligatory Banana, Japanese persimmon,
Parthenocarpy/automatic Pineapple
parthenocarpy
Facultative Parthenocarpy Grapes, Tomato mutants, citrus
cultivars, cucumber, watermelon
Vegetative Parthenocarpy Banana, Fig, Pineapple, apple
Stimulative Parthenocarpy Litchi, Grape (Black corianth), Bread
fruit, watermelon
Sternospermocarpy Grape, Mango (Sindhu)
Polyembryony Mango, Citrus, Jamun Nucellar Citrus, Mango
Polyembryony/
Adventives
polyembryony
Cleavage Coconut
Polyembryony
Apomixis Recurrent apomixis Apple, raspberry
Non-recurrent apomixis Solanum nigrum, Lilium spp.
Nucellar embryony or adventitious Citrus spp.
embryony
Vegetative apomixis Garlic, Agave, Dioscorea bulbifera
Parthenogenesis Mangosteen

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➢ Artificial Parthenocarpy:
Crops Growth Regulator
Tomato IAA, GA3
Loquat GA3
Orange, Lemon, Grapes IAA
Brinjal 2,4- D, IAA

Hormone Site of Production Precursor

Auxin Shoot and root tips, young Tryptophan
expanding leaves and
seeds
Gibberellins Young leaves Terpenoids
Cytokinins Root tips 5’AMP (isopentenyl group)
ABA Terminal bud Sesquiterpenoid pathway
(Mevalonic acid)
Ethylene _________________ Methionine

POMOLOGY
Botanical Classification of Fruit crops
Family Common Scientific Chromoso Origin Fruit types
name name me no. 2n
1. Monocots
Bromeliaceace Pineapple Ananas 50, 75, Brazil Sorosis
comosus 100
Musaceae Banana Musa 22, 33, 44 Indo- Burma Berry
balbisiana
Arecaeae Datepalm Phoenix 36 West Asia Single seeded
dactylifera berry
2. Dicots
Actinidiaceae Kiwi Actinidia 58 China Berry
deliciosa
Anacardiaceae Mango Mangifera 40 Southeast Asia Drupe
Indica
Annonaceae Custard Annona 14 Bolivia Aggregate
apple squamosa berries
Apocynaceae Karonda Carissa 22 - Berry
carandas
Caricaceae Papaya Carica papaya 18 Tropical Berry
America

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Dilleniaceae Elephant Dillenia indica - Southeast Asia Fleshy calyx
apple
Euphorbiaceae Aonla Emblica 28 Southeast Asia Capsule
officinalis (Drupe)
Star Phyllanthus - Madagascar Berry
gooseberry acidus
Clusiaceae Mangosteen Garcinia 28 Malayan Berry
mangostana Archipelogo
Lauraceae Avocado Persea 24 Central Berry
Americana America
Malpighiacae Barbados Malphigia 40 Trinidad and Drupe
cherry punicifolia Tobago
Moraceae Jack fruit Artocarpus 56 India Sorosis
heterophylla
Monkey Artocarpus 56 Western Ghats Sorosis
Jack lakoocha
Fig Ficus carrica 26 - Syconus
Mulberry Morus alba 308 - Sorosis
Myrtaceae Guava Psidium 22 Tropical Berry
guajava America
Jamun Syzygium 40 India Drupe
cumini
Pineapple Feijoa - - Berry
guava sellowiana
Oleaceae Olive Olea euorpaea 46 Mediterranean Drupe
region
Oxalidaceae Bilimbi Averrhoa 24 - Berry
bilimbi
Carambola Averrhoa 24 Srilanka Capsule
carambola
Passifloraceae Passion fruit Passiflora 18 Brazil Berry
edulis
Punicaceae Pomegranate Punica 18 Iran (Persia) Balusta
granatum
Rhamnaceae Indian jujube Ziziphus - India Drupe
maurititiana
Rosaceae Almond Prunus 16 Central Asia Drupe
amygdalus
Apple Malus × 34 South western Pome
domestica Asia
Apricot Prunus 16 Northeastern Drupe
armeniaca China

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 Loquat Eriobotrya 34 Central Pome
japonica Eastern China
Quince Cydonia 34 Caucasus Pome
oblonga region
Peach Prunus persica 16 China Drupe
Pear Pyrus 34 Western China Pome
communis
Plum Prunus 32 China Drupe
domestica
Strawberry Fragaria 56 (8X) France Etaerio of
annonosa drupes/
achenes
Rutaceae Bael Aegle 18 India Amphisaraca
marmelos
Mandarin Citrus 18 Southeastern Hesperidium
reticulate Asia
Sweet Citrus sinensis 18 Indochina Hesperidium
orange
Rutaceae Acid lime Citrus 18 Iran (Persia) Hesperidium
aurantifolia
Grapefruit Citrus paradise 18 West Indies Hesperidium
Wood apple Feronia 18 India Amphisaraca
limonia
Lemon Citrus limon 18 Southeast Asia Hesperidium
Vitaceae Grapes Vitis vinifera 38 Southeast Asia Berry
and Central
Europe
Tilliaceae Phalsa Grewia 36 India Drupe
subinequalis
Sapindaceae Litchi Litchi 30 South China -
chinensis
Sapotaceae Sapota Achras zapota 26 South Mexico Berry
Juglandaceae Walnut Juglans regia 32 Central Asia Nut
Peacan nut Carya 32 North America Nut
illinoensis

CROPS WITH THEIR SPECIAL NAMES

Common Name Special Name

Mango King of tropical fruits/National fruit of Indian/pride fruit of India/Hindustan fruit

of India/
Banana Antique fruit crop/Tree of wisdom/Tree of paradise/Adams fig/plant of
virtue/Apple of paradise

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Grapes Sophisticated fruit crop
Papaya Melon Tree
Guava Apple of the tropics/Poor man's apple
Sapota Chikoo/sapodilla
Mandarin Fancy fruit
Pineapple Heaven fruit/Friendship fruit
Jackfruit National fruit of Bangladesh/Poor man's food/Monkey jack
Mangosteen Queen of tropical fruits/Fruits of the gods or energy tablet/ Finest fruit of the
world/Mystery fruit
Avocado Alligator pear/21st century fruit/Fruit of New world/Butter fruit
Litchi Kind of fruits/Queen of subtropical fruit/Lychee/Fruit of high commerce
Rambutan Rambutan/ hairy litchi
Loquat Japanese medlar/Japanese plum
Durian King of fruit in Indonesia/Durian
Persimmon National fruit of Japan/Persimmon/Ebony tree
Apple King of temperate fruits (FCI-2021)/Symbol of health/premier fruit of the world
Kiwi fruit Chinese gooseberry/China’s miracle fruit/Horticultural wonder of New Zealand
Apricot Coppery fruit /apricot
Walnut King of nut/ walnut
Peacanut Queen of nut/Pecanut
Ber King of Arid fruits/ Poor man's fruit/Summer deciduous fruit. (HPSC HDO 2019)
Aonla Amla/ /Indian goose berry/Amritphal fruit/scared tree
Annonaceous Custard Apple/Fruit of poor people/Evening flower scent bearing fruit crop
Fruits
Pomegranate Pomegranate/ fruit of paradise/ Fuit of love/Anaar/National fruit of Iran
Date palm Datepalm/head in fire and foot in water crop/Tree of life
Fig Fig/forbidden fruit
Bael Bael/Symbol of lord shiva fruit
Phalsa Phalsa/Dhamani
Jamun Java plum/jamun/Indian Black berry/ Black Plum
Karonda Karonda/Christ thorn
Coconut Kalpavriksha

CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS
1. BASED ON NATURE OF GROWTH
Herbaceous Banana, Pineapple.
Shrubaceous Karonda, Phalsa, Pomegranate.
Woody Mango, Ber, Sapota, Jamun, Guava, Apple, Peach, Pear and many other fruits.

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2. BASED ON GERMINATION:
Epigeal Germination Jackfruit, Tamarind, Cashewnut
Hypogeal germination Peach, Mango

3. BASED ON CLIMATIC REQUIREMENT

Tropical fruits Mango, banana, papaya, sapota, guava, grapes, pineapple, jackfruit,
Cashew, Coconut, custard Apple, Carambola, Carambola,
Mangosteen
Subtropical fruits Citrus, grapes, avocado, litchi, rambutan, loquat, durian, persimmon, fig,
and passion fruit.
Temperate fruits Apple, pear, quince, peach, plum, Strawberry, almond, apricot, cherry,
Kiwi, walnut and pecanut.
Arid and semi-arid fruits Ber, aonla, annonaceous fruits, pomegranate, date palm, fig, bael,
phalsa, jamun

4. BASED ON CONTINUATION OF GROWTH

Evergreen Mango, Citrus, Litchi, Sapota
Deciduous Apple, Pear, Peach, Plum, Apricot

5. CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS BASED ON FRUIT MORPHOLOGY

Type of Fruit Examples
A. Simple Fruits
1. Berry Arecanut, Avacado, Grape, guava, banana, papaya, sapota, Date palm (Single
seeded berry)
a. Modified berry
i. Balausta Pomegaranate
ii. Amphisarca Wood apple, Bael
b. Pome Apple, pear, quince, loquat
c. Pepo Watermelon
2 Drupe (Stone) Plum, apricot, peaches, almond, ber, mango, coconut, jamun, phalsa,
Barbados cherry, olive, Aonla (green aonla) Coffee, Cherry
3. Hesperidium Oranges, citrus
4. Nut fruit Litchi, Rambutan, Cashewnut, Walnut, Pecanut
5. Capsule Aonla (used for seed and other purpose), Carambola, Okra
B. AGGREGATE FRUITS (Develops from numerous ovaries of the same flower)
1. Etaerio of Custard apple, Raspberry
berries

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2. Etaerio of Blackberry, longan berry
drupelets
3. Etaerio of Strawberry
achenes
C. MULTIPLE/ COMPOSITE FRUITS
1. Syconus Fig (RRB-SO 2019)
2. Sorosis Pineapple (AFO-2021), jackfruit, mulberry, breadfruit.

6. BASED ON PARTS USED

Citrus Juicy placental hairs
Banana Mesocarp and endocarp
Coconut Endosperm (RRB-SO 2021)
Custard apple Fleshy pericarp of individual berries
Fig Fleshy receptacle
Guava Thalamus and pericarp
Mango Mesocarp
Litchi Aril
Pomegranate Juicy covering of seed
Pear Stalk of fruit and thalamus
Almond Seed
Walnut Seed
Fig Fleshy receptacle and thalamus
Pineapple Fleshy axis, bracts, perianth and seed
Bael Fleshy layer of pericarp
Jamun Pericarp and thalamus

7. BASED ON BOTANICAL RELATIONSHIP

A. Monocot
Musaceae Banana
Bromeliaceace Pineapple
Arecaceae Date palm, coconut
B. Dicot
Anacardiaceae Mango, Cashewnut
Myrtaceae Guava, Jamun, Pineapple Guava
Caricaceae Papaya
Sapindaceae Litchi, Rambutan
Euphorbiaceae Aonla, Star Gooseberry
Moraceae Mulberry, Jackfruit, Monkeyfruit, Fig
Sapotaceae Sapota, Khirni
Rutaceae Citrus, Woodaple, Bael, Grapefruit
Rhamnaceae Ber
Vitaceae Grape

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 15

Apocynaceae Karonda
Rosaceae Loquat, Apple, Pear, Peach, Plum, Apricot
Punicaceae Pomegranate
Juglandaceae Walnut, Pecanut
Annonaceae Custard apple
Tiliaceae Phalsa
Fabaceae or Leguminasae Tamrind

8. CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS BASED ON THEIR PLOIDY LEVEL:

Euploidy Allo-polyploidy Allotetraploid/ Mango
Amphidiploid
Allo-hexaploid European plum
Allo-octaploid Cultivated strwaberry
Autopolyploidy Auto-triploid Cultivated banana,
Tahiti lime
Auto-tetraploid Aonla, Jack fruit, litchi,
phalsa, bael, ber cv
Umran
Auto- hexaploid Persimmon, Kiwi
Auto- Octaploid Ber cv. Gola, Illaichi
Aneuploidy Aneuploid-82 Pusa Srijan (Guava Dwarf rootstock)

9. BASED ON SALINITY TOLERANCE

Tolerant Moderately tolerant Sensitive
(8 mmhos) (6 to 3 mmhos) (3-1.5 mmhos)
Datepalm Fig Peach
Ber Orange Apricot
Coconut Lemon Avocado
Phalsa Pomegranate Almond
Aonla Grapefruit Plum
Custard apple Grape Apple
Kair Banana Lime
Khirni Cashew Papaya
Guava Jamun Strawberry
Grape Pear, Mango

10. BASED ON RELATIVE ACID TOLERANCE:

Highly tolerant Medium tolerant Highly sensitive
Stawberry, Raspberry, Pineapple, Avocado, Litchi -
Fig, Bael, Plum

16 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

11. BASED ON RIPENING BEHAVIOUR
Climacteric Fruits experiencing sudden upsurge in rate of respiration at the time of ripening, e.g:
Mango, Guava, Papaya, Jackfruit, Fig, Sapota, Passion fruit, Banana, Apple,
Tomato, Apricot, KiwiFruit, Blackberry, Annona, Muskmelon Plum and Pear
Non- Fruits experiencing simple gradual decline in rate of respiration at the time of
climacteric ripening, e.g: Litchi, Lemon, Lime, Oranges, Grape, Pomegranate, Pineapple,
Watermelon, citrus, Cashew, Strawberry, Cherry, Jamun, Ber

12. BASED ON ETHYLENE EVOLUTION

Class Range at 200 C Name of fruits
µ1c2h4 per kg/hr.
Very low Less than 0.1 Citrus, Grape, Pomegranate
Low 0.1-1.0 Pineapple
Moderate 1.0-10.0 Banana, Fig, Guava, Mango
High 10.0-100.0 Avocado, Papaya
Very high More than 100 Passion fruit, Sapota

13. BASED ON BEARING BEHAVIOUR:

BEARING
BEHAVIOUR

Terminal
Axillary bearing Mixed bearing
bearing

Star fruit
Bearing on new Bearing on old Bearing on new Bearing on old
Pomegranate
growth growth growth growth
Citrus

Morus, Fig, Apple, Peach,

Loquat ,
Phalsa, Ber, Pear, Plum,
Jackfruit, Bael, Mango, Litchi
Guava, Aonla, Tamarind,
Pecannut
Sapota, Karonda Hazelnut

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 17

14. ALTERNATE BEARING HABIT: Mango, Olive, European Plum, Date palm, Apple, Persimmon,
Pecannut

15. BASED ON GROWING ENVIRONMENT

Lithophyte Plant which grows on stone, e.g., sphagnum, fern.
Epiphyte Plant which grows on another plant, e.g., sandal, orchid.
Terrestrial Plant which grows on earth.
Psammophyte Plant growing in soil having sand and gravel.
Petrophyte Plant able to grow on rocks.

16. BASED ON WATER REQUIREMENT

Hydrophytes Those plants which grow partially or Banana
fully submerged in water
Mesophyte Plants which grow in situation where Mango, Papaya, Guava, Citrus, Aonla,
water is neither abundant nor scarce Custard apple, Apple, Pear, Peach,
Plum etc.
Xerophytes Plants which grow in extremely scarce Ber, Kair
condition of water

17. BASED ON LIGHT REQUIREMENT

Heliophytes Plants which grow in open sunny situation
Sciophytes Plants which grow in shade
Facultative Sciophytes Plant which grows in shade and also grow in sun.
Obligate sciophytes Plant which always grow in shade.
Facultative heliophytes Can grow well in full sunlight also grow in shade.
Obligate heliophytes Plants which always grow in sun.

18. BASED ON PHOTOPERIODIC REQUIREMENT

Short day plants (Light period of 12 hrs. Strawberries, Pineapple, Coffee
or less)
Long day plants (Light period of 12 hrs. Apple, Passion Fruit
or more)
Day neutral plants Banana, Papaya & Guava

19. BASED ON BRANCHING HABIT

Heliotropic branching Plants with branches emerging high- Example: Hog plum
habit up on the stem and growing upward (Spondias mombin)
(in the direction of sun).
Geotropic branching habit Plants with branches emerging in near Example: Banyan
proximity to the ground and growing
parallel to the ground surface.

20. BASED ON LONGEVITY FRUITS ARE CLASSIFIED AS:

18 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

Very Long longevity >100 yrs Datepalm, Coconut, Arecanut
Long longevity 50-100 yrs Mango, Tamarind
Medium longevity 10-50 yrs Litchi, Guava, Pomegranate
Short longevity - Pineapple, Banana

21. CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS BASED ON TYPES OF INFLORESCENCES:

Types Fruit crops
Racemose
Solitary Guava, peach, quince, apricot, almond, trifoliate orange
Raceme Blackberry, Gooseberry, raspberry
Catkins Peacanut, walnut, chestnut, mulberry
Corymbose Pear
Cymose
Panicle Grapes, litchi, mango, loquat, pistachio nut
Solitary Papaya, sapota, citrus, phalsa, persimmon, strawberry
Fascicle Sweet orange, ber, plum, cherry
Others
Spadix Banana, arecanut, coconut, date palm
Hypanthodium Fig, pomegranate

22. BASED ON TYPE OF PLACENTATION:

Type of Placentation Crops
Axil Banana, citrus
Marginal Litchi
Parietal Papaya
Basal Ber

23. CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS BASED ON TOLERANCE TO SHADE:

Level Examples
Slightly tolerant to acid soil Mango, citrus, banana, guava, papaya, apple, peach, kiwi
Moderately tolerant to acid soil Orange, pineapple, jack, avocado, litchi, loquat
Highly tolerant to acid soil Wood apple, bael, strawberry
Tolerant to alkaline soil Guava, date palm, aonla, custard apple, coconut

24. CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS BASED ON RATE OF RESPIRATION RATE:

Level of respiration Rate of respiration (mg of Fruit crops
CO2/kg/hr
Very low <5 Nut, dried fruits
Low 5-10 Citrus, grapes, apple
Medium 10-20 Mango, banana, pear, peach fig

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 19

High 20-40 Strawberry, avocado

25. CLASSIFICATION OF FRUIT CROPS BASED ON STORAGE LIFE:

Very perishable (0-4 Perishable (4-8 Semi-perishable Non-perishable (> 12
weeks) weeks) (6-12 weeks) weeks)
Apricot, banana, Avocado, grape, Coconut, oranges Apple, grapefruit, lemon,
berry fruit, cherry, mandarin, nectarine, pear
fig, loquat, mango, passion fruit, peach,
strawberry pineapple, plum

26. MAJOR COLOUR COMPOUNDS PRESENT IN FRUIT CROPS:

Colour Pigments Examples
Orange 𝛃- carotene Mango, pineapple
Red purple Anthocyanins Grapes, pomegranate, blackberries, raspberries
orange Caricaxanthin Papaya
Red Lycopene Papaya, guava var. Arka Kiran
Orange yellow Flavonoids Peach, papaya, orange, tangerine
Yellow green Lutein and zeaxanthin Avocado
Green Chlorophyll Guava
Yellow Xanthophyll Guava

27. AROMA COMPOUNDS RESPONSIBLE FOR FRUITS:

Fruits Compounds
Apple-Ripe Ethyl 2-methylbutyrate
Apple-Green Hexanal, 2-hexenal
Banana-Green 2-hexenal
Banana-Ripe Eugenol
Banana-Overripe Isopentanol
Lemon Citral
Orange Valencene
Raspberry 1-(p-Hydroxyphenyl)-3-butanone

28. VOLATILE COMPOUNDS (AROMA):

Fruits Volatiles
Banana Isopentyl acetate
Orange Citral
Almond Benzaldehyde
Apple 2-methyl butyrate

29. AROMA IS DUE TO ESTERS:

Fruits Esters
Apple Pentyl valerate

20 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

Grape Methyl salicylate
Banana Pentyl acetate
Orange Octyl acetate
Strawberry Ethyl butyrate
Raspberry Butyl acetate

30. BITTERNESS IS DUE TO FLAVONOIDS AND TERPENOIDS:

Fruits Flavonoids Terpenoids
Orange Hesperidin (Tasteless) Neral and Geranial
Grapefruit Naringenin (Bitter Taste) Nootkatone

31. ACID PRESENT IN FRUIT CROPS:

Citric Acid Berries, Citrus, Guava, Pear, Pineapple
Malic acid Apple, Banana, Cherry, Plum, Melon

EDIBLE PART OF SOME FRUITS

Fruits Morphological category Edible part
Almond Drupe Seed
Apple Pome Thalamus
Apricot Drupe Mesocarp
Banana Berry Mesocarp and endocarp
Cashewnut Drupe Peduncle, cotyledon, and seed
Coconut Drupe Endosperm (RRB SO-2021)
Custard apple Etaerio (Aggregate fruits) Fleshy pericarp of berries
Date palm Single seeded berry Mesocarp
Grape Berry Pericarp and placenta
Guava Berry Thalamus and pericarp
Jackfruit Sorosis (AFO-2016) Bracts, perianth and seeds
Litchi Nut Aril (Juicy covering of seed)
Loquat Pome Fleshy thalamus
Mango Drupe Mesocarp
Mulberry Sorosis Fleshy sepals
Oranges Hesperidium Juicy placental hairs
Papaya Berry Epicarp and mesocarp
Peach Drupe Mesocarp
Pear Pome Thalamus
Pineapple Sorosis (AFO-2021) Receptacle, bracts and perianth
Plum Drupe Mesocarp
Pomegranate Balusta Juicy covering of seed
Quince Pome Thalamus
Raspberry Etaerio of drupelets Pericarp
Strawberry Etaerio of achenes, berries Fleshy thalamus
Sweet cherry Drupe Mesocarp

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 21

Walnut Drupe Seed

CARBOHYDRATES
❖ Carbohydrates is important and chief source of energy in human diet.
❖ Carbohydrates care classified in 3 groups:
Fruit Sources Vegetable Sources
Raisins 77.3% Cassava 38.1%
Apricot (dry) 72.8% Sweet Potato 28.2%
Date 67.37% Potato 22.6%
Karonda (dry) 67.1%
Banana 36.4%
Bael 30.6%

Carbohydrates

Monosaccharides Disaccharides
Polysaccharides
(Reducing Sugar) (Non-Reducing Sugar)
(Starch, Cellulose and
(Glucose, Fructose and (Sucrose, Lactose and Saccharin)
Mannose) Maltose)

PROTEINS
❖ Proteins are extremely complex nitrogen containing organic compounds. They constitute major part
of protoplasm.
❖ Daily requirement of protein is 60-70 g.

Fruit Sources Vegetable Sources

Cashew nut 21.20% Lima Bean 7.9g/100g
Almond 20.88% Pea 7.2g/100g
Walnut 15.60% Cow Pea 4.3g/100g

FAT
❖ Fat is stored energy source of our body.
❖ 1 g fat liberates 9.0 calories energy.

22 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 Fruit Sources Vegetable Sources
Pecan nut 70.0% Bengal Gram 1.40g/100g
Walnut 64.5% Potato 1.18g/100g
Almond 58.9% Small Bitter gourd 1.0g/100g
Cashew nut 46.9%
Avocado 22.8%

VITAMINS:
❖ Vitamins can be classified in two groups:

Vitamins

Water soluble
Fat soluble
(Vitamib B complex and
(Vitamin A, D, E and K)
Vitamin C)

❖ VITAMIN-A (Retinol, Carotene)

➢ Deficiency symptoms: Night blindness (Nyctalopia), Xeropthalmia for children, Keratinization of
epithelia cell of eyes.
➢ Vegetable is rich in ‘Vitamin-A’ than fruit.
➢ Carrot provides maximum Vitamin-A per unit area.
➢ Precursor of Vitamin-A is carotenoids.
➢ Mango and papaya have higher vitamin A in fruits.
❖ VITAMIN –B1 (Thiamine)
➢ Deficiency symptoms: Beriberi, Muscular weakness, loss of weight, Neuritis, Loss of appetite and
dilion of heart.
➢ Cashew, walnut, and Almond are good source of VITAMIN –B1
❖ VITAMIN –B2 (Riboflavin)
➢ Deficiency symptoms: Dry scaly skin, crack in corners of mouth, cracking of lips etc.
➢ Bael, papaya and Cashewnut are good source of VITAMIN –B2
❖ VITAMIN –C (Ascorbic acid)
➢ Daily requirement is 70 mg/100g.
➢ Deficiency symptoms: Scurvy
➢ Approximately 90% vitamin-C is obtained from fruit and vegetables.
➢ Barbados cherry, Aonla and guava are the good source of VITAMIN C
❖ VITAMIN –B3 (Nicotinic acid)
➢ Deficiency symptoms: Pellagra. Nervous breakdown, stomach and intestinal disorder.
❖ VITAMIN –B6 (Pyridoxine)
➢ Deficiency symptoms: Lack of energy, Decrease in Brain function, High levels of Homocysteine.
➢ Excellent sources of vitamin-B6 include summer squash, bell peppers, turnip greens, shiitake
mushrooms, and spinach.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 23

❖ VITAMIN –B12 (Cyanocobalamin)
➢ Deficiency symptoms: Pernicious anaemia (Reduction in RBCs), Autoimmune disorders.
➢ VITAMIN –B12 is providing by animal food. It is not found in vegetables and fruits.
❖ VITAMIN –D (Cholecalciferol)
➢ Deficiency symptoms: Rickets, Pigeon chest in children, Osteomalacia (adult).
➢ Vitamin –D is synthesized by the body through sunlight.
❖ VITAMIN –E (Tocopherol)
➢ Anti-sterility vitamin.
➢ Deficiency symptoms: Degeneration of kidney, Necrosis of liver.
➢ Sweet corn is rich source of vitamin E.
❖ VITAMIN –K (Phylloquinone)
➢ Antihemorrhagic vitamin.
➢ Deficiency symptoms: Delayed and faulty coagulation of blood.
MINERALS
❖ Calcium
➢ Daily requirement is 500-600 mg/day.
➢ Litchi and karonda are the good source of calcium.
❖ Iron
➢ Dry karonda and date are the good source of Iron.
❖ Phosphorus
➢ Almond, Cashew and Walnut are good source.
Carbohydrate Fruit: Raisins> Apricot (dry)> Vegetable: Cassava> Sweet Potato>
Date> Karonda Potato
Protein Fruit: Cashew nut> Almond Vegetable: Lima bean> Pea> Cowpea
Fat Fruit: Pecan nut> Walnut> Vegetable: Bengal Gram> Potato>
Almond
Vitamin A Mango> Papaya
Vitamin B1 Cashew> Walnut
Vitamin B2 Bael> Papaya
Vitamin C Barbados Cherry> Aonla> Guava
Vitamin E Sweet Corn
Calcium Litchi> Karonda
Iron Dry Karonda> Date
Phosphorus Almond> Cashew

COMMERCIAL METHODS OF PROPAGATION OF MAJOR FRUITS:

Types of propagation:
1. Sexual propagation: By seed
2. Asexual propagation
Methods of asexual propagation:
A. Cutting
B. Budding
C. Grafting

24 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

D. Layering
E. Propagation of Specialized vegetative structures
A. Propagation by cuttings:
Stem cuttings:
Propagation by hardwood cuttings is simple and cheapest.
➢ Hardwood cuttings are easily handled and transplanted. One-year-old mature shoots are collected
during November-February. Grape, fig, pomegranate, plum and apple are propagated by hardwood
cuttings.
➢ Semi-hardwood cuttings are mostly used in evergreen fruit plants-mango, guava, lemon and
jackfruit. The available shoots during June-July have not attained the full maturity and are 5-9 months
old. Semi-hardwood cuttings of mango, guava and Aonla are prepared during December and treated
with IBA 5000 ppm.
➢ Softwood cuttings and herbaceous cuttings are not used to propagate fruit plants. Only 2-3 months
old shoot and very tender shoots are utilized.
➢ Root cuttings: In temperate fruits, such kind of roots are prepared in December and kept in warm
place in moss grass or wet sand for callusing and transplanted during February-March in open beds.
Blackberry and raspberry are commercially propagated by this method.
B. Method of budding:
➢ Shield or “T” budding: As the name indicates ‘shield’ is the shape of the bud and “T” is the shape
of cut given on the rootstock for the operation. Fruit plants with thin bark, with sufficient flow of the
sap like apple, pear, peach, plum, apricot, cherry and citrus are propagated by this method. In case of
citrus, budding should be done along with wood to avoid rupture of the bud.
➢ Inverted “T” budding: As the name indicates here the cut to be given on rootstock is reverse to that
of “T”. Inverted “T” budding allows better drainage and healing.
➢ Patch budding: A rectangular patch of a bark is removed completely from the stock and replaced
with a patch of bark of the same size containing a bud. This kind of budding is slow and difficult to
perform but successfully used on plants with thick bark such as walnuts and pecans where “T”
budding gives poor results. Mango, Aonla, jackfruit, and jamun are also propagated by this method.
➢ Ring or annular budding: A complete ring of bark is removed from the stock and the bud stick
preferably of same size is inserted. New shoots arising from the heavily pruned plants of ber, peach
and mulberry are capable of giving such buds for budding which can be easily separated.
Since the stock is completely girdled if the bud patch fails to heal in, the stock above the ring may
eventually die.
➢ Chip budding: When the bark is not slipping due to poor sap flow or adverse growing conditions
such as lack of water. Defoliations or low temperature, which may lead to tightening of the bark and
seriously interfere with the budding operation.
C. Method of Grafting:
Attached method of grafting or approach grafting:
➢ Inarching: It is also known as simple approach grafting, simple inarching or embracing. Heavy
rainfall, hot and dry periods adversely affect its success. Selection of parent tree for taking the scion
is an important factor. It should be taken from healthy, vigorous, and high-yielding plants.
For the actual inarching operations, the stock is brought close to the scion. A thin slice of bark about
6-8 cm long and about 8mm in thickness at a height of about 20 cm above the ground level is removed

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 25

 with a sharp knife from the stock. A similar cut is made in scion. Thus, the cambium layer of both
stock and scion are exposed.
It is the most common method for mango and guava propagation.
➢ Tongue grafting: It is modification of simple inarching and is generally practised with thicker
rootstock and scion. The rootstock is first cut as in inarching and a second cut is made into the wood
of stem about halfway down the first cut in a sloping direction pointing tongue upwards. A similar
cut is made in the scion shoot. Both cuts are made in such a manner that one fits into the other tightly.
Tongue grafting provides better success because 3 surfaces of the cambium layers are involved in the
union. Apple, pear, and walnut are propagated by this method.

Detached method of grafting:

➢ Splice and/or whip grafting: In this method, it is essential that both the stock and sciion are of equal
diameter. About one-year-old rootstock is severed at height of 23-26 cm from the ground level and a
diagonal cut (3-4 cm long) is made at the distal end of the rootstock. A similar slanting cut is made
on the proximal end of the scion and cut surfaces of both the rootstock and scion are bound together
with polythene tape.
➢ Tongue grafting: This is modified form of whip grafting. It differs from whip grafting only in such
way that a tongue is added to the cut surface to provide better filling and rigidity.
➢ Side grafting: This method consists of the insertion of the scion base for about 2.5 cm under the bark
on side of the stock. The thickness of stock is more as compared to scion. There are 2 types of side
grafting, i.e., stub grafting and side tongue grafting. In veneer grafting only one side of the scion is
sliced away in a sloping manner, whereas inside grafting the scion is sliced on both sides of the lower
portion in the form of a wedge.
➢ Notch grafting or inlaying: This method is used in humid tropical areas when girth of rootstock
exceeds 8 cm. The rootstock is decapitated 45 cm above the ground level. V-shaped notches the
periphery of the cut surface. The proximal end of the scion is fitted into the notch of the rootstock
and scions are secured to the rootstock after applying grafting wax to the union.
➢ Veneer grafting: This method is simple and can be used on rootstocks of one year having a diameter
of 1.0-1.5 cm. For veneer grafting, 3-6 months old scion shoots with lush green leaves are selected.
Terminal and next to terminal shoots are most ideal. The shoots are defoliated 5-10 days prior to
grafting (depending upon the season) leaving the petiole attached. March-September is ideal time of
veneer-grafting in northern India. The rootstocks are facing each other. The rootstock and scion are
tied together with a polythene tape. The technique is easy to operate, more economical and gives high
degree of success, and is the most ideal for establishing in-situ orchards and top-working of old
unproductive orchards. Besides, scion can be easily stored or transported for 8 days at ambient
temperature (25o-35o C) in moist sphagnum moss grass covered with polythene. Mango is
commercially propagated by veneer-grafting in north India.
➢ Cleft or wedge-grafting: This technique is employed using rootstocks of more diameter than the
scion. It is useful for top working. Rootstock with 5-7 cm or more girth, should be selected and cleft
grafted. The beheaded rootstock is split to about 5 cm deep through the centre of stem with a knife
and a mallet. When the knife is removed, a hard wooden wedge is inserted to keep it open for the
subsequent insertion of the scion. Scion (15-20 cm) is used from a terminal shoot which is more than
3 months old, and it is wedged securely (6-7 cm). The cleft of the scion is slipped into the split of the
stock that has been forced open with a wooden wedge. Walnut, hazelnut, peanut, and grape are
propagated by this method.

26 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

➢ Soft-wood grafting: In this technique, grafting is done with mature, precured scion on the emerging
soft coppery red shoot of rootstock. This technique is effective in dry, hot weather or in areas of low
precipitation. Soft-wood grafting is successful in mango, avocado, sapota and tamarind.
➢ Epicotyl grafting or stone grafting: (RRB SO-2020) Germinating seeds of less than 2 weeks old
are wedge or splice grafted with mature scion. Moderate temperature and high relative humidity are
major factors related to success. For splice grafting, germinating seeds less than 2 weeks old are used
as rootstock. A 2-3 cm long slanting cut is made in the epicotyl with a matching cut on the proximal
portion of the scion and united together.
In wedge-grafting, the selected 2 weeks old seedling is headed back by retaining 6-8 cm long stem
with stone. The longitudinal transverse cut running 4-6 cm centrally down on the beheaded rootstock
is made with the help of a sharp grafting knife. A wedge-shaped cut, slanting from both sides is made
on the lower side of scion stick. The scion stick is then inserted into the rootstock and scion stick
overlap each other.
➢ Saddle grafting: In saddle grafting, the rootstock is beheaded 25 cm above the ground level. Two
upward sloping cuts are made on the side of the rootstock to form a 5-7 cm long wedge on its cut end.
The wedge of the rootstock is then fitted into the groove of the tongue.
➢ Bridge grafting: It is a form of repair grafting and is highly beneficial in conditions when the root
system of a desirable tree, though, alright has a severe damage to tree trunk. First step in this technique
is to trim the bounded area back to healthy, undamaged tissues by removing dead/damaged bark.
Then every 5-7 cm around the injured section, a scion is inserted, which should be attached at both
upper and lower ends into live, undamaged bark, the best time for this operation is early spring, when
plants are in beginning of growth and bark slips easily.
➢ Double working: More than two kinds of plants can be combined in vertical arrangement. In addition
to rootstock and scion, a third kind may be inserted between them. This is called as inters tock or
intermediate stock. Thus, a double worked plant has two graft unions. One between rootstock and
inters tock and another between the inter stock and scion. Double working is especially required for
overcoming graft incompatibility and for obtaining certain beneficial effects of inter stock.
D. Propagation by layering:
Layering is the method of propagation in which roots are developed on a stem while it is still attached to
the parent plant. After proper rooting, the stem is detached and becomes a new plant for growing on its
own roots.
The layering can be natural means of propagation as in black raspberries and trailing blackberries or can
be artificially created by different means.
➢ Tip-layering: In tip-layering rooting takes place near the tip of current season’s shoot which is bent
to the ground. It is commonly followed in black berries, raspberries, and dewberries. The stem of
these plants completes their life in 2 years. The tips of these shoots are buried 5-10 cm deep in soil.
Rooted layers are detached and planted in soil during spring.
➢ Serpentine layering: It is modification of simple layering in which one-year-old branch is
alternatively covered and exposed. The stem is girdled at its lower part. The exposed part of stem
should have at least one bud to develop a new shoot. After rooting, the sections are cut and planted.
Muscadine grape is commercially propagated by this method. (AFO-2019)
➢ Air layering: In this method, roots are formed in the aerial part of the plant. The stem is girdled, and
rooting hormone (IBA) is applied to upper part of cut. The moist rooting medium (moss grass) is
wrapped with help of small polythene strip (200-300 gauze, transparent). This method is commonly

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 27

 known as goottee. Many fruit plants like litchi, Kagzi lime, jackfruit, guava and cashewnut are
propagated through air-layering. February-March and June-July are ideal periods for air-layering.
➢ Mould layering/stooling: - In this method, the plant is headed back to 15cm above the ground level
during dormant season. The new sprouts will arise within 2 months. These sprouts are then girdled
near base and rooting hormone (IBA), made in lanolin paste is applied to the upper portion of cut
with moist soil.
➢ Trench layering: Trench layering consists of growing a plant or branch of a plant in a horizontal
position in the base of trench and filling in soil around the new shoots. Roots are developed at the
base of new shoots, so produced. Vigorous rootstocks of apple like M16 and M25 and walnut are
usually propagated by trench layering.

E. Propagation by specialized vegetative structures:

a. Underground Stem Types: Bulb, Corm, Rhizome, Tuber
b. Sub-aerial modification of plants: Runner, Stolon, Sucker, offset.
➢ Runner: It is a specialized stem which is produced from the leaf axil at the crown of plant and
prostrate horizontally. Strawberry is the typical example which is commercially propagated through
runners.
➢ Suckers: A sucker is a shoot which arises on a plant below the ground. Pineapple is usually
propagated through suckers. In banana, 2 types of suckers are produced – water sucker and sword
sucker.
➢ Stolon: Stolon are the stems that grow at the surface of the soil or below the ground, forming
adventitious roots at the nodes, and new plants from the buds. In plants, stolon is a synonym for a
runner.
➢ Offset: The date palm and pineapple produce such type of lateral shoots by which they can be
propagated.
➢ Rhizome: A rhizome is a modified stem structure in which the main axis of the plant grows
horizontally just below or on the surface of the ground. Banana is a typical example where rhizome
is cut into pieces in such a way so that each piece contains at least 3 lateral buds (eyes) for propagation.
➢ Crown: It designates that part of a plant at the surface of ground from which new shoots are produced.
In strawberry plant, where leaves are seen in groups, is oftenly referred to as ‘crown’ of plant.
Similarly, at the top is the crown of pineapple plant, which can be used for propagation purpose.
➢ Bulb: Shoot consists of a small amount of vertical stem tissue and a massive quantity of thick, fleshy
storage leaves e.g., Album spp. It may function as reproductive structures in vegetative propagation.
Sometimes, they form proliferative structure such as bulbils. It is developed by buds in the axil of the
leaves of bulbs. It is observed in garlic.
➢ Tuber: It is thick, underground storage stem, which bears outer buds. It lacks protective scales. E.g.,
solanum tuberosum. In some plants tubers are formed on aerial shoot, e.g., Dioscorea.
➢ Corm: Shoot consists of globose stem tissue surrounded by scanty, scale like leaves. E.g., Iris spp.
SPECIALIZED PLANT\PARTS
Rhizome (Modified stem) Banana
Sucker (Shoot) Pineapple, banana.
Crown or split Strawberry
Runners (Specialized stem) Strawberry

28 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 Offset or offshoot (Lateral shoot or branch) Date palm, pineapple
Slips Best planting material from pineapple.

Micropropagation:
It refers to propagation of plants from very small plant parts, tissues grown aseptically in a test-tube or
container under controlled nutritional and environmental conditions. This method is gaining popularity
because of advantages over other conventional methods. (AFO-2022)
Advantages:
➢ Large-scale multiplication in lesser time and space
➢ Production of virus-free plants
➢ Year-round production of plants
➢ Highly beneficial in those fruits where vegetative propagation is difficult.
➢ In dioecious fruit plants, production of female plants is possible through micropropagation, Papaya,
is a good example.
Based on explant, different in-vitro methods are used for propagating fruit plants. They are shoot-tip
culture, meristem-tip culture, embryo culture and ovule culture.
Fruit crop Commercial method of propagation
Apple Whip and tongue, grafting, stooling
Peach T budding
Plum T budding
Pear, Apricot Tongue or whip grafting
Acid lime, Coconut, Arecanut, Papaya, Phalsa, Seed
Coffee, passion Fruit
Avocado Layering, T-budding
Muscadine grape Serpentine layering
Aonla Patch budding
Bael, Pecannut Patch budding
Ber Ring and T-budding
Custard apple T-budding, Inarching, Offshoots
Grape Hardwood stem cuttings
Grapefruit T-budding
Guava Stooling, Inarching, Air layering
Litchi Air layering
Mandarin T/shield budding
Mango, Mangosteen Veneer grafting, Inarching, Softwood grafting

Pomegranate Hardwood stem cutting, Air layering

Pummelo Seed, T-budding

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 29

Sweet orange T-budding, Patch budding
Date palm Offshoots
Tea, Cashewnut Softwood Cutting
Rubber Forket Budding
Persimmon Crown grafting
Jackfruit, Loquat, Sapota Inarching

Seed Acid Lime, Coconut, Arecanut, Papaya, Passion fruit, Karonda, Phalsa,
Mangosteen, Pummelo, wood apple, Oil Palm, Cocao, Coffee, Date
Palm
Hardwood cutting Karonda, Fig, Grape, Pomegranate
Softwood cutting Tea, Cashewnut (Softwood grafting)
T budding Pummelo, Almond, Aonla, Ber, Custard Apple, Grapefruit, Mandarin,
Sweet Orange, Peach, Plum, Olive, Apple, Pear, Apricot
Air Layering Pomegranate, Litchi, Avocado, Cherry.
Stooling Guava
Leaf node cutting Tea
Sword sucker Banana
Offshoot sucker Date Palm
Suckers, Slips Pineapple
Patch budding Bael, Jamun, Pecannut,

TRAINING AND PRUNING

❖ Trunk: The main woody stem of a tree, from which its branches grow.
❖ Head: Point on the trunk from which first branch arise.
❖ Scaffold Branches: Main branches arising from the head are known as scaffold branches.
❖ Low Headed Tree: Trees in which scaffold branches arise within 0.7-0.9 m height from ground level.
Low headed trees come into bearing comparatively much earlier, are able to resist stormy winds more
effectively and their spraying and harvesting expenses are less.
❖ High Headed Tree: Trees in which scaffold branches come out from the trunk above 1.2 m. In the
tropical climate, high headed trees are unsuitable as their exposed trunks are subjected to sunscald in
summer.
❖ Crotch: The angle made by scaffold limb to the trunk or the secondary branch to scaffold limb is
called crotch. The crotch should be broad and not narrow.
❖ Leader: The main growing branch from ground level up to the tip dominating all other branches.
❖ Spur: Numerous shoot growth which are abundant over the fruit trees and upon which most of the
fruit is borne.
❖ Water Shoots: These are extraordinary vigorous vegetative shoots which grow from the high points
on the main branches in upright direction at the expense of main branches.
❖ Training: Training is a practice in which tree growth is directed into a desired shape and form.
Training is started from nursery stage of plant. Training young fruit trees is essential for proper tree
development. It is better to direct tree growth with training than to correct it with pruning. Some fruit
crops like grape vines, ber, fig, guava, apple, pear etc. require training.

30 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

❖ Pruning: Pruning may be defined as the art and science of cutting away of portion of plant to improve
its shape, to influence its growth, flowering, and fruitfulness and to improve the quality of the product.
It is done to divert a part of plant energy from one part to another part of plant. (NABARD-2021)
❖ Seasons of Pruning:
1. Dormant Pruning:
➢ Most often done during the winter- commonly referred to as dormant pruning.
➢ Dormant pruning is an invigorating process.
➢ Heavy dormant pruning also promotes excessive vegetative vigour.
➢ Timing of dormant pruning is critical.
➢ Pruning should begin as late in the winter as possible to avoid winter injury.
2. Summer Pruning:
➢ Pruning done during summers- referred to as summer pruning.
➢ Its severity is much less, less common, more specific and selective.
➢ Eliminates an energy or food producing portion of the tree and results in reduced tree growth.
➢ For most purposes, summer pruning should be limited to removing the upright and vigorous current
season's growth; only thinning cuts should be used.
➢ To minimize the potential for winter injury, summer pruning should not be done after the end of July.
METHODS OF TRAINING SYSTEM:
❖ Open centre system is also known as vase shaped system.
❖ Central leader system is also known as closed cantered one.
❖ Modified leader system: Most acceptable for commercial fruit cultivation. Intermediate between the
open and central leader system.
OTHER SYSTEMS OF TRAINING:
❖ Bower system is also known as pandal or arbour or pergola system- Commonly practiced in grapes.
❖ Telephone system is also known as overhead trellis system.
❖ Cordons are single stemmed tree system.
❖ Commercial planting of apples and pears has been successfully done as primitive espalier system.
COMMERCIAL TRAINING SYSTEMS IN FRUITS CROPS
Training systems Examples
Central leader Walnut, pecan, nut, apple, pear, mango and sapota
Open center or vase system Peach, Japanese plum, nectarine, Guava, apricots and ber
Modified leader European plum, sweet cherry, pear, Apple
Bower system Grapes
Espalier system Apple
Cordons Peach, Grape and passion fruit
Single stem system Citrus, fig, Annona
Multiple stem system Pomegranate
Two arm Kniffin system Passion fruit

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 31

Pergola Grape, Passion Fruit, Small Guard, Pointed guard

PRUNING SYSTEM
❖ Pruning is the removal of a portion of a tree to correct or maintain tree structure.
❖ Main objective:
➢ Regulation of shape and growth of tree.
➢ Enhance the production and quality fruits.
❖ Pruning is done in two ways:

Thinning out

Types

Heading back

1. Thinning out: Removal of undesirable shoots or branches without leaving any stub. Encourage
the tree growth e.g., Mango, loquat, quince, olive.
2. Heading back: Removal of terminal portion of the shoots, branches or limb leaving its basal
portion.
✓ Reduce the tree size by topping and hedging.
✓ It is also called pinching.
➢ Skirting: Removal of low hanging branches e.g., Mango.
➢ Tip pruning: The young vegetative flushes are cut back to mature wood just prior to flowering e.g.,
Mango.
➢ Renewal Pruning: This pruning is done in old trees like mangoes which shows decline. In this case
severe pruning is required.
SPECIAL PRUNING TECHNIQUES IN FRUIT CROPS
Special techniques Purpose Examples
Root pruning: Removal of To make dwarf, to induce Mandarin
roots 40 cm away from the base flowering, fruitfulness and
of the plant. determining the flowering
time.
Ringing: Removal of complete To increase fruit bud Mango, Grapes.
ring of bark from a branch or a formation.
trunk.
Dehorning: To removal of To induce flowering Mango (Vidarbha region of
overcrowding and Maharashtra)
intermingling of branches
Notching: Partial ringing of a To induce the fruit branches & Poona Fig (Pune Region of
branches above a dormant increase the bearing area of the Maharashtra)
lateral bud. plant.

32 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

Nicking: Partial ringing of a To increase the flowering Apple. Poona Fig (Pune Region
branches below a dormant bud. shoots. of Maharashtra)
To induce spurs from buds
Smudging: Practice of To induce the off-season Mango (Philippines)
smoking under the trees. flowering
Bending: Bending of branches To increase the lateral Guava (Allahabad region in UP,
or shoots. branches and fruit production. Deccan region)

Thinning: Removal of part of To increase the fruit size. Grapes, Peach, Plum, Quince.
flower bud or small fruits from To reduce the alternate bearing
a heavy crop. tendency.
Girdling: Removal of 2-3 mm To increase the berry size. Grapes, Litchi
white strip of barks around the
stem.
Leaf pruning: Removal of old - Date palm
and senescence leaves.
Top working or top grafting - Mango, Apple
or top budding: Changing the
established plants, trees, shrubs
or vines with a desirable
cultivar.

PRUNING TIME AND TECHNIQUES IN FRUIT CROPS

Sl. Crop Time Technique
No.

1 Apple Late winter Light thinning coupled with heading back.

2 Peach Late winter (Dec-Jan) A combination of thinning out and heading back.
3 Plum Late winter (Dec-Jan) A combination of thinning out and heading back.
4 Grape
North India Late winter (Jan) Heading back of cane.
South India Summer pruning (Aug) Heading back to one or two buds which is almost
thinning out.
Winter pruning (Sept-Oct) Heading back to cane.
5 Mango After harvest Thinning.
6 Phalsa
North Late winter early spring Heading back.
South Dec-Jan Heading back.
7 Ber Summer (April-May) Heading back and thinning out of old branches.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 33

LAYOUT OF ORCHARD:
The orchard is laid out as per following system of panting:
1. Square system: It is most easy and popular method of planting fruit plants. In this system row to row
and plant to plant distances are kept similar. The plants are planted exactly at right angle at each
corner.
2. Rectangular system: The field is laid out into rectangular shape plot keeping more space between
row and row. The plant-to-plant distance is kept comparatively less. Thus, rectangular system
accommodates more plants in rows.
3. Hexagonal system: This system accommodates 15 % more plants than square system. The trees are
planted at the vertex of each equilateral triangle. Thus, six trees form hexagon with the seventh tree
in the centre. Hence, this system is also called as ‘ septuple’ as it accommodates seventh tree in the
centre. This is very intense method of planting and hence requires fertile land.
4. Quincunx system: this system is similar to square system except one additional plant is planted in
the centre of each square. The plants that are planted in the centre of each square along with tall
growing plants at the corners of squares are termed as ‘filler’ plants. These plants are planted with a
view to generate income when the main orchard plant is under non- bearing stage. Guava, Kinnow,
Phalsa, Plum, Peaches, Papaya etc. are important filler plants.
5. Contour system: It is adopted in hilly areas for planting fruit plants where land is undulated, and
soils erosion is a great threat. Under such circumstances, contour terrace is developed by scratching
and levelling the hill- slope. The width of contour terrace varies according to the slope of the hill. At
stiff hill slope, the width is kept narrower.

FRUIT CROPS

1. MANGO:
Introduction:
❖ Botanical name: Mangifera indica
❖ Family: Anacardiaceae
❖ Origin: Indo-Burma region
❖ Types of flowers: Male and hermaphrodite.
❖ Type of pollination: Cross pollination
❖ Pollinator: House Fly
❖ Fruit type: Fleshy drupe
❖ Mango fruits contain highest Vitamin-A (4800 IU) followed by papaya (2020 IU).
❖ Mango seed kernels contain 9.5% protein.
❖ Good mango varieties contain 20% of TSS
❖ Soil- alluvial to lateritic soils except in black cotton soil having poor drainage.
❖ PH -slightly acidic (does not perform well in soils having pH beyond 7.5.)
Temperatures at different Stages:
❖ Ideal temperature for mango cultivation 24-270c. (RRB SO-2018)
❖ The temperature of 5-16°C for different varieties is ideal for storing.

34 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 ❖ Mangoes are highly susceptible to low temperature injury. Loss of flavour and development of
undesirable softening are major symptoms of chilling injury.
❖ Optimum storage temperature: 13°C
❖ Hydro-cooling at 12°-15°C and holding for 2 weeks at 15°C followed by storage for 1 week at
ambient temperature gives good storage life to fruits.
Planting:
❖ Conventional system of planting: Square system, Spacing: 10 x 10 m, 100 plants/ha.
❖ Planting is usually done in the month of July-August in rainfed areas and during February-March in
irrigated areas. In case of heavy rainfall zones, planting is taken up at the end of rainy season.
❖ Training is done in 2-3-year-old plants.
❖ Intercropping can be done up to 5-6 years in mango orchard.
Propagation methods:
❖ Veneer grafting popular method in Northern India.
❖ Inarching grafting is the most popular method in South India (Commercial propagation).
❖ Epicotyl grafting commercially practiced in Konkan region of Maharashtra.
❖ Polyembryonic rootstocks: Mylepalium, Goa, Kurrnukan, Olour, Chandrakaran, Bellary,
Bappakkai
❖ Bappakkai is the best Polyembryonic rootstocks for Neelum cultivar.
❖ Mango stones take about 15-25 days for germination.
❖ Viability of Stone 30 Days
Seasons in Mango:
❖ In India, mango is available from March to mid-August. North Indian cultivars are alternate bearers
and in south India Regular bearers.
❖ Pruning time in south India: August-September.
❖ Heading back in mango done at November-December.
❖ Off season mango fruit maturity: January to February
❖ Prevention of pre-harvest fruit drop in mango: 2,4-D @ 20 ppm, NAA @ 50 ppm
Varieties:
Purpose Varieties
Varieties having high demand in the Kent, Tommy Atkins, Alphonso (Ratnagiri),
international markets and exported from Dashehari (UP), Kesar (GJ) and Banganapalli (AP)
India.
Dwarfing cultivars Ambalavi, Kalapady
North Indian mangoes (Alternate Langra, Chausa and Dashehari
bearers)
Off season mango Neelum, Rumani, Bangalora, Niranjan
Canning variety ❖ Alphonso and Dassehari
❖ Mutant variety ❖ Rosica
❖ Promising dwarfing genotype ❖ Creeping

Varieties And Its Popular Region:

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 35

 Variety Popular region
Alphonso Ratnagiri (Maharashtra)
Banganapalli Andhra Pradesh
Bombay Green North India
Chausa North India
Dassehari North India (U.P.)
Fazli Bihar & West Bengal
Gulabkhas Bihar
Himsagar West Bengal
Kesar Saurashtra region of Gujrat
Kishenbhog West Bengal
Langra North India
Neelum South India
Pairi Maharashtra
Totapuri S. India (Karnatka) (AFO-2018)
Zardalu Bihar
Laxmanbhog West Bengal
Malda Punjab
Mulgoa Karnatka

Varieties and its hybrids:

Hybrids Parents Special features
Ambika Amrapali × Janardhan Late ripening variety
Pasand
Arunika Amrapali × Vanraj
Pusa Peetembar Amrapali × Lal sundari Yellow colour variety, suitable for uniform
packaging (due to oblong fruit shape)
Pusa Arunima Amrapali × sensation Regular bearer
Pusa lalima Dashehari × sensation Red colour variety (bright red peel colour)
Pusa pratibha Amrapali × sensation Regular bearer (red peel colour)
Pusa Shreshth Amrapali × sensation Regular bearer
Mallika Neelum × Dashehari Regular bearer- Mid season
Amrapali Dashehari × Neelum Regular bearer, Desert variety. (AFO-2021)
Ratna Neelum x Alphonso Regular bearer (FRS Vengurla) (AFO-2018)
Sindhu Ratna × Alphonso 1St Seedless Variety in World
(FRS Vengurla)
Arka Udaya Amrapali × Arka Anmol
Arka Aruna Banganapalli × Alphonso Regular bearer- suitable for HDP
Arka puneet Alphonso × Banganapalli Regular bearer- Suitable for canning

36 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 Arka anmol Alphonso × Janardhan Regular bearer- Suitable for export
Pasand
Manijra Rumani × Neelum -
Sai Sughanda Totapuri x Kesher Free From Malformation

Storage:
❖ The combination of waxing (3%) along with hot-water treatment results in good quality fruits with
extended storage life.
❖ Individual wrapping of fruit imparts uniform colour and reduces shrinkage.

2. BANANA
Introduction:
❖ It is also known as Antique fruit crop/Tree of Wisdom/Tree of Paradise/Adams fig/Kalpataru/Plant
paradise: Musa spp
❖ Origin of Musa acuminata: Malaysia
❖ Origin of Musa balbisiana: Burma
❖ Humid tropical herb.
❖ It is a day neutral plant.
❖ Monocotyledonous, monocarpic, herbaceous perennial herb.
❖ Fruit type: Berry.
❖ Climacteric fruit
❖ Inflorescence type: Spadix (Female and Hermaphrodite flower)
❖ They set fruits by parthenocarpy.
❖ Botanically, rhizome is a modified form of stem.
❖ Edible bananas are mostly hybrids of the two species: M. acuminata, M. balbisiana.
❖ Banana fruit rich source of Potassium (450 mg)
❖ Rich source of energy (137 K. Ca/100g)
❖ Ripe banana Contain 27% Sugar
❖ Better quality banana: Mid subtropical condition (Better aroma and crisp pulp).
❖ Banana is an exhausting crop it requires large quantity of fertilizer.
❖ Banana is a heavy feeder of potassium.
❖ Banana is grown as a rain fed crop in west coast and hills South India.
Temperature:
❖ Chilling injury occurs less than 120C.
❖ Banana, basically a tropical crop, grows successfully from a temperature range of 15ºC – 35ºC with
relative humidity of 75-85%.
❖ Mean temperature of 20- 30oC is optimum for its growth.
❖ Temperature above 36-38oC causes scorching effect.
❖ Storage temperature 13 0c and 85-95% RH For 2-3 Weeks
Soil:
❖ Soil: Deep well – drained soil with abundant organic matter. (Depth – one meter)
❖ Soil pH: 6.5 – 7.5 found to be optimum (AFO-2018). It can be grown in soils having a pH up to 8.5
with suitable amendments.
Water Requirement:
❖ Water requirement for banana: 1,800-2,200 mm per Plant per Year

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 37

Irrigation: Drip irrigation
15 lit/ plant/ day From planting to 4th month
20 lit/plant / day From 5th month to shooting
25 lit/plant/day From shooting till 15 days prior to harvest
System of Planting:
Pit Planting Garden land system of cultivation.
Mostly followed in biennial plantations for Dwarf cavendish,
Rasthali, Robusta and Poovan
Furrow planting (Followed in Gujrat and Maharashtra
annual planting system)
Trench planting Wetland cultivation of Cauvery delta region of Tamilnadu
Multi-storey system Coastal Karnataka and Kerala

Time of planting:
❖ Planting of tissue culture banana can be done throughout the year as per the market demand except
when the temperature is too low or too high.
❖ Important seasons for planting followed in different states of India
State Planting time
Maharashtra Kharif - June – July
Rabi - October – November
Tamil Nadu February – April
November - December
Kerala Rainfed- April-May
Irrigated crop- August- September

➢ Wet land – Feb-April: Poovan, Rasthali, Monthan

➢ April – May: Nendran, Robusta
Propagation:
❖ About 70% of the farmers are using suckers as planting material while the rest 30% of the farmers
are using tissue culture seedlings.
❖ Sword suckers with well-developed rhizome, conical or spherical in shape having actively growing
conical bud and weighing approximately 500-750 gm are commonly used as propagating material.
❖ Emerging new suckers is known as "peepers"
❖ Most widely used tissue culture in banana: shoot tip culture.
❖ Popular tissue culture variety in India- Grand Naine
Spacing:
Tallest varieties 2-2.5 m
Commercial Banana (Poovan, Rasthali, 2.1m×2.1m
Nendran and Robusta)

38 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 Dwarf cultivars (Dwarf cavendish, 1.8m×1.8m
Kullan and jawari Bale)

Varieties:
❖ The culinary types have starchy fruits and are used in the mature unripe form as vegetables.
Important cultivars include Dwarf Cavendish, Robusta, Monthan, Poovan, Nendran, Red banana,
Nyali, Safed Velchi, Basrai, Ardhapuri, Rasthali, Karpurvalli, Karthali and Grand Naine etc.
Important banana varieties cultivated in different states of India:
State Varieties grown
Andhra Pradesh Dwarf Cavendish, Robusta, Rasthali, Amritpant, Thellachakrakeli, Karpoora
Poovan, Chakrakeli, Monthan and Yenagu Bontha
Assam Jahaji (Dwarf Cavendish), Chini Champa, Malbhog, Borjahaji (Robusta),
Honda, Manjahaji, Chinia (Manohar), Kanchkol, Bhimkol, Jatikol, Digjowa,
Kulpait, Bharat Moni
Bihar Dwarf Cavendish, Alpon, Chinia , Chini Champa, Malbhig, Muthia, Kothia ,
Gauria
Gujarat Dwarf Cavendish, Lacatan, Harichal (Lokhandi), Gandevi Selection, Basrai,
Robusta, G-9, Harichal, Shrimati
Jharkhand Basrai, Singapuri
Karnataka Dwarf Cavendish, Robusta, Rasthali, Poovan, Monthan, Elakkibale
Kerala Nendran (Plantain), Palayankodan (Poovan), Rasthali, Monthan, Red Banana,
Robusta
Madhya Pradesh Basrai
Maharashtra Dwarf Cavendish, Basrai, Robusta, Lal Velchi, Safed Velchi, Rajeli Nendran,
Grand Naine, Shreemanti, Red Banana
Orissa Dwarf Cavendish, Robusta, Champa, Patkapura (Rasthali)
Tamil Nadu Virupakshi, Robusta, Rad Banana, Poovan, Rasthali, Nendran, Monthan,
Karpuravalli, Sakkai, Peyan, Matti
West Bengal Champa, Mortman , Dwarf Cavendish, Giant Governor, Kanthali, Singapuri

❖ Nendran And Chipsona is suitable for chips.

❖ Lady finger (Resistant to bunchy top virus)
Special practices:
➢ Mettoking: After harvesting, the pseudo stem should be cut leaving a stump of about 0.6 m height,
the left-over stump with its stored food material continues to nourish the daughter sucker till it
withers & dries up.
➢ Propping: Pseudo stem requires support at the time of bunch emergence. (AFO-2016)
➢ Bunch cover: covering bunches with dried leaves or perforated polythene sheet enhances the fruit
quality. Bunch covering is essential practice in Dwarf Cavendish and Silk group for attractive fruits.
➢ Denavelling: Removal of male bud after completion of the female phase. (AFO-2020)

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 39

 ➢ Desuckering: Removal of surplus and unwanted suckers from banana plant. Two ways of de-
suckering: Pouring of Kerosene oil and damaging with crowbar, 2,4-D
➢ Desuckering is done at 3 times in a year
➢ Thrashing: Removal of old, dry & diseased parts of plant.
➢ Dehandling: Removal of false fingers of bunch.
Harvesting stage:
❖ 100-150 Days from flower emergence, disappearance of angles.
Viral diseases of banana
❖ Banana Streak - Transmitted by citrus mealy bug –Planococcus citri
Bacterial diseases
❖ Tip over or heart rot (Erwinia carotovora)
❖ Seen mostly in tissue cultured plants.
Physiological disorders:
❖ Hard lump: pinkish brown, firm pulp than the usual soft pulp occurs in cv. Rasthali, tastes like
immature or unripe fruits.

3. CITRUS:
❖ Citrus: Citrus spp: Rutaceae: 2n-18
❖ Cross Pollinated crop.
❖ Inflorescence: cymose
❖ Citrus is Micronutrient loving Plant
❖ Citrus is a mesophyte tree
❖ Study of cultivation of citrus: Citriculture
❖ 3rd most important fruit crop after Mango, Banana
❖ Mandarin, sweet orange, acid lime, and grapefruit are highly polyembryonic.
❖ All citrus fruits are tree ripened (non-climacteric)
❖ TSS of most of the citrus groups: 8-12%
Classification:
Acid group Orange group Mandarin group: Pummelo and
(loose jacket) grapefruit group
❖ Acid lime: Citrus ❖ Sweet orange: Citrus ❖ Coorg mandarin, ❖ Pummelo: C. grandis
aurantifolia sinensis Nagpur ❖ Grapefruit: C.
❖ Rangpur lime: C. ❖ Sour orange: Citrus ❖ Santra and Kodai paradise
limonia aurantium orange: C. reticulata
❖ Lemon: Citrus limon ❖ Multiple leaf orange:❖ Willow leaf
❖ Tahiti or Persean C. multifolia mandarin: C.
lime : Citrus latifolia deliciosa
❖ Rough lemon : C. ❖ King mandarin: C.
jambhiri nobilis
❖ Sweet lime : Citrus ❖ Kinnow mandarin:
limettoides King x willow leaf
❖ Citron : C. medica

40 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

ACID LIME:
❖ It is also called or sour lime. The fruit juice is rich in citric acid and ascorbic acid.
❖ Climate and soil requirement: Tropical and subtropical. Deep well drained
loamy soils are the best. They are sensitive to frost. The optimum temperature is 20 to 30°C.
❖ Soil pH should be 6.5 to 7.0.
❖ Season of Planting: Dec-Feb & June-Sep
❖ Healthy Seedling may be planted during June-Dec.
❖ Acid Lime is propagated by seeds due to polyembryony.
❖ Lemons can be propagated by budding on trifoliate orange or Rangpur Lime (Citrus limonica)
❖ Lime and lemons are stored at 10-12oC with 90-95% RH
❖ Kagzi lime is the indicator plant for Tristeza
❖ Citrus canker is most serious disease of Acid lime.
❖ Crop starts bearing from 3rd year after planting.
❖ Yield: 25 t/ha/year.
Storage:
❖ Acid lime can be stored for 6-8 weeks at 8-10oC & 85 % RH.
❖ Lemons for 8-12 weeks at 7-8.5oC at 85-90 % RH.
Commonly used rootstocks:
❖ Rough Lemon: Trifoliate orange
❖ Rangpur Lime: Sour Lime
❖ Varieties of Kagzi lime (Acid lime):
✓ Pramalini (Tolerant to canker)
✓ Vikram (Offseason and bunch bearing habit)
✓ Chakradhar (Seedless variety)
✓ Sai sarbati (Tolerant to tristeza and canker)
✓ Balaji
Mandarin Orange:
❖ Temperature: 10-35oC
❖ pH- 5.5 to 6.5.
❖ Mandarins are highly susceptible to: Water logging.
❖ Varieties and their Region:

Varieties Region
Khasi Orange Assam & Meghalaya
Coorg Orange Karnataka
Desi Punjab & H.P.
Kinnow Punjab
Nagpur Santra Nagpur (Mature in January-February)

❖ Season: November – December

❖ In Tamil Nadu, Mandarins are planted at a spacing of 6 x 6 m. The planting seasons are May – June
and September – October.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 41

❖ Spacing: (6×6) m.
❖ In N-E parts of India, Khasi mandarins are very closely spaced (4.5 x 4.5) m is ideal for kinnow
budded on Jattikhatti.
❖ Kinnow (King Orange x Willow Leaf) developed in USA in 1935 and introduced in India in 1959
In Panjab.
❖ Kinnow can be grown in HDP by using Troyer citrange as a rootstock by spacing the plants at
1.8m×1.8m.
❖ Kinnow mandarin, however, commercially successful in north Indian states like Punjab, Haryana,
and Rajasthan (under subtropical climate with winter season)
❖ Generally, planting is done during monsoon in all mandarin growing areas i.e., June – December.
Kinnow HDP- (1.8×1.8) m
❖ Most of the Mandarin cultivars are propagated through seeds except kinnow and Nagpur mandarins;
usual practice in Coorg, Assam and Northeastern hills is to use seedlings as planting material.
❖ Harvest: Starts bearing from 3-5 years after planting in budded plants. In case of seedlings 5-6
years.
Harvest and yield:
❖ Generally, mandarins start bearing from the 4th year having 15-20 fruits/tree.
❖ However, its trees attain the level of full bearing at the age of 7-10 years.
❖ From flowering to maturity: 9 months
❖ Yield: 15-20 t/ha/year.
❖ Storage: Stored for many months at 8-10oC & 85-90 % RH.
❖ Under room temperature, they can be stored well for 3-4 weeks.
Other important varieties of citrus fruit:
❖ Citrus unshui: Satsuma Mandarin (Seedless)
❖ Ponkan
❖ Willow Leaf Mandarin (Citrus deliciosa)
❖ Citrus nobilis (King Mandarin) (RRB SO-2019)
❖ Emperor
❖ Clementine (Monoembryonoic)
❖ Kinnow (King× Willow Leaf)
❖ Dancy tangerine
❖ Khasi Mandarin
Sweet Orange:
❖ Temperature 25o C is most ideal and extreme cold and high temperatures are determinate.
❖ pH-6.5-7.5
Varieties and their regions:

Varieties Region
Mosambi Maharashtra & Andhra Pradesh
Malta (Common) Punjab & Haryana
Satgudi Andhra Pradesh
Malta (Blood red) Punjab

42 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

❖ Ideal season- July to September
❖ ‘T’ budding, or patch budding are most common methods for propagation of sweet orange.
❖ Propagation by budding and rootstocks used are Rangpur Lime and Rough Lemons.
❖ Spacing: 5 m x 5 m, 5.5 x 5.5 m
❖ Harvest: yield of crop starts bearing from 5th year after planting.
❖ Economic yield: up to 20 years after planting.
❖ Yield: 25-30 t/ha
❖ Varieties of sweet orange: Mosambi, Blood red Malta, Hamlin, Jaffa, Valencia, Satgudi, Pineapple,
Shamouti
Grapefruit:
❖ Origin: Malaysia
❖ Monoembryonoic spp.
❖ Propagation- Air Layering
Rootstocks used in citrus:
❖ Rough Lemon: Resistant to tristeza
❖ Sour Orange
❖ Sour Lime
❖ Cleopatra mandarin
❖ Trifoliate orange
❖ Citranges: Resistant to citrus nematode
❖ Rangpur lime: tolerant to Phytophthora foot rot resistant to tristeza virus. It is the best rootstock for
mosambi
❖ Karna Khatta: Mostly cultivated in North India.

Particulars Acid Lime Mandarin Sweet Orange

Temperature 20 to 30°C 10-35oC 25o C
pH 6.5 to 7.0 5.5 to 6.5 6.5-7.5
Planting season Dec-Feb & June-Sep November – July to September
Healthy seedling- December
June- Dec In Tamilnadu-
May – June and
September –
October.
Spacing 6x6m/5x5m 6mx6m 5 m x 5 m, 5.5 x 5.5 m
Propagation Seeds (Due to Seeds and T budding T budding or patch
Polyembryony) budding
Storage 10-12oC with 90-95% 8-10oC & 85-90 % 7-8°C with 85-90%
RH RH RH for 4-8 weeks.
Acid lime: 6-8 weeks
at 8-10oC & 85 % RH
Yield 25 t/ha/year 15-20 t/ha/year 25-30 t/ha

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 43

4. GRAPES
Introduction:
❖ Botanical name: Vitis vinifera
❖ Origin: Caucasia-Asia minor
❖ Chromosome no.: (2n)-38
❖ Cross Pollinated crop
❖ Study of wine/Cultivation of grapes is known as Viticulture
❖ Science of wine making: Enology
❖ Aroma (Muscat Flavor) in grape due to Methylantranilate.
❖ Skin of berry is covered with wax layer which is called cutin.
❖ It is subtropical fruit crop but adopted to tropical conditions.
❖ Tartaric acid is commercially extracted from grapes.
❖ Type of inflorescence Panicle.
❖ Type of fruit: Berry
❖ Type of parthenocarpy: Stermospermocarpy
❖ Edible portion: Pericarp and placenta.
❖ Fe deficiency of grapes is most common in Black soil.
❖ Major nutrient deficiency in grapes growing area in the world: Mg
Soil:
❖ Sandy to clayey and loamy soil with good drainage and irrigation facilities is suitable for the
cultivation of Grapes.
❖ Soil with pH of 6.5-7.5. (AFO-2018)
❖ Soil depth should be almost 1 m.
Temperature:
❖ Temperature ranging from 15-35o C is ideal for shoot growth and normal physiological processes of
the grapevine. Vines do not grow and fruit well when the temperature falls below 10o C.
❖ Summer temperature should not exceed 35°C for grapes cultivation.
❖ Temperature range for flowering: 18-21°C.
❖ Leading raisin grape variety: Thompson seedless.
Propagation and rootstocks:
❖ Commercially propagation – Hardwood stem cutting
❖ Phylloxera resistant root stock: Vitis riparia, V. rupestris
❖ Nematode resistant root stock: Dog ridge, Salt creek
❖ Saline tolerant: Solanis, 1616
❖ Commercially used growth regulator for cutting: IBA @ 2000 in 10 seconds by Quick dip method
preferred.
Planting time:
❖ Time of planting: North India- Feb to March
❖ Time for cutting: October
❖ Best grafting for rootstocks: Wedge grafting
❖ In N India vines are pruned in winter- Dec to Jan
❖ In Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and North Karnataka vines are pruned twice- April (Back
pruning or foundation pruning) and October (Fruit pruning or Forward pruning)
Pruning in Grapes:

44 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 North India Single pruning of grape Onset of spring or late winter
(January – February).
South India Double pruning of grape: Single cropping Foundation pruning (Summer
Mainly followed in Maharashtra, Andhra pruning / Back pruning): April
Pradesh, Karnataka Forward pruning/fruit pruning:
October
S. India Double pruning double cropping December to January and May to
june (Tamilnadu).

Training:
❖ Training: Bower system best for production of potential yield. (80 % in India)
❖ Bower system is most widely used in commercial cultivation of grapes and particularly for the
vigorous varieties with high degree of apical dominance.
❖ Kniffin (also called Espalier System) system is less expensive than Bower, yet it is less commonly
followed. It is suitable for training moderately vigorous varieties having less degree of apical
dominance. The main drawback is that yield is about half of what is obtained on bower system.
❖ Telephone System: T-trellis is used in this system of training. It is a mini discontinuous bower with
shoots hanging downwards with three topped wires and T-shaped support, the trellis looks like a
telephone pole and wires. It is as expensive as Kniffin system and is suitable for moderately vigorous
varieties with slightly more apical dominance. (AFO-2020)
Pruning:
❖ Single Pruning: Mostly in North India (Jan-Feb)
❖ Double Pruning: Mostly in Maharashtra. Also called as back pruning or foundation pruning or
summer pruning.
❖ Pruning in Sep.-Oct is called as Forward pruning or fruit pruning or winter pruning.
❖ Girdling: Removal of ring bark from the trunk: increase the fruit set and fruit size.
❖ Time of pruning in North India: December to January
TSS:
Particulars Ideal TSS
Processing grapes 15 o Brix
raisin grapes 17° brix
Export purpose More than18o Brix
Standard 20-23°brix

Varieties:
❖ Arka Hans (White Wine) - Bangalore Blue x Anab-e-Shahi
❖ Arka Neelmani (Red Wine)- Black Champha x Thompson seedless
Important varieties:
❖ Seedless varieties: Crimson seedless, Flame seed less, Thompson seedless, Perlette, Arka vati, Arka
Neelamani, Sonaka Seedless
❖ Seeded variety: Arka Kanchan, Arka shyam, Muscat, Red globe, Bangalore Blue, Anab-e-Shahi
❖ IARI Varieties: Pusa Urvashi, Pusa Navrang, Pusa Swarnika, Pusa Aditi, Pusa Trissar
❖ IIHR varieties: Arka Swaeta, Arka majesty, Arka chitra, Arka soma, Arka trishna, Arka Krishna
Varieties of special purpose:

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 45

❖ Table grapes: Anab-e-Shahi, Bangalore Blue, Beauty Seedless, Bhokri, Perlette, Pusa Seedless and
Thompson Seedless
❖ Rasin grapes: Thompson seedless, Arkavati
❖ Wine grapes: Bangalore blue, Thompson seedless and Arka Kanchan
❖ Coloured seeded: Banagalore blue, Gulabi (Muscat)
❖ Coloured seedless: Beauty seedless, shared seedless
❖ White seeded: Anab-e-shahi, Dilkhush (Clone of Anab-e shahi)
❖ White seedless: Perlette, Pusa seedless, Thompson seedless.
Varieties and their region:
Varieties Region
Anab-e-shahi Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Karnataka
Bangalore Blue Karnataka
Bhokri Tamilnadu
Gulabi Tamilnadu
Kali Sahebi Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh
Perlette Punjab, Haryana & Delhi
Thompson seedless Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu, Karnataka

Ready for harvest: 100-120 days after pruning.

Harvesting stage : seeded grapes- seeds become dark brown when they become fully ripe. Seedless
varieties- berry colour develops fully.
Yield:
Seedless 15 t/ha/yr
Muscat 30 t/ha/yr
Anab-e-shahi and Arka hybrids 20 t/ha/yr

Storage Life:
Anab-e-shahi 40 days
Muscat 45 days
Thompson seedless 30-60 days

❖ Storage life in room temperature-7 day

❖ Grapes can economically be stored up to 40-45 days in cold storage. The optimum storage
temperature recommended is -2 to -1.5°C.

5. PAPAYA
Introduction:
❖ Botanical name: Carica papaya
❖ Family: Caricaceae
❖ Origin: Tropical America

46 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

❖ Chromosome no.: 2n= 18
❖ The edible fruits are found only in Carica papaya. C. candamarcensis known as 'mountain papaya'
❖ Tropical fruit tree,(AFO-2021) mainly grown as a backyard tree.
❖ Introduced in India during 16th century.
❖ Papaya is a highly cross-pollinated crop.
❖ Sensitive to frost, strong winds and highly susceptible to water logging or stagnation.
❖ Yellow fruit colour pigment of papaya: Due to presence of caricaxanthin.
❖ Latex is obtained from green papaya fruit.
❖ Enzyme present in dry latex of papaya (Papain)- Pepsin
❖ Papain can be also dried artificially at temperature of 50 to 55 ℃ which will attain better colour and
quality.
❖ Type of fruit: Large fleshy berry.
❖ Type of inflorescence: Axillary panicles
❖ Papaya seed is enclosed with gelatinous layer: Sarcotesta.
Soil and climate:
❖ Papaya performs well in tropical climates where summer temperature ranges from 35C to 38 ℃.
❖ It cannot tolerate very hot summer or frost, this limits cultivation in Northern India.
❖ Dry warm climate tends to increase sweetness of the fruits.
❖ Tamil Nadu is an ideal home for growing papaya because of the mild temperatures and freedom
from mosaic and leaf curl virus diseases.
Optimum temperature for:
❖ Papaya cultivation: 30-350C
❖ Seed germination: 300C
❖ Vegetative growth: 21-330C
❖ High temperature (>350C) leads to female sterility.
Propagation:
❖ Commercially propagated by Seeds
Seed Rate:
❖ Seed rate – 250-300 g/ha.
❖ Gynodioecious variety: 400-500 gm/ha.
❖ Dioecious variety: 250-300 gm/ha.
❖ Two seeds in gynodioecious type or 5 to 6 seeds in dioecious type' should be sown per poly bag.
❖ In dioecious varieties: 1:10 (male: female).
❖ At low temperature perfect flowers on the male tree.
Spacing:
❖ Spacing: 1.8×1.8 m and Pits of 45cm x 45cm x 45cm size
❖ High density planting (HDP): 1.2 m×1.2 m (6400 plants/ha): Suitable variety: Pusa Nanha.
❖ Spacing for papain production: 1.6m×1.6m
Planting time:
❖ Best time for planting: Beginning of the South- West monsoon in most parts of India.
❖ In south India, June to October and January to March are suitable for planting.
❖ Spring: Feb- March
❖ Monsoon: June- July (Best time)
❖ Autumn: Oct- Nov
Irrigation: Water stagnation should be avoided. In most parts of India, papaya are irrigated once in 8 or
10 days.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 47

❖ K is required for TSS content of latex and the enzyme activity.
❖ Best storage of seeds at 10oC (Best for retention of seed viability)
❖ Growth regulators: GA (50 ppm), ethrel (200ppm) SADH (250ppm) and phosphon - D (2500ppm)
increase the femaleness in dioecious types.
❖ Milky latex obtained from 70-90 days old mature fruits.
Varieties:
❖ Transgenic variety: Sunup and Rainbow, Hawaii
❖ Gynodioecious cultivars: Solo, Sunrise solo, Taiwan (blood red colored), Thailand, Waimanalo,
Pusa delicious, Pusa majesty, Coorg honey dew (RRB SO 2020), Co3
❖ Dioecious varieties: Pusa giant, Pusa dwarf, Co-5, Co2, Co 4, Pant C-1, Betty, Hathras gold, Pusa
Nanha.
❖ Surya: Sunrise Solo × Pink flesh Sweet
❖ High carotene content: Sunrise Solo
❖ Suitable for papain production: Pusa Majesty
❖ Highest papain variety: CO-5
❖ The world first transgenic papaya variety: Sunup
❖ First transgenic commercially variety: Rainbow
State Varieties grown
Andhra Pradesh Honey Dew, Coorg Honey Dew, Washington, Solo, Co-1, Co-2,
Co-3, Sunrise Solo, Taiwan
Jharkhand Ranchi selection, Honey Dew, Pusa Delicious & Pusa Nanha
Karnataka & Kerala Coorg Honey Dew, Coorg Green, Pusa Delicious & Pusa Nanha
West Bengal Ranchi selection, Honey Dew, Washington, Coorg Green
Orissa Pusa Delicious, Pusa Nanha, Ranchi selection, Honey Dew,
Washington, Coorg Green

Harvesting and yield:

❖ Fruits are harvested when they are of full size, light green in colour with tinge of yellow at apical end.
❖ First crop available in 12-14 months from the time of planting.
❖ Papaya gives economic crop up to 3 to 4 years and thereafter it declines drastically.
Storage:
❖ Fruits can be stored for a period of 1-3 weeks at a temperature of 10-13oC & 85-90 % RH.
❖ High humidity: 80-85 % and temperature 24-26oC promote powdery mildew.

6. GUAVA
Introduction:
❖ Common Name: Apple of tropics/Poor man’s apple
❖ Botanical name: Psidium guajava
❖ Origin- Peru
❖ Family: Myrtaceae
❖ Introduced by Portuguese 17th century in India.
❖ It is a self-pollinated crop.
❖ Most suitable fruit crop for Jelly making due to presence of high pectin content.

48 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

❖ Highly sensitive to water logging and frost.
❖ Trees are resistance to drought.
❖ Type of fruit: Multiple seeded berry
❖ Type of inflorescence: Cyme
❖ Highly cross-pollinated crop (Honeybees)
❖ Heavy clay to very light sandy soils having pH between 4.5-8.2 are suitable for cultivation of guava.
❖ Best quality guavas are obtained where low night temperatures (10oC) prevail during winter season.
❖ Optimum temperature -23-28oC

Propagation:
❖ Guava is propagated by seeds and vegetatively, but vegetative propagation is commercially followed.
In northern India Inarching (very high percentage of success during rainy season)
In southern and western India Layering (commercially followed)
Easiest and cheapest method Stooling

❖ When propagated through seeds, starts bearing from 4-5 years and from vegetative method it takes
2-3 years.
❖ Recently CISH, Lucknow recommended wedge grafting suitable for rapid multiplication.

Planting:
❖ Best time of planting: June to July (for planting the layers and seedling)
❖ Guava is commercially planted at a distance of 5-8 m
❖ Planting: spacing of 5m x 5m.
❖ Preferable training system: Open center
❖ Pruning time- after harvesting or in spring. Summer pruning may damage the plant by sun burning.
❖ Guava yields thrice in a year viz., rainy, Winter and summer
❖ Guava flowers twice a year, first in April-May for rainy season crop and then in August –
September for winter season crop, In South India, there is a third crop with flowers appearing in
October.

Bahar Treatment:
Bahar Water stress Flowering Fruiting
Ambe Bahar (Feb) December-Jan Feb-March July- Aug
Hast Bahar (Oct) August- September Oct- Nov March- April

Mrig Bahar (June) 3 weeks of April June- July Nov.- Dec

❖ Preferred Bahar season:

➢ South India- Ambe Bahar
➢ North India- Mrig Bahar
❖ Mrig Bahar: Most preferred (winter crop) because fruits highly superior in quality.
❖ Crop Regulation- Practice of Taking winter crop instead of rainy season crop (To escape the attack
of Fruit Fly)
Varieties:
➢ Hybrid-45- Allahabad Safeda x Sardar

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 49

➢ Behat Coconut – Seedless Variety
➢ Arka Mridula- Seedling selection of variety Allahabad Safeda. Soft seeded Dwarf Var,
➢ Pant Prabhat, Harijha (Popular in Bihar),
➢ Allahabad Safeda (Most popular in Allahabad UP)
➢ Allahabad Surkha (Pink flesh and large fruited variety
➢ Chittidar: very popular in Western UP (Highest TSS guava variety (Small red dot presence in skin)
➢ Lucknow-49 known as Sardar (AFO-2022)
➢ Arka kiran, Arka Rashmi (Both are pink flesh)
➢ Apple color (Red skinned variety)
➢ Lalit (Red color pulp)
➢ Hafsi: Red fleshed guava from Bihar.
➢ Seedless varieties: Saharanpur seedless, Nagpur Seedless.

Harvesting and Yield:

❖ Harvesting: Time required from flowering to fruit maturity: 130-150 days.
❖ Harvesting stage: Green firm stage
❖ For long time: Half mature fruit
Peak harvesting periods in N India:
Rainy season crop August
Winter season crop Nov- Dec
Spring season crop March- April

Yield:
❖ 800 number of fruits weighing 20-25 kg may be obtained from guava.
❖ Average yield: 9t/ha
❖ 10-year-old plant yields: 1000-1500 fruits/year.

Storage:
❖ Mature green & partially ripe guavas are stored at 8-10oC for 2-3 weeks
❖ Fully ripe guavas- 5-8oC for 1 week at 90-95 % RH.
❖ The shelf life can be extended up to 20 days by keeping them at low temperature of 50 oC and 75-
85% relative humidity. It can be stored for about 10 days at room temperature (180-230 C) in polybags
providing a ventilation of 0.25%.

7. LITCHI
Introduction:
❖ Queen of subtropical fruit/Fruit of high commerce
❖ Botanical name: Litchi chinensis
❖ Family: Sapindaceae
❖ Chromosome no.: 2n=30
❖ Origin: South China
❖ Introduce to India during 17th century period.
❖ Major acid present in the fruits is malic acid.
❖ Largest producer of litchi in the world: China

50 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

❖ Red colour skin of fruits is due to anthocyanin.
❖ Type of inflorescence: Branched panicle
❖ Flower are petal less.
❖ Type of fruit: One seeded nut.
❖ Edible portion: Aril
❖ Seedlessness is due to stimulative parthenocarpy.
❖ Non-climacteric fruit.
❖ Starts bearing 6th year onwards.
❖ Highly perishable fruit.

Climatic and soil requirements

➢ A warm subtropical climate is ideal for the growth and flowering in litchi.
➢ The plant grows luxuriantly at 30oC.
➢ The maximum temperature during flowering and fruit development varies from 21oC in February to
38oC in June in Bihar.
➢ The winter should be cool as well as dry and devoid of frost (minimum temperature 150C).
➢ For flowering – 16-22oC with light rainfall.
➢ For fruit set - 18-24o C with medium humidity.
➢ During harvest - 24-28oC with bright sunlight and high relative humidity.
➢ During new flush, 28-30oC with high RH and heavy rainfall.
➢ Fruit cracking in Litchi is also favored if temperature goes above 38oC and relative humidity less
than 60 %.
Soil:
❖ A sandy loam or clay loam with a pH of 5.5 to 7 is ideal for litchi cultivation.

Propagation:
❖ Commercially propagated by air layering or gootee or marcottage (July to September) from 1 year
old shoots.
❖ Girdling done to control the timing of flushes to start when temperatures are ideal for flowering.

Varieties:
❖ Swarna Roopa (Seedless)- Highest resistant to fruit cracking 1st variety developed in India
❖ Regular bearer varieties: Shahi, Rose Scented & Dehradun
❖ Alternate bearing: China
❖ Fruit bunch bearing clone: Shahi
State Varieties
Bihar & Jharkhand China, Deshi, Purbi, Early & Late Bedana, Mclean, Muzzaffarpur,
Rose Scented, Shahi, Kasba
Orissa Muzaffarpur, Bombai, China
Punjab & Haryana Saharanpur, Dehradun, Calcuttia, Muzaffarpur, Seedless (Late) &
Rose Scented
Uttaranchal Rose Scented, Calcuttia, Early & Late Seedless
Uttar Pradesh Seedless Early, Seedless Late, Early Large Red, Late Large Red,
Calcutta, Rose Scented, Dehradun

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 51

 West Bengal Muzaffarpur, China, Deshi, Purbi, Elachi Early, Elachi Late, Bombai,
Goothi, Bedana, Potee, Kalyani Selection

➢ Early varieties (e.g., Shahi) are more susceptible to cracking than late ripening one (e.g., China).
Flowering, harvest, and yield:
➢ Harvesting is done usually in the month of May and June.
➢ In Bihar- Early May
➢ UP and Punjab – Late May to Early June.
❖ Post-harvest losses in litchi production about 20-25%.
❖ Keeping fruits in storage at 5-7oC may minimize the losses.
❖ Litchi trees vegetatively propagated come to flower at the age of 3 –5 years.
❖ Fruits are harvested as bunches, precooled and then stored at 0oC to 1oC.
8. APPLE
❖ Botanical name: Malus domestica
❖ Family: Rosaceae
❖ Cidar- Fermented wine prepared from apple
❖ Start Bearing from 8yr And the Economic life 30 yr
❖ Chromosome no.: 2n=34
❖ Origin: Southwestern Asia
❖ King of temperate fruit/Symbol of health/Premier fruit
of the world.
❖ Apple bowl in India: Himachal Pradesh
❖ Type of fruit: Pome
❖ Edible portion: Fleshy thalamus(mesocarp)
❖ Apple is climacteric fruit.
❖ Among the fruits Apple have long storage Life.
❖ A well-drained, slightly acidic (pH 5.5 – 6.5).
❖ Major problem: Alternate bearing
Climate and Temperature:
❖ Most widely grown temperate fruit in the world.
❖ Dry temperate region is most suitable for apple cultivation.
❖ It requires 1000-1500 hours of uninterrupted chilling below 7oC.
❖ Warm days with 12-15 o C and cool night with 7 – 8o C is favorable for production of quality fruits in
large quantities.
❖ The average summer temperature for growing season is around 21-240C during active growth
period.
❖ Temperature for pollen germination and Fruit setting- 21.1-26.7 C
❖ Low temperature below 15oC during bloom restricts the bee activity which is completely inhibited
below 4.4oC, affecting fruit set.
❖ Fully opened blossoms may be killed at temperature below -2.2oC
❖ Apple seed need stratification in moist sand at 4o to 7o C for 60-90 days.
Propagation:
❖ Tongue grafting (RRB-SO-19) is the ideal method of grafting scion cultivar on the root stock
❖ Common method of propagation of clonal rootstock of apple: Stooling or mound layering.
❖ Most critical period of water requirement in apple: April to august

52 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

❖ Most common method of planting system: square system
Varieties:
Category Varieties
Clonal rootstocks M 9, M 26, M7, MM 106, MM 11
Dwarfing Rootstocks M9, M27, M4, M26, MM-106
Scab resistant Prima, Priscilla, Sir Prize, Jonafree, Florina, Macfree, Nova Easy Grow,
Coop 12, Coop 13 (Redfree), Nova Mac, Liberty, Freedom, Firdous,
Shireen
Hybrids Lal Ambri (Red Delicious x Ambri), Sunehari (Ambri x Golden
Delicious), Chaubattia Princess, Chaubattia Anupam (Early Shanburry
x Red Delicious), Ambred (Red Delicious x Ambri), Ambrich (Richared
x Ambri), Ambroyal (Starking Delicious x Ambri)

Low Chilling Michal, Schlomit, Anna, Tamma, Vered, Neomi, Tropical Beauty,
Parlin’s Beauty
Pollinizing Tydeman’s Early, Red Gold, Golden Delicious, McIntosh, Lord
Lambourne, Winter Banana, Granny Smith, Starkspur Golden, Golden
Spur

❖ Red delicious is most popular variety in India.

❖ Ambri: Longest shelf life and indigenous variety of India
Harvest and yield:
❖ Harvesting Time- Sep- Dec
❖ Fruit matures within 130-150 days- after full bloom stage.
❖ Fully mature when start developing color can be harvested. The normal yield ranges from 100 – 150
tonnes/ ha in medium density planting.
❖ Storage temperature: -1.1 to 00c, 85-90% RH, Storage period: 4-8 month

9. BER
Introduction:
❖ Botanical name: Ziziphus mauritinana
❖ Family: Rhamnaceae
❖ Chromosome no.: 2n=48
❖ Origin: India or Indochina
❖ Hardy salt tolerant fruit
❖ Ideal tree for arid and semi-arid culture.
❖ In alkaline soils with high PH (even up to 9.5) and sodic soil.
❖ It tolerates salinity even to an extent of 21m.mhos per cm. Z. jujuba can be used even for biological
reclamation of saline soils.
❖ Flower colour: Greenish to yellow.
❖ Seed dormancy due to hard endocarp.
❖ Non-climacteric fruit

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 53

Climatic and soil requirements:
❖ India ber- tropical and subtropical regions
❖ Chinese ber-temperate region.
❖ It can tolerate a high temperature of even 40 o C. It can be grown in an extreme moisture stress.
Seasons in Ber:
❖ Best time of planting: July to September. In irrigated areas plants can be transplanted during January
to march.
❖ Pruning time for north Indian condition: Mid to end of May
June to august is the best period for budding for getting maximum bud-take
❖ Flowering time: Sept. to Nov.
Commercially propagated: T or shield budding.
Type of training system: Modified leader system
Spacing :
HDP 5m x 5m
Low rainfall 6x6 m
High rainfall 8x8 m

Varieties:
❖ Gola, Seb, Kaithali, Mehrun, Darakhi, Banarasi, Dandan, Elachi,
❖ Gola: Early variety (Tolerant to Saline soil)
❖ Mid-season: Kaithali, Mundia
❖ Late variety: Umaran
❖ Katta Paul: Apple’ variety-fruit resembles in shape and colour with apple.
❖ The tree is a host plant for rearing lac insect (Tachardia laccad). Lac insect rearing helps in the
production of lac. The powder of ber roots has very many medicinal properties such as cure for ulcer,
fever, and wounds. The stem bark powder is a remedy for diarrhea.

Harvesting:
S India Oct- Nov
N India Feb- April
Normal Harvesting Oct-Nov

Yield and storage:

❖ Ber matures 150-175 days after flowering. Average yield of 10-20-year-old tree- 100-200 kg/year.
❖ Storage at 3oC, 85-90 % RH for 30-40 days.

10. AONLA
Introduction:
❖ Fruit of the 21st century (IGKV CET 2022)/Indian Goose Berry/ Amritphal fruit
❖ Botanical name: Emblica officinalis
❖ Family: Euphorbiaceae
❖ 2n=28
❖ Origin: Central to southern India

54 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

❖ Type of fruit: Capsule
❖ Type of inflorescence: Racemose
❖ Edible portion: Mesocarp & Endocarp
Climate and soil requirements:
❖ A subtropical fruit can thrive very well in tropical humid conditions also.
❖ If young plants are protected from both extremes of temperature, the mature trees can tolerate right
from freezing (0oC) to as high as 46oC.
❖ In a well-drained loamy soil, the amla trees grow faster.
❖ Slightly acidic to saline/sodic soil having pH between 6.5 to 9.5 is suitable for cultivation.
❖ It can be successfully propagated through patch/modified ring budding in N India during mid-May
to September. (Ideal method for propagation).
❖ Training System use Modified central leader system
❖ Flowering to fruiting: 8 months
Seasons in Aonla:
❖ Budding time: Mid May to mid-August
❖ Planting time: February to march.
❖ Grafted or budded aonla plants are planted during July-August
❖ Irrigation during April-June one in 15 days will help to encourage fruit set and prevent fruit drop.
❖ Harvesting time: December to Jan

Varieties Specific feature

Banarasi Early maturity, Shy bearing, Prone to heavy dropping of fruits, best
for Murrumba
Krishna (NA-5) Big fruit variety
Balwant (NA-10) Fruits skin yellowish with pink tinge
Fransis (Hanthi Jhool) Highly susceptible to necrosis TSS of 120brix
Kanchan (NA-4) A seedling selection from Chakiya. Regular bearing, Preferred for
pulp extraction industries
NA-6 A seedling selection from Chakiya. Best for candy
Chakiya Alternate bearer, Ideal for making pickles
NA-7 A seedling selection from Francis, it is precocious prolific and regular
bearer.

Harvest and yield:

Budded Grafted Tree Starts bearing 3rd year onwards after planting
Seedling tree 6-8 years onwards
Vegetatively propagated plant Full bearing within 10-12 years

➢ An aonla tree may bear 1-3 q/tree, giving 15-20 t/ha.

➢ Storage: Aonla fruits can be stored for 6-9 days at ambient temperature. With salt solution it can
be stored up to 75 days.
11. POMEGRANATE

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 55

Introduction:
❖ Fruit of paradise/ National fruit of Iran
❖ Botanical name: Punica granatum (AFO-2020)
❖ Family: Punicaceae
❖ Origin: Southwest Asia (Iran) (BHU-2022)
❖ Wild type Anar is known as Daru
❖ Pomegranate juice is useful for Leprosy Disease
❖ Red colour in aril and skin due to presence of Anthocyanin.
❖ National Research center for Pomegranate is located at Solapur, Maharashtra.
❖ Pomegranate taste is due to Citric acid.
❖ Fruit type: Balusta (Fleshy berry)
❖ Non climacteric fruit.
❖ Type of Inflorescence: Hypanthodium
Climate and Temperature:
❖ Pomegranate yields the best quality fruits in areas of cool winter and hot dry summer.
❖ For proper fruit development and maturity and sweetness, a temperature of 35 – 38oC is needed.
Propagation and Training system:
❖ Common method of propagation: cutting or Air layering
❖ Multistem training system is followed in India
Seasons in Pomegranate:
❖ Ideal Time for Planting: July – Aug
❖ Flowering season in Pomegranate-

Bahar Flowering Harvesting Remarks

Ambe Bahar January to February June- August Most common favored by farmers,
practiced in high rainfall and humid
areas
Mrig Bahar June to July Nov - Jan Preferred in dry Areas

Hasth Bahar Sept. to Oct Feb. to April Preferred for Export purpose

Cultivars and varieties:

Hard seeded types:
➢ Kandhari
➢ Musker Red
➢ Alandi or Vadki
➢ Kabul
Soft seeded types:
➢ Dholka: (RRB SO-2018) It is the commercial variety of Gujarat.
➢ Paper Shell
➢ Spanish Ruby
Ganesh - Selection from Alandi, very soft seeded, well known as cultivar.
➢ CO-1: It is a selection developed at Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore with purple aril
and soft seeds.

56 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

➢ Mridula: Fruit weight about 250 g juice sweet, TSS 16.32%, acidity 0.47%. Seeds softer than
Ganesh. Seedling selection of a cross of Ganesh x Gul e shah Red.
➢ Ruby: A multiple cross hybrid developed at IIHR, for aril colour and seed mellowness. Ganesh x
Kabul
➢ Amlidana: It is an F1 hybrid (Ganesh x Nana)
Other varieties:
➢ Bhagwa (Kesar): Leading variety in Maharashtra, also known as Sinduri, Mastani, Jai Maharashtra
➢ Jyoti: Grow in Gujrat
➢ Phule arkata, Goma Khatta, Hyati, Muscat
➢ Wonderful: Origin from USA Avg. Fruit Size -700 gm
➢ Solapur Lal: Biofortified variety (High Fe & Zn)
Harvesting and yield:
❖ Fruit ready for harvest: 120-130 days after fruit set
❖ Harvesting stage: Colour change to yellowish red.
❖ The fruits are ready for harvest in about 5-7 months after the appearance of blossoms.
❖ During 4th year the tree bears 25-30 fruits
❖ After 10th year tree bears 150-200 fruits per year.
Storage:
➢ At 0oC, 80-85% RH for 2 months
➢ At 5oC, 90-95 % RH for 2 months
Disorders in Pomegranate:
❖ Internal Break down/Blackening of arils: Disintegration of arils in matured fruits is serious malady.
❖ Fruit cracking of pomegranate is due of deficiency of Calcium, boron, and potash. Soil moisture
imbalance and sudden fluctuation of day and night temperature
12. DATE PALM (CENTURY PLANT)
Introduction:
❖ Botanical name: Phoenix dactylifera
❖ Origin: Iraq and Egypt
❖ Family: Palmae
❖ Monocotyledons, unbranched stem tree
❖ Dioecious fruit crop.
❖ Date palm is perennial.
❖ Fermented Product: Arrack
❖ Drink of Date palm: Debbis
❖ Date palms tolerate high soil salinity.
❖ Type of Inflorescence: spadix
❖ Type of Fruit: Single seeded berry
❖ Type of pollination: Highly cross pollination
❖ Male: Female- 2-3:100
❖ Date palms tolerate high soil salinity (pH 8-10).
❖ Metaxenia is a common problem in Date palm.
Temperature:
❖ Ideal mean temperature for flowering and ripening of fruits: 25-290c.
Seasons in Date palm:

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 57

❖ In Indian subtropics, Fruiting period- Feb- July. Ripening period coincides with rainfall.
❖ Rainy season (July- September) is ideal for planting.
Propagation:
❖ Commercially propagation: Seeds, Offshoots
❖ Wt. of Matured Offshoots 25-35 kg
Spacing:
➢ Commercially spacing of 6 to 8 meters is adopted.
➢ In India a spacing of 3 – 4 meter is adopted.
Varieties:

Halawy Early cultivar, suitable for raw eating and processing as soft dates
Khadarawy
Shamran (Sayer)
Medjool Late ripening cultivar, it is suitable for preparation of dry dates.
Barhee
Zahidi Fruits are suitable to prepare soft dates.
Khalas It is suitable for raw eating and for processing as soft dates.

❖ Date palm Medjool, Zahidi, Shamran and khadarawy are astringent at doka stage and can be used
for processing to prepare dry dates (chhuhara) and soft dates (pind khajoor).

Harvesting stages:
➢ The fruits must be harvested at doka stage during June – August.
➢ Fruits are harvested at doka stage to avoid spoilage due to rains and high humidity.
➢ Dates harvested at doka stage have 70-80% moisture.
➢ Fruits for fresh eating are preferred at ‘Dang’ stage but handling of such fruits is difficult.
➢ Doka or dang fruits can be stored for future use, curing should be done.
➢ Date palm trees usually takes 6 years for commercially bearing.
➢ Doka fruits are successfully processed to prepare Chhuhara.
➢ The fruits harvested at doka stage must be dipped in boiling water for 5 minutes followed by
dehydration in electric oven at 500C for 160 hours or in solar drier to obtain best quality ‘Chhuhara’
which is the commercial date or produce of commerce. (Recovery would be 33 – 35%.)
➢ Soft dates harvested at pind stage
➢ For storage purpose dates are harvested at tamar or pind (Attain full mature) stage.

58 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

13. PINEAPPLE
Introduction:
❖ BN: Ananas comosus
❖ Varieties: Kew, Mauritius, and Queen
❖ Origin: Brazil
❖ It is also known as State Fruit of Tripura.
Soil and Climate:
❖ Mild tropical climate is best suited.
❖ Can be grown in plains under shade.
❖ Soil pH 5-6 is preferable
Temperature:
➢ Optimum temperature for successful cultivation is 22oC to 32oC.
➢ High temperature over 35oC is unfavorable for development.
➢ Exposure of pineapple to temperature < 7oC results in chilling injury.
Season:
➢ The ideal time of planting is 12-15 months before the peak flowering season under natural conditions,
which varies from December to March in different regions.
➢ Pineapple plant flower 10-12 months after planting and fruits become ready 15-18 months after
planting.
Propagation:
❖ Main propagated materials: crown, slips, suckers
❖ Crowns (fruit tops) produces fruits after 18-24 months
❖ Slips (shoots borne on vestigial fruits at the base of the fruit), produces fruits at after 15-20 months.
❖ Suckers (shoots borne at any position on the stem) produces fruits at after 12-17 month.
❖ Ideal plant material: slips (350 g) and sucker (450 g)
❖ Planting: Use suckers and slips of 300-350 g weight for planting.
❖ Best planting material: slips (300-450 g)
❖ After cultivation: To increase the size of the fruit, 200-300 ppm NAA should be sprayed after fruit
formation.
Varieties:
State Varieties mostly grown
Assam & other N.E. states Kew, Queen, Mauritius
Kerala Mauritius, Kew, Queen
West Bengal Giant Kew, Queen

❖ Kew is leading commercial variety values particularly for canning.

❖ A plant crop and two ratoon crops are normally taken and in Mauritius variety up to five crops can
be taken.
Yield and harvesting:
❖ Under natural conditions, pineapple comes to harvest during May- August.
❖ Crop duration: 18-24 months
❖ Yield: The average yield is 50-80 tonnes/ha.
Storage:

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 59

➢ For long distance transportation, fruits are held at 7oC for 10-20 days.
➢ Fruits with crown can be kept without damage for 10-15 days after harvesting. Pineapples can be
stored well for a period of 20 days when refrigerated at 10-13O C.
➢ The best storage is at 7.2oC and 80 or 90% relative humidity.
Disorders:
➢ Multiple crowns: In variety Kew
➢ Fruit and crown fascination: Ca or Zinc deficiency or high fertility of soil.
14. JACK FRUIT
Introduction:
❖ BN: Artocarpus heterophyllus
❖ Family: Moraceae
❖ It is known as State fruit of Kerela
❖ Origin: India
❖ Edible portion: The fleshy carpel (which is botanically the perianth) .
❖ Hundred-gram edible portion contains 88 Kcal of energy.
❖ The timber is valuable in construction and furnishing.
❖ pH 6.0 – 6.5 and perfect drainage is ideal.
❖ It is a cross pollinated crop.
❖ Ploidy level: Autotetraploid. (2n=56)
❖ Bearing habit: Cauliflorous bearing habit.
❖ Fruit type: Sorosis (AFO-2016)
❖ Type of inflorescence: Catkin (Racemose)
❖ The male inflorescence (catkins) is seen in the current season growth while female catkins are
produced as cauliflorus (on trunk and main scaffold).
❖ Seed Type: Recalcitrant seed
❖ Natural protein present in jackfruit is Lectine (Cancer treatment).
Climatic and soil requirements:
❖ Jack grows well and gives food yield in warm humid climate.
❖ Temperature: 22-35oC will be ideal.
❖ It cannot tolerate frost as well as drought.
Propagation:
❖ The jack fruit has been universally grown from seed.
❖ Approach grafting &cleft grafting /epicotyl grafting are used commercially
❖ Approach grafting on Rudrakshi jack has proved successful in south India
❖ Season of grafting is April-May.
❖ Among the budding methods patch budding (100%success) etc. used
Planting:
❖ June- August is ideal time for planting.
❖ Flowering in Dec and Feb.
Training:
❖ Jacks are trained to single stem, for a height of 1.5 – 2 M and then scaffold branches should be
permitted to arise.
Varieties:
❖ Local Selections: Gulabi (Rose Scented), Champa and Hazar (Bearing many fruits).
❖ Rudrakshi, Singapore or Ceylon Jack

60 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

Harvest and yield:
❖ Seedling trees start bearing from 7th to 8th year onwards.
❖ Peak bearing in 15-16 years of plating.
❖ Grafted plants can start yield from 4th to 5th year itself.
❖ Normally the fruits will be available from March to June.
❖ The yield ranges from 20 to 100 fruits/tree.
❖ The fruit weight varies from 10 to 30 kg.
15. SAPOTA
Introduction:
❖ Botanical name: Manilkhara zapota/ Archas sapota
❖ It is a climacteric fruit.
❖ Type of fruit: Berry
❖ Edible portion: Mesocarp
❖ Origin: Tropical America
❖ Soil pH: 6-8
Soil, Climate and Temperature:
❖ Climate and soil requirement: Tropical fruit.
❖ It prefers dry and humid areas. Coastal climate is the best suited. It is a hardy tree.
❖ Optimum temperature:10°C and 38°C and a relative humidity 70%.

Seasons in Sapota:
Flowering Season Harvesting Season
October- November January-February
February-March May-June

Season of planting: June to December.

Propagation:
❖ Sapota is commercially propagated by vegetative methods such as air layering or gootee layering,
grafting, and budding.
❖ Commercial Propagation: Inarching/ Approach grafting.
❖ Propagation of sapota by inarching using Rayan as rootstock is the most accepted method of its
commercial cultivation.
❖ Grafting is done in Dec- Jan
❖ Training system: Central Leader system
Spacing:
❖ In general: 8 x 8 m.
❖ High density planting: 5x5 m
Varieties:
❖ Kalipatti: Commercially grown in Maharashtra and Gujrat.
❖ Pala: Popular in AP and TN
❖ Kirthibarthi: Popular in AP
❖ Cricketball:(AFO-2021) Popular in TN, Karnataka,Maharshtra
❖ Baramasi: WB, Bihar and UP
Hybrid Varieties:

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 61

 Variety Parents Remarks
CO-1 Cricket ball x Oval TNAU Coimbatore
CO-2 Clonal selection from Baramasi TNAU Coimbatore
DHS-1 Kalipatti x cricket ball UAS, Dharwad Karnataka
DHS-2 Kalipatti x cricket ball UAS, Dharwad Karnataka

Harvesting and yield:

❖ Harvest: Mature fruits are dull brown in colour. Dried spines like stigma at the tip of fruit falls off
easily when touched.
❖ Sapota starts bearing from third year of planting, but economic yields can be obtained from 5th year
onwards.
❖ Flowering to maturity: 4 months.
❖ Yield: 15-20 t/ha/year. (Depending on the management)
Storage:
❖ The fruits are highly perishable and can be stored under ordinary condition for a period of 7-8 days
after harvesting.
❖ Modified storage temperature of 20o C, the storage life can be increased for a period of 21-25 days
by removing ethylene and adding 5-10% CO2 to storage atmosphere.
16. JAMUN
Introduction:
❖ BN: Syzygium cumini
❖ Family: Myrtaceae.
❖ It is an evergreen tree of tropical and subtropical regions.
❖ Origin: India or East Indies.
❖ Hardy fruit. It is drought tolerant.
❖ The pollination is done by honeybee, houseflies and wind.
❖ It is a non-climacteric fruit.
❖ Flowering and fruiting: The flowering start in first week of March and continues up to April end.
❖ Ripening: June- July
❖ Propagation: By seed and budding
❖ Budding is most successful for commercial raising of plants.
Harvest and yield:
❖ The seedling trees start bearing after 9-10 years, while the budded trees come to bearing in 5- 6
years.
❖ Ripening takes 3-5 months after full bloom.
❖ Fully grown budded tree yields: 50-70 kg/plant/year
❖ Seedling tree yields: 80-100 kg/plant/year
Storage:
❖ Storage in ambient temperature is only for 2 days.
❖ However, if necessary, they can be stored for 3 weeks at 8-10oC and 85 – 90% RH.

17. MANGOSTEEN
Introduction:
❖ BN: Garcinia mangostana

62 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

❖ Mangosteen is queen of fruits
❖ Queen of fruits.
❖ Large tree growing up to 10-15 m.
❖ It is considered the finest fruit of the world.
❖ Native to Malay Archipelago and Moluccas islands.
❖ Fleshy soft, well-developed aril is the edible portion
Propagation:
❖ Commonly propagated through seeds.
❖ Plants are planted at 10 m x 10 m spacing.
Harvest and yield:
❖ Harvested at 90 days after full bloom when they are completely mature but still green.
❖ Starts bearing in 7 years.
❖ 2 crops (August – October (main crop) and April-June)
❖ A 20-year-old tree will yield 23-25 kg.
Physiological disorders:
❖ Gamboge and fruit splitting
❖ Heavy and continuous rains during fruit ripening favor gambodge and fruit splitting in certain
locations

18. PEAR
Introduction:
❖ Botanical Name: Pyrus communis
❖ Commonly used rootstocks: Kainth and Shiara. Clonally propagated- Quince.
❖ Training system: Modified Central Leader
❖ Propagation: Commonly propagated by T budding during April- Sep. or tongue grafting- Dec- Jan.
Climatic and soil requirements:
❖ Temperature 26oC (in dormancy) and as high as 45oC (in growing period).
❖ A neutral pH range of 6.0-7.5 would be ideal.
❖ Requires chilling hours below 7oC for 1200 hours during winter.
❖ Patharnakh needs only 150hr of chilling.
Spacing:
❖ Hilly areas the trees on seedling rootstock- 5m and clonal rootstock- 3 m
❖ In Plains, Patharnakh- 8 m
❖ Baggugosha- 6 m
Varieties:
High Hill Bartlett, starking delicious, Flemish beauty (P)
HP Patharnakh (sand pear), Keiffer (P) and China Pear
UP High Hills- William Bartlett, Flemish Beauty
Low Hills Patharnakh, Gola and Le Conte

Harvest, yield and storage:

❖ Fully mature fruits are harvested while still firm and green for distant market.
❖ From a well-maintained orchard and yield of 30 – 40 tonnes/ha/year can be expected.

19. PLUMS AND PRUNES

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 63

Introduction:
❖ American Plum- Prunus domestica
❖ Japanese Plum- Prunus salicina
❖ American Plum requires chilling hour of 1000-1200 hr below 7oC.
❖ Japanese Plum requires chilling hour of 700-1000 hr below 7oC.
❖ Plum is a climacteric fruit.
❖ Highly perishable fruit.
❖ A loamy soil with a pH of 5.5-6.5 is most suitable.
❖ Propagation: Tongue grafting in Feb is most used and ideal method of propagation.
❖ Plum trees are trained to open centre system.
❖ Prune: Plum with high sugar content.
❖ Wine and brandy from varieties of high sugar and sorbitol
❖ Seed oil -40-50%.
Climate:
➢ Japanese plum: sensitive to frost (spring flowering) if no spring frost – good.
Origin:
➢ European plum: Europe
➢ Japanese plum: China
➢ Cherry plum: Europe, West Asia
➢ American plum: N. America
➢ Modified leader: more common in India.
Harvest:
➢ Plums can be stored at 0oC with
➢ Total economic life span 25-35 years.
➢ Maturity indices: TSS – 12.5°B for European plum

20. PEACH AND NECTARINES

❖ Soil: Ideal pH: 5.8 to 6.8.
❖ Yield: 7-10 tonnes/ha
❖ Precooling + 0°C storage with 85-90% RH 28-36 days storage.
❖ Chilling hours at 7.2oC.
❖ Temperature less than 2-3oC does not break dormancy

SUMMARIZATION OF FRUIT CROPS

Temperature for horticulture crops:
Crop Temperature (oC)
Mango Ideal Temperature 24-27o C
Ideal for storage 5-16oC
Optimum storage 13 oC
Temperature during ripening to improve quality of 19-21oC
fruits.
Banana Chilling Injury <12 ℃.

64 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 Mean temperature optimum for its growth 20-30 oC
Successfully grown in a range 15-35oC
Storage Temperature & RH 13oC & 85-95 % (For 2-3
weeks)
Normal Growth stops at 38 oC
Scorching effect Above 36-38oC
Citrus Storage of acid lime For 6-8 Weeks @ 8-10 oC
& 85%.
Optimum temperature for acid Lime 20 to 30°C
Storage of lemon For 8-12 weeks @ 7-8.5
o
C @ 85-90% RH
Temperature for mandarins 10-35oC
Storage of mandarin for many months 8-10℃ 85-90 % RH
Storage of mandarin for 3-4 weeks At room temperature
Temperature for mandarin 10-35 oC
Ideal temperature for sweet orange 25o C
Storage of lime and lemon 10-12o C with 90-95 %
RH.
Grape Lead to poor fruit set & crop failure < 15 ℃ & High > 40℃.
Vines undergo dormancy. < 10o C
Summer temperature 35o C
Flowering 18-21oC.
Processing of grapes 15oC
For Raisin 17oC
For Export >18oC
Standard purpose 20-23oC
Papaya Best storage of seed 10o C
(Best for retention of
viability)
Fruit stored for 1-3 week 10-13o C @ 85-90% RH
Papain storage 9o C for 6 months
Tropic & Summer 35-38 ℃
Temperature
Papain dried artificially at 50-55 ℃
Optimum temperature for cultivation 30-35 oC
Seed germination 30 oC
Vegetative growth 21-33 oC
High temperature leads to female sterility.
Dry warm climate increases sweetness.
Guava Optimum temperature 23-28 ℃.
Average temperature 29-30 ℃.
RH 70-80%
Storage of Mature- green & partially Ripe fruit 8-10 ℃ for 2-3 weeks
Storage: Fully ripe 5-8 ℃ for 1 week @ 90-95
% RH

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 65

Litchi Minimum temperature 15o C
Plant grows luxuriantly 30oC
Flowering 16-22o C
Fruit set 18-24o C
Harvesting 24-28 ℃
New flush 28-30o C
Storage 0-1o C
Apple Day temperature (favourable for production of quality 12-15 o C
fruits in large quantities)
Night temperature (favourable for production of quality 7 – 8o C
fruits in large quantities)
Ideal temperature for growing season 21-24 oC
Pollen germination and Fruit setting 21.1-26.7 oC
Seed Stratification 4o to 7o C for 60-90 days
Storage (4-8 months) -1.1 to 0oc, 85-90% RH
Ber Tolerate up to 40 ℃
Storage for 30-40 days 3oC and 85-90 % RH
Aonla Freezing temperature 0o C
High 46o C
Pomegranate Optimum temperature 35-38oC
Storage for 2 months At 0o C, 80-85% RH,
5o C, 90-95% RH
Date Palm Flowering 25-29 oC
Dried pollen storage 4-5 ℃ (until next season)
Pineapple Optimum temperature 15-32oC
Storage 10-13 oC
Unfavourable Above- 35o C
For long distance transportation 7o C for 10-20 days.
Fruits harvested in early stage of ripening 7-10oC
Chilling injury Exposure to < 7o C
Jackfruit Ideal temperature 22-35o C
Sapota Optimum 11-34o C
Jamun Storage 9 ℃, RH- 85-90 % (for 3
weeks)
Mangosteen Max temperature which retards growth 35o C
Fig Growth 15.5-21o C
(Low
temperature
causes
splitting)
Pear In Dormancy -26o C
In growing period 45o C
Peach Precooling 0o C at 85-90 RH for 28-
36 days.
Chilling hours at temperature 7.2 oC

66 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 Temperature not breaking dormancy < 2-3o C

pH of Horticultural crops:
Fruit crop pH
Mango 5.5- 7.5 (Do not perform beyond 7.5)
Banana 6.5-7.5 (up to 8.5 with suitable amendments.)
Lime & Lemon 6.5 -7
Mandarin 5.5-6.5
Sweet orange 6.5-7.5
Grape 6.5- 7.5
Papaya 6-7
Guava 4.5-8.2
Litchi 5.5-7
Apple 5.5-6.5
Ber Up to 9.5
Aonla 6.5-9.5
Pomegranate 7.5
Datepalm 8-10
Pineapple 5-6
Jackfruit 6-6.5
Sapota 6-8
Bael 5-10
Avocado 5-7
Pear 6-7.5
Peach 5.8-6.8

Optimum season for Crops in various stages:

Crop Season
Mango Mango availability March- Mid august
Pruning Aug- Sep
Heading Back November-December
Off season Jan-Feb
Planting time June- Sep
Banana Most common season of planting June-July
In Wet land Feb- April & April- May
Hill banana April – May
Citrus Planting of Lime and Lemon Dec- Feb & June – Sep
Lime and Lemon Healthy seedling June to Dec
Mandarin Season Nov- Dec
Mandarin Planting time May-June & Sep- Oct
Sweet Orange Ideal Season July to September
Grape Time of planting in North India Feb-March
Time of Cutting October

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 67

 Time of single pruning (in North India) Jan-Feb
Forward pruning or fruit pruning or Sep.-Oct
winter pruning
Time of pruning in North India December to January
Papaya Best time for planting Beginning of the South- West monsoon
(Most part of India)
Suitable time of planting (South India) June to October and January to March
Planting time in Spring Feb- March
Planting time in Monsoon June- July (Best time)
Planting time in Autumn Oct- Nov
Guava Best time of planting June to July
Flowering of guava for rainy season April-May
crop
Flowering of guava for winter season August – September
crop
In S India (third crop with flowers October
appearing in)
Bahar Water Flowering Fruiting
stress
Ambe Bahar (Feb) December- Feb-March July- Aug
Preferred Bahar season in S Jan
India
Hast Bahar (Oct) August- Oct- Nov March-
September April

Mrig Bahar (June) 3 weeks of June- July Nov.- Dec

Preferred Bahar season in N April
India
Storage of Mature green & partially 8-10oC for 2-3 weeks
ripe guavas
Storage of Fully ripe guavas 5-8oC for 1 week at 90-95 % RH
Litchi Harvesting May to June
Air layering July to September
Apple Most critical period of water April to august
requirement
Ber Best time of planting July to September
Pruning time for north Indian Mid to end of may
condition
Flowering time Sept. to Nov
Normal harvesting Oct-Nov
Harvesting in North India Dec- April
Aonla Budding time Mid May to mid-August
Planting time February to march
Irrigation April-June
Harvesting time December to Jan

68 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 Pomegranat Ideal Time for Planting July – Aug
e
Ambe Bahar January to February (Flowering)
June- August (Harvesting)
Mrig Bahar June to July (Flowering)
Nov- Jan (Harvesting)
Hasth Bahar Sept. to Oct (Flowering)
Feb. to April (Harvesting)
Date palm Harvesting (Doka Stage) June – August
Flowering February to April
Fruit ripening May to August
Pineapple Season July – September
Jackfruit Fruits availability March to June
Off season crop October – December
Sapota Planting season June to December
Jamun Flowering First week of March and continues up to
April end.
Mangosteen Main crop August – October

TSS of Different crops:

Crop TSS
Grape Ideal TSS for processing 15 0 Brix
Ideal TSS for raisin grapes 17° brix
Export purpose 180 Brix
Standard 20-23 ° brix
Mango Good mango varieties 20% of TSS
Citrus Most of Citrus group 8-12%
Guava 13%

Spacing:
Crop Spacing
Mango Square system, Spacing: 10 x 10 m, 100 plants/ha.
Banana Tallest varieties 3m×3m
Dwarf varieties 1.8m×1.8m
Citrus Mandarin (6×6) m
Kinnow HDP (1.8×1.8) m
Sweet Orange (7×7) m
Grape Thompson Seedless 2x3m Kniffin
Beauty Seedless 2x2m Head
Anab-e- Shahi 3x6m Arbour
Perlettee 3x3m Head, Kniffin
Papaya Normal 1.8×1.8 m
High density planting 1.2 m×1.2 m

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 69

 Papain production 1.6m×1.6m
Guava 5m x 5m
Litchi 10m
Apple
Ber HDP 5x5 m
Low rainfall 6x6 m
High rainfall 8x8 m
Pomegranate N India and Deccan plateau 5-6 m
Date palm Commercially- 6-8 m and in India 3-4 m
Pineapple Sub-tropical and mild humid conditions (22.5 x 60 x 75 cm.)
63,400 plants/ha
Hot and humid conditions (25 x 60 x 90 cm.)
53,300 plants/ha
Sapota Normal 8x8m
HDP 8x4m
Mangosteen 10 m x 10 m

DISEASE MANAGEMENT
Name of disease Casual Scientific name Remark
organism
1. MANGO
i). Powdery mildew Fungus Oidium mangiferae Loss upto 30-90%
ii). Anthracnose Fungus Colletorichum -
gloesporoides
iii). Canker Bacteria Xanthomonas competris pv. -
mangiferae

iv). Rust Algal Cephaleoros mycoides -

2. BANANA
i). Panama wilt Fungus (Acidic Fusarium oxysporum pv- Soil borne fungus (Basrai
soil) cubensis (ASRB NET 2019) dwarl Immune, Pooyan-
Resistant)

ii). Sigatoka leaf spot Fungus Cercopora musicola AAA clones-

(Asexual) susceptiable
ABB clones- Resistant
iii). Bunchy top Virus Transmitted through aphids Resistant variety
virupakshi
iv). Moko disease Bacteria Pseudomonas solanacearum Vector-insect.

v). Tipover/ Heart Rot Bacteria Erwinia crotovora Seen in tissue cultured
plants.
3. CITRUS

70 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

i). Gummosis Fungus Phytophthora spp. -
ii). Bacterial Cankar Bacteria Xanthomonas campestris Transmitted by leaf
pv. citri miner Resistant variety-
Tenali
iii). Triestiza Virus (Acid lime indicator plant) Transmitted by aphids

iv). Greening MLO’s Transmitted by citrus

psylla.
v). Exocortis Viroids Rang pur lime and citron- -
indicator
vi). Xyloporosis Bud wood transmission -
4. GUAVA
i). Guava canker Fungus Pestaloyiopsis psidii -

ii). Guava wilt Fungus Fusarium oxysporum pv. -

(Alkanine soil) psidi

5. GRAPE
i). Downy mildew Fungus Plasmopora viticola Major disease
ii). Powdery mildew Fungus Uncinula necator/ Erisiphe -
necator
iii). Pierce’s disease Fungus Xyllela fastidiosa Resistant rootstock-
temple
6. FIG
Fig rust Fungus Cerotolium fici -
7. PINEAPPLE
Wilt Virus Transmitted thorugh lace/ -
mealy bug
8. PAPAYA
i). Damping off Fungus Pythium aphanidermatum -
ii). Ring Spot Virus Transmitted by Aphids Mottling of leaves
iii). Leaf Curl Virus Trnasmitted by white fly. -
9. AONLA
Ring rust Fungus Ravenelia emblica -
10. BER
Powdery mildew Fungus Oidium jujube var indica -

11. SAPOTA
Leaf spot Fungus Phleopheospora indica -

12. POMEGRANATE
Leaf spot Fungus Cercospora pinicae -
13. BANANA
i). Streak Virus Virus Transmitted by citrus mealy Planococcus citri
bugs

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 71

ii). Bract mosaic Virus Transmitted by aphids Nendran-highly
susceptible
iii). Kokkan disease BM Virus - -
14. APPLE
i) Crown gall Bacteria Agrobacterium tumefaciens

ii). Fire blight Bacteria Erwinia amylovera

iii). Apple scab Fungus Venturia subineqalis -
15. PEACH
i). Peach leaf curl Fungus Taphrina deformens Nacked asci present
ii). Bacterial gummosis Bacteria Pseudomonas-spp. Mashobra paste is
applied
iii). Wisker’s rot Fungus Rhizopus stolonifer -
16. PEAR
Pear decline MLO’s Transmitted by pear psylla -

17. COCONUT
i). Root wilt MLO’s Transmitted by lace bug -

ii). Basal end rot Fungus Ganoderma lucidum -

18. ARECANUT
i). Mahali or koleroga Fungus Pytopthora palmivora -
or Fruit Rot Vector-spindle bug
ii). Bud rot or Anab-a- Fungus Gonaderma lucidum -
roga
19. COFFEE
Leaf rust Fungus Hemelia vestratrix Introduced from Srilanka
Resistant variety- Coffee
liberica
20. CASHEW
Dieback or pink Fungus Pellicularia 72almon color -
disease

PEST MANAGEMENT
Pest Scientific name Nature of damage Remark

1. MANGO
i) Hoppers Amritodus atkinsoni Nymph and adult, -
most serious pest of
North & East India
ii). Stem borer Batocera rufomaculata Grub and adult, most Vapour heat treatment
serious pest of North
& East India

72 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

iii). Fruit fly Dacus dorsalis Vapour heat treatment

iv). Stone weevil Sternochetus Use of irradiations

mangiferae Alphonso susceptible

v). Mealy burg Drosicha mangiferae Tillage

2. BANANA
i) Rhizome weevil Cosmopolites sordidus Fruits become -
undersized
ii). Aphids Pentalonia Vector of Bunchy top -
nigronervosa virus

3. CITRUS
i) Psylla Diaphorina citri Vector of greening -
disease
ii). Leaf minor Phyllocnistis citrella Vector of citrus -
cankar
iii). Aphids Toxoptera auranii Vector of tristiza -
disease.
iv). Lemon butterfly Papilio demoleus - Bagging

4. APPLE
i). San Jose scale Quadraspidious - Introduced in India in
perniciosus 1906 from France
Notorious pest
ii). Wooly Apple Aphids Eriosoma lanigerum Infestation period Serious pest
Aug-oct
5. GUAVA
i). Sytriped mealy bug Ferrisia virgate Serious pest in South -
India
ii). Fruit fly Bactrocera dorsalis Infested fruit rot and -
fall
iii). Green shield scale Chloropulvinaria - -
psidii
6. GRAPE
i). Defoliating beetles Adoretus lasiophagus - -

ii). Thrips Rhipiphorothrips - -

cruentatus
7. PINEAPPLE
Mealy/ lace bug Pseudococus Vector for pineapple -
breviceps wilt disease
8. PAPAYA
Aphids Aphis gossypii Transmit mosaic virus -

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 73

9. POMEGRANATE
i). Anar butterfly Virachola isocrates Major pest Covering fruit with
butter paper
10. LITHCHI
Litchi mite Aceria litchi - -
11. BER
i). Fruit fly Carpomya vesuviana Damage upto 80% in Resistant variety
North India Mehrun, Katha,
Tikadi, Dodhia
ii). Fruit borer Meridarchis scyrodes Major pest in South Resistant variety
India Gola, Kadaka
Pewandi
12. AONLA
i). Shoot gall maker Betanosa styloffera Gall formation All varities
susceptible
ii). Bark eating Indarbela quadrinotata Damage upto 80% -
caterpillar
13. JACK FRUIT
Shoot and fruit borer Diaphania caesalis Major pest -
14. PEACH
Leaf curl aphid Brachycaudus - -
helichtysi
15. COCONUT
i). Rhinocerous beette Oryctes rhinoceros Fan like appearance -
of leaves larval
parasitis- bracon
bremic orynae
ii). Red palm weevil Rhynchophorus - -
ferrugineus
Iii) Black headed Opisinia arenosella Monophagous pest
caterpiller
iv). Eryophide - -
16. CASHEW
i) Tea mosquito bug Helopeltis antonii - -

ii). Leaf minor Conopomorpha - -

syngramma
17. COFFEE
i). White stem borer Xylotrechus quadripes Serious pest of Arabia -
coffee
ii). Coffee cherry borer Hypothenemus - -
hampei

74 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERS
Name of disorder Cause Control measure/remarks
1. MANGO
i) Black tip Due to smoke of brick kilns+ Borax spray (0-6%)
deficiency of B.
ii). Malformation Due to low temperature Resistant vars-Bahaduran, Illaichi,
Bombay green-highly Mangeera, Aliff.
susceptible
iii). Spongy tissue Due to heat convection Resistant variety: Rtan, Arka Aruna,
Arka Puneet, Arka Anmol.
Major problem in Alphonso.
(TNPSC 2018) (AFO-2016)
iv). Alternate bearing Alphonso is highly susceptible -
v). Jhumka (clustering) Low temperature in Feb- march -
+ Improper pollination &
fertilization
vi). Leaf scorch Chloride toxicity, Deficiency K -
vii). Internal necrosis B. deficiency Highly susceptible- Dashehari Free-
Neelam, langra
viii). Jelly seed - Highly susceptible variety Tomy
atkins
ix). Taper tip - Deshehari is susceptible
x). Girdle necrosis -
xi). Softnose Excess of Ca and N2 deficiency -
2. BANANA
i). Neer vazhai - Nendran-susceptible
(water banana)
ii). Kotta vazhai - Poovan-susceptible
(seed banana)
iii). Hard Lump Cultivar rasthali
iii). Improper bunch Deficiency of K -
filling
3. CITRUS
i). Granulation fluctuation in temperature & Spray of lime
high RH during ripening
ii). Leaf mottling/ Zn deficiency -
Frenching
iii). Exanthema/ Cu deficiency -
Ammoniation or
dieback
iv). Yellow leaf of citrus Mo deficiency -
4. GUAVA

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 75

i). Bronzing Zn deficiency L-49 is more tolerant than Aallahabad
Safeda
5. GRAPE
i). Hen & Chicken Bo deficiency -
disease
ii). Millerandage in Bo deficiency -
Grape
iii). Berry or Blossom Improper pollination & -
drop in Grape fertilization
iv). Coulure & shot Bo deficiency, Improper -
berries pollination
v) Calyx end rot Ca deficiency -
vi) Pink berry High temperature Common in Thompson seedless and
formation its clone
vii). Uneven ripening Gulabi, Bangalore blue, Application of Ethephon (250 PPM)
susceptible
6. LITCHI
i). Little leaf + leaf Zn deficiency -
bronzing
ii). Fruit cracking Excessive water + high -
temperature
7. AONLA
Fruit Necrosis Bo deficiency -
8. POMEGRANATE
i) Fruit cracking Bo deficiency + moisture Tolerant varieties : Khandari, Alandi,
imbalance more in Mrig bahar Bedana Bosee

9. PERSIMMON
Calyx end rot Ca deficiency -
10. AVOCADO
Dry neck - -
11. APPLE
i). Water core Bo deficiency -
ii). Bitter pit+ cracking Ca deficiency -
iii). Wither tip Cu deficiency -
iv). Rossette leaves Zn deficiency -
v). Interveinal choloris Mg deficiency -
vi). Endoxerosis Water deficiency -
(June drop)
vii). Early drop Improper pollination and -
fertilization.
viii). Scald Storage at high temperature -
ix). Internal browning - Susceptible variety:yellow newton

76 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

x). Storage breakdown - Susceptible variety: Golden delicious,
yellow newton
xi). Jonathan spot Water Deficiency -
12. PEAR
i). Black end Water Deficiency -
ii). Pear scald Prolong handling of fruit in Susceptible: Conference
storage
13. APRICOT
i). Tip burning Due to high temperature -
ii). Apolexy - -
14. MANGOSTEEN
Gamboge Heavy rainfall Yellow exudation of gun on fruits
15. PINEAPPLE
i). Multiple crown Genetics/ Nutritional factor Susceptible variety Kew
(fasciation)
ii). Sun scald Exposure of fruit to sun rays -
16. STAWBERRY
Albinism Lack of fruit colour during -
ripening
17. COCOA
Cherelle wilt - -
18. COFFEE
Black bean/ Black Depletion of carbohydrates -
Jolloo/ Normal Jolloo reserve during bean
development
19. RUBBER
Traping Panel dryness Excessive harvesting of latex Trapping rest
(TPD) or brown blast
20. TEA
Tea yellow disease Sulphur Deficiency -
21. SAPOTA
Cock’s comb - -
22. COCONUT
i). Crown chocking Boron Deficiency - (ICAR JRF 2019)
ii). Little leaf Zinc Deficiency -
23. ARECANUT
Band disease Improper drainage -
24. CUSTARD APPLE
Stone fruits High relative humidity, low -
temperature
25. PEACH
Woolliness - -

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 77

OLERICULTURE
❖ India is the second largest producer of vegetables in the world (surpassed only by China).
VEGETABLE CLASSIFICATION BASED ON HARDINESS:
❖ This classification is based on ability to withstand frost and low temperature and it will be useful to
know season of cultivation of a crop.
Hardy Semi hardy Tender
Asparagus Carrot Amaranth
Crucifers Celery Okra
Garlic Beet root Brinjal
Leek Globe artichoke Chilli
Onion Lettuce Cluster bean
Parsley Palak Cucurbits
Peas Parsnip Tomato
Radish Potato Colocasia
Rhubarb Amorphophallus
Spinach Yams
Sweet potato

BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION
Family Crops Scientific name Edible part Chromosom
e no. (2n)
Monocotyledoneae
Alliaceae Onion Allium cepa Bulb 16
Garlic Allium sativum clove 16
Leek A. porrum Blanched stem 32 (4X)
and leaves
Dicotyledoneae
Apiaceae/ Carrot Daucus carota Enlarged and 18
Umbelliferae fleshy taproot

Celery Apium graveolens Leaf stalk and 22

leaf

Coriander Coriandrum sativum Young leaves 22

Chenopodiaceae Beet root Beta vulgaris Fleshy tap root 18

Palak Beta vulgaris var. Leaves 18
bengalensis
Asteraceae Lettuce Lactuca sativa Leaves 18
Chicory Cichorium intybus Leaves 18

78 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

Convolvulaceae Sweet potato Ipomea batatus Root tuber 90(6X)
Brassicaceae/ Cabbage Brassica oleracea var. Head 18
Cruciferae capitata
Cauliflower Brassica oleracea var. Curds 18
botrytis
Brussels B. oleracea var. Immature heads 18
sprout gemmifera
Sprouting B. oleracea var. italica Fleshy flower 18
broccoli stalk
Knol-khol B. oleracea var. Enlarged stem 18
gongylodes portion
Kale/collard B. oleracea var. acephala Rosette leaves 18

Turnip B. campestris spp. Swollen root 20

rapifera
Rutabaga Brassica napobrassica Enlarged and 38
elongated tap root
Radish Raphanus sativus Fleshy swollen 18
primary root
Cucurbitaceae Cucumber Cucumis sativus Immature fruit 14
Musk melon Cucumis melo Ripe fruit 24
Gherkin Cucumis anguria Young fruits 24
Watermelon Citrullus lanatus Ripe fruit 22
Round melon C. lanatus var. fistulosus Immature fruit 22
Pumpkin Cucurbita moschata Ripe fruit 40
Summer Cucurbita pepo Immature fruit 40
squash
Winter squash Cucurbita maxima Ripe fruit 40
Bottle gourd Lagenaria siceraria Immature fruit 22
Bitter gourd Momordica charantia Immature fruit 22
Balsam apple Momordica balsamina Immature fruit 22
Ride gourd Luffa acutangula Immature fruit 26
Sponge gourd Luffa cylindrica Immature fruit 26
Pointed gourd Trichosanthes dioica Immature fruit 22

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 79

 Snake gourd T. anguina Immature fruit 22
Euphorbiaceae Casava Manihot esculenta Tuberous roots 36
Fabaceae/ Garden pea Pisum sativum var. Tender seeds 14
Leguminosae hortense
French bean Phaseolus vulgaris Tender pod and 22
seeds
Cluster bean Cyamopsis Tender pod and 14
tetragonolobus seeds
Cowpea Vigna unguiculata Tender pod, 22
immature seed
and mature seed
Soybean Glycine max Tender and dry 40
seed
Yam bean Pachyrrhizus erosus Root tuber 22
Fenugreek Trigonella Tender leaves 16
foenumgraceum
Malvaceae Okra Abelmoshchus Tender fruit 130
esculentus
Rutaceae Curry leaf Murraya koenigii Leaves 18
Solanaceae Potato Solanum tuberosum Stem tuber 48(4X)
Brinjal Solanum melongana Fruit 24
Tomato Solanum lycopersicum Fruit 24
Currant tomato Solanum Fruit 24
(Cherry pimpinellifolium
Tomato)
Chilli Capsicum annuum Fruit 24

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE PLANT PARTS USED AS VEGETABLES

Flower Agathi, male flowers of pumpkin
Flower head Broccoli, globe artichoke
Pre floral apical meristem Cauliflower
Modified above ground stem Knolkhol, asparagus
Spears Asparagus
Modified stem Potato, jerusale, artichoke, yam, elephant foot
yam, taro, onion, garlic
Modified root Radish, carrot, beetroot, turnip, sweet potato
Modified tap root Chinese artichoke
Modified adventitious root Chinese potato

80 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

Fruits Brinjal, tomato, chilli, peas and beans, all
cucurbits, okra
Corms Colocasia, elephant foot yam

DERIVATION OF VEGETABLE FOR PLANT TISSUE

Plant Part Vegetable
Inflorescences Broccoli, cauliflower
Stem sprout Asparagus
Auxiliary bud Brussels sprout
Petiole celery
Swollen leaf base leek
Leaf blade Spinach
Terminal leaf buds cabbage
Swollen tap root carrot
Stem Potato
Swollen hypocotyl Beetroot
Modified stem Onion
Flower bud Artichoke (BHU-2021)
Placental intralocular tissue (septum) Tomato

EDIBLE PORTION OF VEGETABLE CROPS

EDIBLE PARTS VEGETABLES
Placenta Cucumber, watermelon
Endocarp Ridge gourd, sponge gourd, ash gourd
Mesocarp Pumpkin, musk melon

USEFUL COMPOUNDS PRESENT IN VEGETABLES:

Vegetables Compounds Role in disease prevention
Onion, garlic Sulphur compounds Reducing blood cholesterol
Cole crops Indoles and dithiolthiones Prevention of cancer
Bitter gourd Cheratin Effective against diabetes
Onion Diphenyl amine Effective against diabetes
Celery 3-n-butyl pthalide Effective against hypertension
Yams Diosgenin Manufacture of contraceptive
drugs
Onion, garlic Quercetin (Bioflavonoids) Protection against cancer & heart
diseases
Lettuce Lutein Nutritional antioxidant
Onion Allicin Antibacterial activity
Cabbage Indole -3- carbinol Against bowl cancer
Broccoli Sulphoraphane Anticancer activity

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 81

French bean, broccoli Kaemferol Anticancer and cardiovascular
disease
Brinjal Nasunin (Anthocyanin) Anticancer activity
Broccoli Glucoraphinanin Anticancer activity

CAUSES OF COLOUR/BITTERNESS IN FRITS / VEGETABLES:

Yellow color in papaya Caricaxanthin
Redness of apple Anthocyanin
Red color in tomato Lycopene
Red color in chili Capsanthin
Pungency in chili Capsaicin/capsicutin
Orange color in carrot Carotene
Red color in carrot Anthocyanin
Yellow color in turmeric Curcumin
Bitterness in bitter gourd Memordicocite
Bitterness in cucumber Cucurbitacin
Yellow color of onion Anthocyanin
Pungency in onion Allyl propyl di – sulphide (AFO-2021)
Pungency in raphanus Isocyanate
Pungency in mustard Glucosilates
Pungency in garlic Di allyl di sulphide
Green color in potato Solanin
Sour taste of gram leaves Malic/oxalic acid
Pungency in pepper Oleoresins
Pungency in cabbage leaves Sinigrin

TOXIC SUBSTANCES PRESENT IN VEGETABLE CROPS:

Toxic substances Crops
Trypsin inhibitors Soybean
Cyanogenic glycosides Lima bean
Protease inhibitors Lima bean, faba bean
Ipomeamarone Sweet potato
Phytic acid Peas and beans (Mature seeds)
Oxalic acid Amaranth, portulaca, celosia, basella, Colocasia
Oxalates Rhubarb, beets, chard, spinach, New Zealand spinach
Calcium Oxalate Elephant foot yam, colocassia
Hydrocyanic acid Tapioca (more in leaves)
Dioscorine Yams
Solanine Potato

82 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

Solasodine Brinjal (JNKVV And RKSKVV 2022)
Serotonin Watermelon
Cholinesterase inhibitors Pumpkin and squash
Sinigrin Cole crops
Saponine Spinach, Asparagus, Tomato
Cucurbitacins Cucurbits
Apiin Celery
Hemagglutinins Common beans
Vicine and covicine Broad bean
Tomatine Tomato
lactucopicrin Lettuce

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON PHOTOPERIODISM

i. Short day plants (SDP) Sweet potato, cluster bean, winged bean, hyacinth bean, Indian
spinach
ii. Long day plants (LDP) Potato, onion, lettuce, cabbage, cauliflower, knol khol, radish,
carrot, turnip, beetroot
iii. Day neutral plants (DNP) Tomato, brinjal, chilli, cowpea, okra, French, bean, cucurbits

TYPE OF INFLORESCENCE IN VEGETABLE CROPS

Type of inflorescence Crops
Raceme Cole crops, cucurbits, radish
Cyme Tomato, brinjal, chilli, potato, spinach, sweet potato, broccoli
Panicle Moringa, Palak
Spike Beet root
Compound Umbel Carrot, Coriander
Capitulum Lettuce

DICHOGAMY MECHANISM IN VEGETABLE CROPS:

Protandry Protogyny
Onion, carrot, muskmelon, pointed gourd Chilli, cole crops, okra, cassava, Amaranthus,
rhubarb, parsnip, leek, garden beet, Swiss taro Elephant foot yam
chard

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON TOLERANCE TO SOIL ACIDITY

i. Less tolerant Okra, onion, cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, Chinese cabbage, musk
melon
ii. Moderately tolerant Brinjal, tomato, chilli, radish, carrot, summer squash, winter squash
iii. very tolerant Potato, sweet potato, rhubarb

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 83

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON TOLERANCE TO SOIL SALINITY
i. Less tolerant Brinjal, sweet pepper, potato, pea, radish, snake gourd, beans
ii. Moderately tolerant Tomato, chilli, watermelon, cucumber, summer squash, bottle gourd,
cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, muskmelon, onion, sweet potato,
iii. Highly tolerant Sugar beet , Kale, turnip, Bitter gourd, Ash gourd, palak, lettuce, asparagus
French been

SOIL REACTION (pH)

Slightly tolerant Moderately tolerant Highly tolerant
(6-6.8 pH) (5.5 to 6.0pH) (5.0-5.5 pH)
Asparagus Pea, Chilli, Radish Sweet potato
Onion Cucumber Water melon
Broccoli, Leek Pumpkin, Chicory
Lettuce, Muskmelon Turnip, Parsley Rhubarb
Celery

pH OF VEGETABLE CROPS:
Crops pH
Cabbage 6-6.5
Cauliflower 5.5-6.6
Brinjal
Garlic 6-7
Tomato
Beet Root
Carrot 6.5- 7
Okra 6-8
Potato 5- 6.5
Sweet Potato 5.2
Knol Khol 5.5-6.8
Pea 6-7.5
French bean 5.5- 6

ROOTING DEPTH
Shallow rooted Moderately deep rooted Deep rooted
(30-40 cm) (50-60 cm) (80-100 cm and above)
Broccoli Beet Artichoke
Brussels sprout Carrot Asparagus
Cabbage Cucumber Cluster bean
Cauliflower Brinjal Cow pea
Garlic, Leek, Lettuce Muskmelon French bean
Onion, Potato, Radish Pea, Pepper Lima bean

84 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

Spinach Summer squash, Turnip Pumpkin, Sweet
potato, Tomato, Water melon

❖ Vegetable forcing: Production of off- Season vegetable

➢ Forcing: Cool forcing vegetables: Asparagus, Beetroot, Cauliflower, Celery, Lettuce, Onion, Pea,
Raddish, Spinach
➢ Warm forcing vegetables: Bean, Cucumber, Brinjal, Muskmelon, Pepper, Tomato

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON RESPIRATORY ACTIVITY OF THE PRODUCE:

Levels Rate of respiration Vegetable crops
(mg of CO2 /kg/hr)
Very low 5 Potato, onion
Low 5-10 Sweet potato, turnip, cucumber, cabbage
Moderate 10-20 Tomato, chilli, sweet pepper, carrot, beet
High 20-40 Radish, Indian bean, French bean, peas, lettuce, lima
bean
Very high 40-60 Green onion, Muskmelon, watermelon, Cauliflower,
Broccoli, okra, brussels sprout
Extremely high >60 Spinach, asparagus, green peas, mushroom

BASED ON EXISTING STORABILITY OF SEEDS:

Group Storability period (years) Vegetables
Poor storer 1-2 Onion
Intermediate 2-3 Chilli, carrot, okra, french bean
Good storer-1 3-4 Cucurbits, radish, garden pea, beet root
Good storer-2 4-5 Tomato, brinjal, cole crops

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON WATER REQUIREMENT

i. High Sweet pepper, cole crops, radish, ridge gourd, turnip, beetroot
ii. Moderate Tomato, brinjal, chilli, cucumber, onion, carrot, potato
iii. Low Peas and beans
iv. Very low Watermelon, muskmelon, pumpkin, ashgourd

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON CLIMATERIC PATTERN

Climacteric vegetable Non climacteric vegetable
Tomato, Muskmelon Pumpkin, cucumber, pointed gourd, chilli, capsicum, tamarillo,
watermelon, brinjal

CLASSIFICATION OF VEGETABLE BASED ON STORAGE LIFE

Very perishable Perishable Semi-perishable Less Perishable
(0-4 weeks) (4-8 weeks) (6-12 weeks) (>12 weeks)

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 85

Asparagus, beans, Cabbage Celery, leek, Beetroot, carrot, onion,
broccoli, Brussels marrow parsnip, pumpkin, potato,
sprout, cauliflower, sweet potato, swede turnip
cucumber, lettuce, pea,
rhubarb, spinach,
sweet corn, tomato,
mushroom

RESPIRATION RATE OF VEGETABLES

Very high High Moderate Low Very low
Asparagus Bean Beet Cabbage Onion
Broccoli Lettuce Carrot Sweet potato Potato
Pea Lima bean Celery Turnip Pumpkin
Spinach Cucumber Ashgourd

Monoecious Vegetable Cucurbits, Cassava, Amaranthus

Dioecious Vegetable Pointed Guard, beetroot, Spinach

METHODS OF RAISING:
Direct sown crops Okra, Carrot, Radish, Beans, Peas, Garlic
Transplanted crops Tomato, Brinjal, Chillies, Cabbage, Cauliflower
Vines and cuttings Sweet potato, Cassava, Pointed gourd, Coccinia
Bits of tubers and corms Potato, Yams.

MINIMUM ISOLATION OF DISTANCE OF VEGETABLE CROPS

Sl. No. Name of Isolation (m)
group(crops) Foundation seed Certified seed
Cole crops
Cabbage 1600 1000
Cauliflower 1600 1000
Chinese cabbage 1600 1000
Knol-khol 1600 1000
Fruit vegetables:
Brinjal 200 100
Capsicum (Chilies) 400 200
Tomato 50 25
Okra 400 200
Bulbous vegetables:
Garlic 10 5
Onion 1000 800
Root vegetables:

86 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 Beetroot 1600 800
Carrot 1000 800
Radish 1600 1000
Turnip 1600 1000
Tuber vegetables:
Sweet potato 10 5
Potato 5 5
Rhizomatous vegetables:
Ginger 10 5
Turmeric 10 5
Legume vegetables:
Cluster bean 10 5
Cowpea 10 5
French bean 10 5
Indian bean 10 5
Lima bean 10 5
Peas 10 5
Leafy vegetables:
Amaranthus 400 200
Beet leaf 1600 1000
Coriander 800 400
Fenugreek 50 25
Lettuce 50 25
Spinach 1600 1000
Cucurbits 1000 500

1. CABBAGE
Introduction:
❖ Botanical name: Brassica oleracea var. capitate
❖ Family: Brassicaceae
❖ Cabbage is harder than cauliflower.
❖ Anticancer property due to presence of Indol-3-Carbinol
❖ Cabbage is shallow rooted crop and highly irrigation sensitive crop.
❖ Edible part of Cabbage: Head (UPCATET-2023)
❖ Fruit Type: Siliqua
❖ Cabbage is highly cross pollinated.
❖ Flavour in cabbage leaves is due to the glucoside “Sinigrin”
Soil and planting:
❖ pH- 5.5- 6.5.
❖ Plants growing in saline soils are prone to diseases
❖ Raised beds of size 3 x 0.6 m and 10-15 cm in height are prepared. About 70cm distance is kept
between two beds

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 87

Temperature:
Optimum temperature seed germination 12-150C
Minimum temperature seed germination Just above 0oC
Optimum range for growth and head formation in cabbage ❖ 15-210C
Growth is arrested in most of the cultivars at temperature ❖ 43.2oC

Varieties:
Golden Acre Earliest
Drumhead
Pusa mukta Resistant to black rot
Pusa ageti 1st tropical variety
Pusa sambandh Resistant to black leg or dry rot
Pride of India Early and round
Copenhagen market
K-1 Tolerant to black rot disease

Seed rate:
On an average 500-750 g/ha (as per handbook of Horticulture)
Early varieties 600-700 g seeds/ha
Late varieties 375-400 g/ha

Seed yield: 500-600 kg per hectare

Storage temperature of cabbage: 00C and 90-95% RH for 2-8 Weeks

2. CAULIFLOWER
Introduction:
❖ Botanical name: Brassica oleracea var. botrytis
❖ Family: Brassicaceae
❖ Edible part of cauliflower is known as “curds”.
❖ Thermosensitive crop.
❖ It is very sensitive to Deficiency of Boron and Molybdenum
❖ Type of inflorescence: Racemose
❖ Common herbicide used in Cauliflower: Basalin (3.3lit/ha)
Practices in Cauliflower:
❖ Blanching is common practice in cauliflower for protect curd from yellow colour after their direct
exposure to sun and to arrest enzymatic activity.
❖ Scooping is special operation done in cauliflower for initiation of flower stalk e.g., Darjeeling hills
in west Bengal. Scooping means removal of central portion of curd for easy initiation of flower stalk.
(ICAR JRF2021)
Temperature:

88 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 ❖ Optimum temperature: for growth of young plants is around 23oC, but in later stages 17-20oC are
most favourable.
❖ The tropical cultivars show growth even at 35oC
Soil and planting:
❖ pH is 5.5-6.5
❖ Seedlings are ready for transplanting: 3-6 weeks DAS
❖ Early crops: 5-6 weeks DAS
Seed rate:
Early crop 1kg /ha
Mid and late crops 300-500gm/ha

Varieties:
Pusa Betakesari ❖ Orange colour cauliflower variety. It is country’s 1st bio
fortified variety.
Pusa Deepali, Pusa Snowball Self- Blanched variety of cauliflower
Pusa Him Jyoti and Hisar-1 Self-Blanched and offseason variety

Pusa Synthetic Tolerant to curd and inflorescence blight

Pusa kartiki, Pusa Meghana, Pusa Early Syntheitc, Arka Kranti, Kashi kunwari, Pusa Deepali,
Pant subhra, Pusa sharad

3. KNOL-KHOL:
❖ Edible part of knol-khol is swollen stem called “tuber” or “Knob”.
❖ Pinking: It is due to the exposure of curds to high light.
Yield:
Early maturing cultivars 80-120 q/ha
Main season 150-200 q/ha
Snowball group 250-300 q/ha

4. CUCUMBER
Introduction:
❖ Botanical name: Cucumis sativus
❖ Family: Cucurbitaceae
❖ Origin: India
❖ Introduced in India in 1822 AD
❖ Chromosome no: 2n= 14
❖ Day neutral plant, Thermophilic crop
❖ Most common sex form: Monoecious
❖ In cucumber bitterness in fruit is due to cucurbitacin.
❖ Economic sex ratio of cucumber: 15:1

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 89

Temperature:
Most favourable temperature for cucumber 18-240C
Optimum temp. favouring anthesis and 13-18˚ c
dehiscence

Soil:
❖ pH- 5.5-6.8
Seed rate:
❖ 2.5-4 kg/ha
Verities:
Pusa Uday
Pusa Barkha
Pusa Sanyog Gynoecious Var.(early and high yielding hybrid)
Sheetal
Pusa shubangi
Himangi Recently recommended variety
Poinsett Resistant to downy mildew, powdery mildew, anthracnose and angular leaf spot
Japanese long Extra early fruits mature in 45 days
green

❖ Harvesting: Can be done 45 days after sowing.

❖ Yield: About 8-10 t/ha can be obtained.
❖ Disorder: Pillow Disease is due to Calcium deficiency

5. MUSKMELON
Introduction:
❖ Botanical name: Cucumis melo (TNPSC 2018)
❖ Family: Cucurbitaceae
❖ Origin: Tropical Africa
❖ Edible portion of melons contain water 90% and CHO 10%
❖ High quality melons should have TSS: 12-15%
❖ Full slip stage of muskmelon contains maximum sugar.
❖ It is climacteric fruit
Temperature:
❖ Optimum temperature for germination of seeds is 27-300 c
❖ Muskmelon seed does not germinate at temperature lower than 180C
Soil:
❖ pH: 6.0-7
Seed rate:
❖ In General: 2-3 kg/ha
❖ Dibbling Method: 1kg/Ha
Harvesting:

90 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

❖ Harvested at full slip stage.
❖ Long distance: Half Slip stage
Varieties:
Varieties developed by IIHR Varieties developed by IARI Varieties developed by IIVR
Arka jeet Very Sweet Pusa Madhuras, Pusa Kashi madhu
Var. and rich sharbati, Pusa madhurima, Punjab highly
in vit. C Pusa sarda Rasila resistant to
powdery
mildew and
tolerant to
downy mildew
Hara madhu late maturing
Durgapura early maturing
Madhu and seed
cavity big)
Hisar saras tolerant to
downy mildew
Punjab Sunheri, Hisar
madhur
Arka Excellent
Rajhans Transport Var.

5. WATERMELON
Introduction:
❖ Botanical name: Citrullus lanatus
❖ Family: Cucurbitaceae
❖ Origin: Tropical Africa
❖ Edible portion: Placenta
❖ The watermelon fruit contain 93% water.
❖ TSS - 8- 13 %
Temperature:
Plant growth 28-30oc
Better fruiting 24- 27oc

Soil:
❖ pH: 6.5- 7.0
Seed rate:
❖ In general - 3-5 kg/ha
Small seeded 3-3.5 kg/ha

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 91

 Large seeded 5 kg/ha

Varieties:
Varieties developed by RAU, Varieties developed by IIHR Other verities
Rajasthan
Durgapur Meetha, Durgapur Lal Arka Muthu Sugar ❖ 11-13% TSS,
baby (Introduced
from USA)

Durgapura Kesar Yellow Flesh Arka Akash Pusa Triploid and

Var. bedana Seedless
hybrid Var
Arka Manik Resistant to
powdery
mildew ,
downy mildew
and tolerant to
anthracnose
and blossom
end rot
Pusa Seedless hybrid
bedana

Maturity indices:
❖ Metallic sound at the time of harvesting shows: Immaturity
❖ Heavy Dull sound at the time of harvesting shows: maturity
❖ The drying of Tendril at the base of the fruit is also a sign of maturity.
Storage:
❖ The fruit stored for 2 to 3 weeks at 10 to 15 oC and 90% humidity after harvest
❖ Bud Necrosis Transmitted by Aphids

6. Bitter gourd
Introduction:
❖ Botanical name: Momordica charantia
❖ Family: Cucurbitaceae
❖ Bitter Principle: Memordicin
❖ Rich in Fe Content
Temperature:
Optimum temperature 24-27oC
Growth and flowering temp. ❖ 25-30 o C
Germination affected ❖ below 10OC

92 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

❖ Female sterility induces ❖ above 40OC

❖ Soil: pH: 6.5 – 7.0

❖ Seed rate:

Direct sowing 4-5 kg

sown in polybags and transplanted in pits 2.5-3kg

Varieties of Bitter gourd:

❖ Pusa Aushadhi, Pusa Purvi, Pusa Rasdar, Pusa vishesh (selection from local verities) , Arka Harit,
Arka anupama.
Harvesting time: After 55-60 DAS

7. ONION
Introduction:
❖ Botanical Name: Allium cepa
❖ Family: Alliaceae
❖ Origin: Central Asia
❖ Onion belongs to monocotyledon family.
❖ Cool season crop and a biennial herb
❖ Shallow rooted crop
❖ It is Useful Against Sunstroke
❖ Flowering structure: Umbel
❖ Inflorescence: Cyme
❖ Flower color: White or Bluish
❖ Long day plant for bulb formation.
❖ Cultivars grown in plains of North India are short day.
❖ Edible Portion of onion is modified stem is known as bulb
❖ Highly Cross-Pollinated crop due to Protandry, pollination by Honeybee (93 % increase in seed
Yield)
❖ Antifungal factor: Catechol
❖ Pungency in onion is due to allylpropyl disulphide.
❖ Yellow colour of the outer skin of onion bulb is due to quercetin
❖ National Research center for onion and Garlic (NRCOG) is located at Rajgurunagar, Nasik-
pune highway, Maharashtra.
❖ NRCOG established in 1994
❖ Lasalgaon: Biggest onion market in India.
Types of onion:
❖ Common Onion
❖ Shallot (Allium cepa var. ascolonicum): Perenial onion
❖ Chive (Allium schoenoprasum): Perennial buching herb
❖ It does not thrive when the average rainfall exceeds 75-100 cm during monsoon period.
Soil:
❖ pH- 5.8 to 6.5
Temperature:

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 93

❖ The Ideal temperature for vegetative growth is 12.8 – 21.0c.
❖ For bulb formation it requires long days and still higher temperature (15.5-25oC).

Seed rate:
Rabi season 10-12 kg
Kharif season 12-15 kg
200 m2 area 5-8 kg for 1 ha
Required bulbs 1000-1200 kg/ha

❖ Raito between nursery area and main field is about 1:20.

Varieties on the basis of Season:

Rabi season ❖ Arka bindu, Pusa ratnar, Pusa red, Nasik red, Patna red, Pusa madhvi,
Punjab red round, Punjab selection, Pusa white round
Kharif season Agrifound dark red, Arka kalyan, N-53

Description of Varieties:

Arka prgati Grow in both season

MDU1 Tolerant to lodging
Punjab Naroya (PAU) ❖ Tolerant to purple blotch
Agrifound Rose Suitable for export bulbs , Pickling type variety
Agrifound red
Punjab red round Early maturing variety
Suitable for dehydration Punjab 48 (s 48) , Pusa white round , Udaipur 103
Common in onion trade ❖ Poona Red, Nashik Red, Patna Red, Patna White

Harvesting and Yield:

❖ Onion is ready for harvest in 3-5 months after transplanting.
❖ Rabi: 25-30 t/ha (April to May)
❖ Kharif: 15-20 t/ha (January to February)
Storage:
❖ At 0-2-2.2oC under cold storage, bulbs can be stored for a long period.
❖ Onion bulb stored temperature: 00C at 60-75% RH
❖ Spray MH @2500 PPM, 15 – 20 days after storage to avoid sprouting.

8. GARLIC
Introduction:
❖ Botanical name: Allium sativum
❖ Family: Alliaceae
❖ Origin: Central Asia
❖ Commercial propagation: Cloves
❖ Flavor due to Sulphur compound- Di-Allyl-Di- Sulphide
❖ Antibacterial Substance – Allicin (JNKVV and RKSKVV 2022)

94 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

❖ Water soluble Amino Acid- Allin
❖ Garlic is produced only in winter season
❖ Soil pH: 6-7
❖ Planting: Cloves of 8-10 mm diameter since give increased yield
❖ Seed rate: 500Kg/ha
❖ Varieties: Agri found White(G 41) , Agri found Parvati, Pant lohit
❖ Average yield: 8-10 t/ha

9. CARROT
Introduction:
❖ Botanical name: Daucus carota
❖ Family: Umbelliferae (Apiaceae)
❖ Origin: Southwest Asia
❖ Edible portion is enlarged fleshy taproot.
❖ Beverage prepared from Black Carrot called as Kanji
❖ The taste of carrot is mainly due to presence of glutamic acid.
❖ Carrot is cool season crop.
❖ Type of fruit: Schizocarp
❖ Type of inflorescence: Compound umbel
❖ Carrot is an annual herb for root production and biennial for flowering and fruit set.
❖ Carrot is gross feeder of Potash (K).
❖ Forking of carrot is due to hard pan/ impedes root growth.
❖ Soil: pH is 6.5
❖ Carrot is sensitive to salt as well as boron in soil and water.
Temperature:
For germination of seeds 7.2-23.9℃
For root growth and development 18.3-23.9℃
Seed stalk formation 12.2 – 21.1℃
Best for color development 15.5 – 21.1℃
Carotene content decreases Above 21.1℃ and below 15.5℃

Carrot pigmentation:
Orange colour ❖ Alfa and Beta-Carotene
Purple colour Anthocyanin
Yellow colour Glutin Xanthophyll
Red colour Lycopen

Seed rate: - 5-6 kg/ha

Variety:
Pusa Meghali Highest vit. A content
Chanteney Canning and storage purpose var.

Storage:

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95

❖ Fresh Carrot roots can be stored for 3-4 days under ordinary conditions and for six months at 0oC
and 93-98% RH

10. RADISH
Introduction:
❖ Botanical name: Raphanus sativus
❖ Family: Brassicaceae
❖ Origin: Mediterranean region
❖ Aroma Due to Isothiocynate
❖ Stackling- Roots of Radish prepared for seed Production is known as Stackling.
❖ Radish root develops from primary root and hypocotyl
❖ Type of inflorescence: Terminal Raceme
❖ Radish is an ancient root crop.
❖ Suitable intercrops or Companion planting.
❖ The fleshy root radish is modified form of root is known as Fusiform.
❖ The edible portion of radish root develops from both primary and hypocotyl
Pigmentation in Radish:
Pink, Red color Anthocyanin
Purple color Cyanidin
Red color Pelargonidin

Temperature:
❖ Ideal temperature for growth and development of quality roots in radish is 10-15.5oC
Seed rate:
Large varieties 10kg/ha
Temperate European types 12kg/ha

Sowing:
❖ Seeds of large cultivars are sown 1.5-3.0 cm deep.
Varieties:
Round cherry berry Red Variety
Pusa Chetki Summer Var.),
Pusa himani Multi Season Var.),
IHR 1-1 Highly resistant to white rust
Pusa chetki Tolerant to high temperature
Pusa safed, Arka nishant, Scarlet Globe, Pusa Mridula, White Icicle

Seed yield - 600-800 kg/ha.

Storage:
❖ Radish roots can be stored for 2-3 days under room temperature without impairing quality. Roots
can be stored for about 2 months at 0oC and 90-95% RH.

11. TOMATO

96 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 Introduction:
❖ Botanical name: Solanum lycopersicum
❖ Common name: Poor man’s Orange, love of Apple and Wolf Apple
❖ Family: Solanaceae
❖ Origin: South America
❖ Chromosome no.: 2n=24
❖ Day Neutral crop and Self-Pollinated Crop
❖ Universally treated as Productive Food
❖ Tangerine: Pro-lycopene
➢ The normal tomato varieties TSS ranged to 4-6% (minimum TSS should be 4.5OB)
❖ Tomato acidity is due to citric acid.
❖ Type of fruit: Berry
❖ Type of Inflorescence: Cymose
❖ Stalking is the most important process in Tomato.
❖ Assessment of tomato fruit firmness by Durometer
❖ Tomato is a climacteric fruit.
Soil:
❖ It is moderately tolerant to acid soil having pH 5.5 and ideal pH requirement is 7-8.5
Temperature:
Optimum temperature 21-28oC during day
15-20oC during night.
Optimum temp. for color development 21-24oC
lycopene will be hampered above 27oC
Seed germination and pollen germination are adversely affected below 10oC
Fruit Set at ❖ 15-20oC

❖ Mature green fruit can be stored at ❖ 12.7-15.50C

Tomato pigments:
Red color Lycopene
Yellow color Carotenoids

Seed rate:
❖ In General: 400-500g/ha
❖ Hybrid seed rate: 100-150g/ha
Sowing Time:
❖ Hills- March to April
❖ Plains: June to November
❖ Total nursery area for tomato: 250m2
❖ The optimum relative humidity for green house tomatoes is 60-70%
Maturity indices:
❖ For distant market: Mature green stage
❖ For local market: Breaker stage/turning stage-1/4th portion changes to pink color.
❖ Pink stage: 3/4th of whole fruit turns pink

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 97

 ❖ Light red: Harvested for local market
❖ Red ripe: Harvested for processing and for seed extraction

Varieties of tomato:
Developed by IARI Developed by IIHR Other varieties

➢ Pusa Ruby (Sioux x Improved ➢ Arka vikas, Arka abha, Arka Hisar lalit, Hisar Anmol,
Meeruti), Pusa early dwarf, Pusa Abhijit, Arka Ashish, Arka Punjab Chhuhara (Proccesing
rohini, Pusa Sheetal (Winter Saurabh, Arka Meghali Purpose), Arka vardan, Arka
Season), Pusa sadabahar Shreshta, Arka samrat, Arka
Rakshak, Arka Ananya, Arka
Abhijit

Harvesting:
❖ Crop starts yielding after 70 days of planting.
Storage:
❖ Fruits can be stored for 2 weeks and 4 weeks at 10-13oC when harvested at red stage and green
stage respectively.

12. BRINJAL

Introduction:
❖ Botanical name: Solanum melongena
❖ Family: Solanaceae
❖ Origin: India
❖ Good Source of Vit. B
❖ Brinjal is also known as Eggplant or Baigan or Aubergine
❖ Day neutral plant
❖ Bitter taste in Brinjal is due to Solasodin.
❖ White brinjal is preferred for diabetic patients. (JRF-Horti 2019)
❖ Type of fruit is fleshy berry. (JNKVV RVSKVV Ph. D Vegetable Science 2022)
Soil:
❖ Ideal pH of crop is 5.5-6.6
Temperature:
❖ Most favorable temperature for brinjal production: 21-270C
❖ Optimum temperature of brinjal seed germination: 250C
Seed rate:
❖ In general: 200-300g/ha
❖ Hybrid seed rate: 150-200g/ha
❖ 1 gm seeds of brinjal contain about 250 seeds
Planting:

98 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 Season Time of sowing Time of transplanting
Kharif 2 week of June July-August
Rabi End of September October-November
Summer 2 week of January February

Varieties:
Developed by IARI Developed by IIHR Other varieties
Pusa purple long, Pusa purple Arka Shirish, Arka sheel, Pant samart, Pusa Anmol,
round, Pusa kranti, Pusa bhairav, Arka kesav Arka Navneet
Pusa uttam, Pusa Upkar, Pusa
bindu, Pusa Ankur, Pusa
shyamala

Yield:
❖ In common: 350-500 quintals per hectare
❖ Hybrid: 500-625 q/ha.
Storage:
❖ Fruits can be stored for 7-10 days in a fairly good condition at 7.2-10°C with 85-90% RH.
❖ It is better to store at 20°C than at 6°C and in perforated polythene bags than under open condition.

13. CHILI
Introduction:
❖ Botanical Name: Capsicum annum
❖ Family: Solanaceae
❖ Origin: Tropical America
❖ Commonly known as peppers
❖ Andhra Pradesh is Pioneer in chili Production.
❖ Transplanting after 45 DAS
❖ Chili flower drop is highest at >350C
❖ Major pigment in red fruit color: Capsanthin
❖ Pungency of chili is due to: Capsaicin (JNKVV & RKSKVV MSC ENTRANCE Exam 2022)
❖ Type of fruit: Berry
Soil:
❖ pH: 6.0-7.0
Seed rate:
❖ In Common: 1-1.5 kg/ha
❖ Seed Rate for C. Annum (Hybrid): 250 gm/ha
Planting time:
❖ Main planting season of chili: June-July
Varieties:
Pusa Jwala,
Pusa sadabahar, Punjab Lal Resistant to TMV, CMV and leaf curl virus
Bhagyalakshmi
Arka Suphal

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 99

 Arka lohit Dual purpose
Bhaskar
Konkan kirti
Jawahar 218 Tolerant to leaf curl and fruit rot
Musalwadi Tolerant to die back and powdery mildew)
Pant C1 Tolerany to mosaic and leaf curl virus
Puri Red Resistance to mosaic disease
Jwalamukhi Suitable For HDP

14. OKRA
Introduce:
❖ Botanical name: Abelmoschus esculents
❖ Family: Malvaceae
❖ Origin: Tropical Africa
❖ Warm season vegetable.
❖ Fruits rich source Calcium, Vitamin C
❖ Dried fruit contain 13-22% edible oil and 20-24% protein
❖ Oil content in okra seeds: 40%
❖ Type of Fruit: Capsule
❖ Fruits of 6-8 cm long are preferred for export purposes
Soil:
❖ Ideal pH is 6-6.8
Seed rate:
Normal 8.0 kg / ha
Hybrids 2.5 kg / ha
Rainy season 10-12 kg/ha

❖ Isolation distance for foundation seed: 400m and certified seed 200m
Varieties:
Arka Anamika Resistant to yellow vein mosaic
Arka Abhay Resistant to yellow vein mosaic virus (tolerant to fruit borer)
Hisar Unnat Resistant to yellow vein mosaic virus
Varsha uphar
Pusa Sawani Day Neutral & Spineless
Pusa Makhmali, Hisar Naveen, Azad Kranti, Harbhajan

15. POTATO
Introduction:
❖ Botanical name: Solanum tuberosum
❖ Family: Solanaceae

100 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

❖ Origin: Peru
❖ Chromosome no: 2n=48
❖ Potato introduced in India 17th century by Portuguese
❖ Solanin content 5mg/100 gm in potato and unfit when it is more than 20mg / 100 gm
❖ Potato tubers borne at stolen ends.
❖ Basically, a crop of temperate regions.
❖ Potato is a dicot plant.
❖ King of vegetables/Poor man’s friend
❖ Potato is self-pollinated crop.
❖ Vegetative propagated through tuber
❖ Generally earthing up done 40 DAP
❖ Aroma due to Di-methyl pyrazine
❖ Seed plot technique was given by Pushkarnath(1965)
❖ Seed plot technique was developed by CPCRI for multiplication of seed tubers free from viruses in
North Indian Plains.
❖ True potato seed (TPS) concept was given by Dr.S. Ramanujan
❖ TPS is botanical seed produced through sexual reproduction.
❖ International Potato Center (CIP) is located at Lima in Peru, Started in 1971.
❖ Central Potato Research Institute is located at Shimla, HP (1949)
Soil:
❖ They are well suited to acidic soils (pH 5.0 to 6.5)
Temperature:
❖ Optimum temperature require for tuberization in potato is 200C and not exceed than 23 oC at Night
because potato do not tuberise
Seed rate:
Large size- 25-30 q/ha Small size- 10-15 q/ha
Medium size- 15-20 q/ha Out tubers- 8-12 q/ha
TPS seed rate 100-120g/ha

Planting:
❖ Potato is planted in hills from the third week of February to second week of April.
Varieties:
New Variety Early variety Medium variety Late varieties
Kufri sadabahar, Kufri Kufri chandramukhi, Kufri bahar, Kufri Kufri sinduri,
himalini, Kufri girdhari, Kufri laukar, Kufri Sutlej, Kufri Anand,
Kufri himsona sheetman, Kufri Kufri lalima, Kufri
khyati, Kufri surya, Arun, Kufri badsah
Kufri Ashoka

Storage:

Warehouse potato stored at 8-10 ℃, 80% RH

cold storage at the temperatures 4 to 7 ℃.
Best cold storage temperature for seed potato 2-4 ℃
Best method storage for potato Cold storage

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 101

Potato dormancy:
❖ Potato tubers have a dormancy of nearly 8-10 weeks. Potato tuber dormancy was broken by soaking
tubers in 1% thiourea + 1 PPM GA3 @ 1 hour.

16. SWEET POTATO

Introduction:
❖ Botanical name: Ipomoea batatas
❖ Chromosome no.: 2n = 90
❖ Botany: Fruit is a capsule with false septa.
Soil:
❖ Sandy loam soils with clay sub soil are ideal for tuber production. In heavy soils, tuber size is
reduced.
❖ The ideal soil pH is below 5.2, liming is necessary.

Yield: 6-9 t/ha for rain fed crop and 12-15 t/ha under average management.
Storage:
❖ Red skinned varieties store better than white skinned varieties. Tubers are stored better at 15oC and
85% RH.
❖ Tubers can also be stored for 2-3 months in a pit covered with straw.

17. PEA
Introduction:
❖ Botanical Name: Pisum sativum
❖ Family: Fabaceae
❖ Chromosome no: 2n=14
❖ Centre of Origin: Ethiopia
❖ Inflorescence: Racemose
❖ The Shelling percentage ranges from 35-50.
Climate:
❖ Optimum temperature for seed germination is 22oC.
❖ Optimum monthly mean temperature for growth of plants is 10-18.3oC.
Soil:
❖ Crop prefers well drained, loose and friable loamy soil for early crop and clayey soil for high yield.
❖ The ideal pH is 6.0-7.5 and it grows under alkaline soil.
Season:
❖ In plains of North India, -beginning of October to middle of November.
❖ In the hills, pea is sown in March for summer crop and in May for autumn crop.
Sowing :
❖ Seeds are sown in flat or raised beds by broadcasting or by dribbling at 2.5-5.0 cm depth.
Seed rate:
❖ Normal 100-120 kg/ha.
❖ Late varieties are 80-90 kg/ha.
Varieties:

102 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 Arkel (Early Wrinkled Seeded) Suitable as fresh vegetable and for dehydration
NP 29 Developed at IARI, New Delhi and suitable for dehydration
purpose
Jawahar matar 1 Highly susceptible to powdery mildew
Jawahar matar 2
Jawahar matar 3
Pant uphar (IP3)
Jawahar matar 5 Resistant to powdery mildew
FC 1
FC 1, jawahar peas 83
JP 4

Harvesting:
❖ Toughness of seeds is determined using Tendrometer, especially for processing purposes. Peas with
low tendrometer reading are offered at a high price.
Yield:
Early variety 2.5 -4.0 t/ha
Mid-season variety 6-7.5 t/ha
Late variety 8-10 t/ha

Seed yield:
❖ Varies from 2.0 to 2.5 t/ha.
Storage:
❖ Fresh unshelled peas can be stored for two weeks at 10oC and 90-95% RH.

QUICK REVISION OF VEGETABLE CROPS

Crop pH Temperature
Cabbage 5.5-6.5 Storage temperature: - 0o C & 90-95% RH @ 2-8 weeks
Optimum Temp.: seed germination of cabbage: 22-26%
Minimum temp for germination: Just above 0o C.
Optimum range for growth & head form of cabbage : 15-21oC
Temp. above 25 o C for growth arrested in most of the cultivars.
Cauliflower 5.5-6.5 Optimum temp. for growth of young plants – 23 o C.
But in later stages: 17-20o C
Tropical cultivars show growth even at 35o C.
Storage temperature: 0o C & 90-95% RH, RH-2, 4 weeks
High temperature - > 25 o C to formation of yellow curd.
Cucumber 5.5-6.8 18-24o C → most favorable temperature.
13-18 ˚c – favoring anthesis and dehiscence
Muskmelon 6.0-7.0 Seed does not germinate at temperature lower than 18o C.
Optimum temperature for germination of seeds is 27-30 o c

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 103

Watermelon 6.5- 7.0 Fruit stored for 2-3 weeks at 10-15 oC & 90% RH.
❖ Plant growth – 28-30c
❖ Better fruiting – 24- 27oc

Bitter gourd 6.5 – Optimum for cultivation – 24-27o C

7.0 Temperature: > 40 oC induce female sterility.
Growth & flowering temperature: 25-30o C
Germination affected below 10o C.
Bottle gourd Optimum temperature for seed germination: 25-30o C.
Onion 5.8-6.5 Ideal temperature for vegetative growth: 12.8-21o C.
Bulb formation – Requires long days – High temperature –15.5--25 oC.
Onion bulb stored temperature: 0o C at 60-75 % RH.
Storage: 2-2.2 oC under cold storage.
Garlic 6-7
Carrot 6.5 For color development: 15.5 to 21o C
Carotene content decreases above 21 oC & below 15.5o C
Germination of seeds: 7.2 – 24 o C
Root growth & development: 18.-24 oC
Seed stalk formation: 12.2-21o C]
Fresh carrot roots can be stored for 3-4 days under ordinary conditions
& for 6 months at 0o C & 93-98 % RH
Radish Ideal temperature for growth & development of quality roots in
radish: 10-15.5 oC.
Can be stored for 2-3 days under room temperature.
Can be stored for 2 months at 0o C & 90-95%.
Turnip Roots development best flavor, texture & size at a temperature: 10-15oC.
Stored for 8-16 weeks @ 0o C with 90-95% RH
Tomato 7-8.5 Optimum temperature: Day-21-28o C, Night – 15-20 o C
Optimum temperature for color development: 21-24 oC
Development of lycopene, hampered at: 27 o C.
Seed germination & pollen germination adversely affected below 10 oC.
Mature green fruit can be stored at12.7 – 15.5 o C.
Brinjal 5.5 – Most favorable temperature for production: 21-27 o C.
6.6 Opt. temp. for seed germination: 25 oC.
Stored for 1-10 days @ 7.2-10o C- 85-90 % RH.
Better to store at 20 oC than @ 6 oC & in performed polythene bags than
in open condition.
Chilli 6.0-7.0 Chilli flower drop: high at > 35 oC.
Okra 6-6.8
Potato 5-6.5 Warehouse potato stored at 8-10 oC, 80% RH.

104 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 Stored in cold storage: 4-7 oC.
Best cold storage temperature for potato: 2-4 oC.
Potato tubers have dormancy of 8-10 weeks.
Sweet potato 5.2 Red skinned variety store better than white skinned variety. – Tubers are
stored better at 15 oC & 85% RH.
Tubers are also stored in pit covered with straw for 2-3 months.
Ridge gourd 25-27 oC
& smooth
gourd
Knol- khol 5.5-6.8 Average: 15-20 oC
Maximum: 24o C
Minimum: 4.5 o C
Pea 6-7.5 Optimum temperature for seed germination: 22 oC
Monthly mean temperature for growth: 10-18.3 oC
Unshelled peas can be stored for 2 weeks at 10 oC & 90-95% RH
French bean 5.5-6 Optimum: 15-25 oC.
Cowpea Warm season crop: Grows well between 21-35 oC
Beet root 6-7 Tubers store well at 0 oC & 90% RH.

Seed Rate:

Crop Seed Rate

Cabbage Early: 600-700 g/ha
Late: 375-400 g/ ha
Cauliflower Early: 500- 750 g/ ha
Mid & Late: 300- 500 g/ ha
Cucumber 2.5-4 kg/ ha
Muskmelon Normal: 2-3 kg/ ha
Dibbling: 1 kg/ ha
Watermelon 3-5 kg/ ha
Small seeded – 3-3.5 kg/ha
Large seeded – 5 kg/ha
Bittergourd 4.5- 6 kg/ ha
Bottle gourd 3-6 kg/ ha
Onion Rabi season - 10-12 kg
Kharif season - 12-15 kg
200 m2 area - 5-8 kg for 1 ha
Required bulbs - 1000-1200 kg/ha
Garlic 500 kg/ ha
Carrot 5-6 kg/ ha
Radish Large varieties: 10 kg/ ha
Temperate European: 12 Kg/ ha
Turnip 3-4 kg/ ha

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 105

Tomato Normal: 400-500 g/ ha
Hybrid: 100-150 g/ ha
Nursery area: 250 m2
Brinjal Normal: 200-300g/ha
Hybrid: 150-200 g/ ha
Chilli Normal: 1-1.5 kg/ha
C. annum (Hybrid): 250 g/ha
Okra Normal: 8 kg/ ha
Hybrid: 2.5 kg/ ha
Rainy season: 10-12 kg/ha
Potato TPS: 100-120 g/ha
Large Size: 25-30 q/ha
Medium: 15-20 q/ ha
Small: 10-15 q/ ha
Out tubers: 8-12 q/ ha
Ridge gourd 3.5- 5 kg/ha
Sponge gourd 2.5- 5 kg/ ha
Pea Normal: 100-120 kg/ha
Late: 80-90 kg/ ha
French bean Early variety: 80- 90 Kg/ha
Pole type: 25-30 kg/ha
Beet Root 5-6 kg/ha

DISEASE MANAGEMENT
Sr. Common Causal Scientific name Remarks
No. name organism
(A) POTATO
1 Late blight Fungus Phytopthora infestans Most serious disease of potato.
(AFO-2021) Immune variety : Kufri Jyoti,
Kufri Kuber - Resistant variety
2 Wart Fungus Synchytrium Confined to the Darjeeling hills
endobioticum of west bengal
3 Black scurf Fungus Rhizoctonia solani
4 Dry rot (wilt) Fungus Fusarium spp.
5 Bacterial wilt Bacteria Ralstonia solanacerum
6 Soft rot Bacteria Erwinia crotovera
7 Potato scab Bacteria Steptomyces spp. Alkaline- favourable
8 Leaf roll Virus - Transmitted by aphids
(B) TOMATO
1 Spotted wilt Virus - Transmitted by thrips
Most serious disease
Reduced by application of CCC
(500 ppm)

106 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

2 Leaf curl Virus - Transmitted by white fly
3 Mosaic Virus - Transmitted by contact and seed
(C) CHILLI
1 Little leaf Mycoplasma - Transmitted by leaf hoppers
2 Anthracnose Fungus Collectotrichum capsici
or dieback
3 Leaf curl Virus - Transmitted by thrips
4 Mosaic Virus - Transmitted by Aphids
1 Little leaf Mycoplasma - Transmitted by leaf hoppers
(D) BRINJAL
1 Bacterial Wilt Bacteria Psedomonas
solanacearum
2 Cercospora Fungal Cercospora solani
Leaf Spot melongenae
3 Alternaria leaf Fungal Alternaria melonganae
spot
4 Damping Off Fungal Pythium species,
Rhizoctonia solani
5 Tobacco Viral - Transmitted by aphid.
mosaic virus
(E) OKRA
1 Yellow vein Virus - Most serious disease transmitted
mosaic by white fly
(F) CUCURBITS
1 Powdery Fungus Erysiphe -
mildew cichoracearum
2 Downy Fungus Pseudoperanospora -
mildew cubensis
3 Witches Mycoplasma Transmitted by leaf Mostly occur in bitter gourd
broom hoppers
4 Green Mottle Virus Transmitted by seeds Mostly occurs in cucumber
mosaic and Aphids
5 Bud Necrosis Virus Transmitted by seeds Mostly occurs in water melos
and Aphids
(G) COLE CROPS
1 Black rot Bacteria Xanthomonas V-shape chlorosis on margin of
compestris pv leaves
compestris
2 Curd rot or Bacteria Erwinia crotovera Most destructive during storage
soft rot
3 Stalk rot Bacteria Sclerotonia scleratium -
4 White rust or Fungus Albugo candida Acidic soil – favourable
white blisters
5 Black leg or Fungus Fusarium spp. Transmitted by seeds
dryrot

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 107

(H) PEAS
1 Powdery Fungus Erysiphe polygoni -
mildew
2 Ascochyta Fungus Ascochyta pisi -
3 Wilt Fungus Fusarium oxysporum -
pv pisi
4 Rust Fungus Uromyces pisi -
(I) BEANS
1 Anthracnose Fungus Colletotrichum -
lindemuthianum
2 Web blight Fungus Rhizoctonia solani -
3 Angular leaf Bacteria Isariopsis griseola -
spot
4 Floury leaf Bacteria Ramularia phaseoli -
spot
5 Yellow flecks MLO’s Transmitted by white Cow pea
fly
6 Phyllody MLO’s Transmitted by leaf French bean
hoppers
(J) ONION and GARLIC
1 Purple Blotch Fungus Alternaria porii Most favourable temperature for
disease is 280-300 C
Resistant Variety Nasik Red,
Arka kalyan
2 Black mould Fungus Aspergillus niger Very common storage disease
3 Yellow dwarf MLO’s - -

PEST MANAGEMENT
Sr. Crop Common Name Scientific name Remark
No.
1 POTATO Tuber moth Pthorimea opercullela 30-70% damage in tuber
in storage
Cut worm Agrolis ipsilon -
Aphids Vector of potato virus -
Mite Hemitarsonemus lotus Major pest in Deccan
Plateau
Cyst Nematode or Globodera latus Kuffri Suvarna-
Golden Nematode Resistant variety
2 TOMATO Fruit borer Helicoverpa armigera -
White fly Bemisia tabacii Transmitted by leaf curl
virus
Serpentine leaf miner Liriomyza trifoli -
3 RADDISH Mustard saw fly Athalia lugens -

108 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 Painted bug Bagrada cruciferum -
4 OKRA Shoot and fruit borer Earias vittela -
Leaf hoppers Amarasca bigultula Most serious pest of okra
Bister Beetle Mylabris pustulata -
Stem and bulb Ditylen-chus dipsaci -
Nematode
5 GARLIC & Thrips Thrips tabacii -
ONION Mite Aceria tulipae -
Onion fly Delia antiqua -
Bulb nematode - -

6 FRENCH Stem fly Ophiomyia phaseoli 80-90% mortality of

BEANS & plant
COWPEA
7 CUCURBITS Red pumpkin Beetle Aulacophora -
foveicollis
Fruit fly Bactocera cucurbitae Arka Suryamukhi-
Resistant variety
Thrips Thrips tabaci -
8 CHILLI Thrips Scirtothripsm dorsalis Transmits leaf curl of
chilli
9 COLECROPS Diammond Black Plutella xylostella Most damaging pest
moth
Stem borer Hellula undalis -
10 BRINJAL Fruit and shoot borer Leucinodes orbanalis Toelrant variety- Punjab
barsati
Stem borer Euzophera perticella -
Ash weevil Myllocerous Saw like damage in the
subfaseiatus margin of leaves
Epilachna (Hadda) E. vigintictopunctata -
beetle
11 LEAF Leaf eating Hymenia recurvalis -
VEGETABLE caterpillar
S
12 TOMATO & Root knot Nemtode Melido gyne spp. Tomato Resistant
BRINJAL variety: Hissar lalit, Arka
vardan, maangla
sekection-120
Brinjal Resistant Variety:
Black beauty Mangrigota
13 SWEET Sweet potato weevil Cylas formicarius Monophagous pest
POTATO
14 BLACK Pollubeetle Longitarsus nigripenis 40% damage in Black
PEPPER pepper

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 109

15 CARDAMON Aphids Pentalomia Transmit vector of katte
nigronervroa disease
Shoot capsule borer Dichocracis puntiferalis -
16 TURMERIC Rhizome- Fly Mimegralla Cause Rhizome rot of
& GINGER coeruleferons Ginger

PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERS
Sr. Crop Name of Disorder Cause
No.
1 POTATO Internal Brown spot Moisture deficiency
Greening Excessive exposure to sunrays
Black Heart Poor ventilation/ Oxygen deficiency (AFO-
2017)
Hollow Heart Excessive nitrogen
Chilling injury Low temperature
Freezing injury Low temperature
2 TOMATO Cracking Boron deficiency
Blotchy ripening Potassium deficiency
Puffiness or pocket Low or high temperature + lack of fertilization
+ poor pollination
Blossom end rot Calcium deficiency + high temperature +
(BHU 2021, BAU irregular moisture supply
2022, AFO-2021)
Sun scald Excessive exposure to sunrays (above 40oc)
Cat face Abnormal growing conditions
Golden flake Excessive of co-oxalate/ low K:Ca ratio
Radical cracking -
3 CAULIFLOWER Ricyness Fluctuation in temperature, High humidity,
excess Nitrogen
Fuzziness Cultivation in abnormal time
Blindness Frost
Leafyness High temperature
Buttoning Nitrogen deficiency, sowing early variety in
late season. (OPSC AAO 2022)
Hollow stem Excessive nitrogen and Boron deficiency
Whiptail Molybdenum deficiency
Chlorosis Magnesium deficiency
Browning or brown rot Boron deficiency
or Red rot
4 CARROT Splitting Boron deficiency, Excessive nitrogen, Change
in soil moisture

110 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 Cavity spot Calcium deficiency, excessive Nitrogen,
change in soil moisture
Bitterness Excessive ethylene
Forking Hard soil pan
Pithiness -
5 BEET ROOT Brown Heart or crown Boron deficiency
RADDISH heart or heart rot
6 WATERMELON Blossom end rot High temperature + irregular water supply +
calcium deficiency
7 COLOCASIA Metsurbe Calcium deficiency
8 SWEET POTATO Growth crack Moisture imbalance
9 CELERY Black heart Calcium deficiency
Cracked stem Boron deficiency
Pencil strip Excess of phosphorus
10 FENCH BEAN Blossom drop High temperature
Hypocotyl cracking Calcium deficiency
(necrosis)
11 GARLIC Bulb sprouting Excess nitrogen + soil moisture
Splitting Delays harvesting
12 LETTUCE Tip burn Ca deficiency + Unfavorable climate
Rossette spotting Ethylene injury
13 CHILLI Blossom end rot Excess Nitrogen + water stress
Frog eye rot -
14 RADDISH Akashin Boron deficiency
15 CUCUMBER Pillow Calcium deficiency

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 111

FLORICULTURE
History and development of gardening in India:
❖ During the 16th Century when British came to India, they introduced the styles of gardening of
England and continental Europe.
❖ Hindu, Buddhist, and Japanese garden are non-formal.
❖ 1st centre of excellence for cut flower under Indo-Israel agriculture project is in Tamil Nadu
state.

SOME IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGY

❖ Hedges: Shrub is planted on boundary for fencing and is used for ornamental and protective purpose.
E.g.: Karonda, Mehndi, Hibiscus and lantana.
❖ Edges(20-30cm): Low growing perennial plants are grown on the border of plots or beds e.g.: Irisine,
Alternanthera
❖ Topiary: Art of training plants into different shapes like birds, animal, domes and umbrellas.
❖ Trophy: Arrangement of potted colourful foliage/Flowering, Shrubs/Flowering,
Annuals/herbaceous perennial around a tree or any central object.
❖ Herbaceous border: Planting of herbs in the border of plots.
❖ Carpet bedding: Covering on area of bed or series of beds with dense low growing herbaceous plants
e.g.: Alternanthera, Coleus, Portulaca
❖ Floral carpet: Art depicting a carpet design in the ground with help of floral materials.
❖ Formal garden: Symmetrical pattern e.g.: Persian garden, Mughal garden,
❖ Informal garden: A Symmetrical pattern e.g.: Japanese garden
❖ Free style garden: Rose Garden of Ludhiana

CLASSIFICATION OF ORNAMENTAL PLANTS

Based on life span:
❖ Annuals: Plants, which complete their life cycle — from seed germination to seed production in one
growing season, are called ‘annuals’. They are mostly grown through seeds for example China aster,
coreopsis, gomphrena, marigold, petunia, tithonia, verbena, zinnia, etc.
❖ Biennials: These are plants that complete their seed-to-seed life cycle in two seasons or years. such
as Amaranthus, celosia, hollyhock, pansy, snapdragon, etc. These require replanting.
❖ Perennials: These are plants having a life cycle that is more than two years. Perennials are usually,
categorised into two groups
➢ Woody perennials: These comprise most of the trees, shrubs and vines, which have woody stems
and branches, such as Cassia siamea, C. fistula, Peltophorum, Cassia biflora, Lawsonia alba,
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, Petrea volubilis, Quisquallis indica, Vernonia eleagniaefolia, etc.
➢ Herbaceous perennials: These include plants with soft and herbaceous (non-woody) main stalk,
such as anthurium, bird of paradise, geranium, gerbera, heliconia, pelargonium, periwinkle,
portulaca, perennial balsam, sweet violet, viola, etc.
Based on season of growth:
❖ Winter season annuals: Winter season annuals are hardy. The seeds of annuals are sown in
September-October and the seedlings are transplanted during October-November. Examples are
candytuft, antirrhinum, larkspur, nasturtium, pansy, petunia, phlox, sweet sultan, verbena, etc.

112 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

❖ Summer season annuals: These annuals are grown during the summer season The seeds are sown in
February−end or the beginning of March, and the seedlings are transplanted in the end of March or
April. Examples are cosmos, gaillardia, gomphrena, kochia, portulaca, sunflower, tithonia, zinnia, etc.
❖ Rainy season annuals: These are grown in the rainy season The seeds are sown in June and the
seedlings are transplanted in July. Examples are Amaranthus, balsam, celosia, cock’s comb, gaillardia,
etc.
Based on market value:
❖ Loose flowers: Loose flowers are harvested without stalk. Examples are barleria, bedding dahlia,
Calotropis, chrysanthemum (spray type), Chandni, crossandra, eranthemum, gaillardia, jasmine,
Kamini, kaner (yellow and red), lotus, marigold, rose (fragrant desi type), shoe flower (hibiscus),
sunflower, tuberose, water lily, Crossandra, Tuberose, Hibiscus. etc.
❖ Cut flowers: Cut flowers are fresh flowers, flower buds or spikes harvested along with their stalks
attached to the flowers, Examples of cut flowers are alpinia, anthurium, antirrhinum, bird of paradise,
carnation, freesia, gerbera, gladiolus, gypsophila, heliconia, iris (bulbous), lupins, narcissi, orchid,
rose (improved varieties), scabiosa, statice, tuberose, watsonia, etc. They are mostly used for bouquets
and for vase arrangements.
Based on plant type:
Herbaceous Lilium, verbena, viola, etc.
Shrubs Bougainvillea, jasmine, lawsonia, hamelia, nyctanthes, rose, tecoma,
etc.
Trees Gulmohar, palash, amaltas, kadamb, pride of India, etc.
Climbers and creepers Adenocalymma, antigonon, Rangoon creeper, madhulata, petrea,
thunbergia, etc

Based on mode of propagation:

Bulbous plants Lily, narcissus, tuberose, tulip, etc.
Cormous plants Crocus, gladiolus, tritonia, watsonia, etc.
Rhizomatous plants Canna, hedychium, iris, lotus, etc.
Tuberous plants Begonia, dahlia (root tuber), etc.

Based on flower colours:

White flowering Antirrhinum. Alyssum, Dianthus, China aster, Zinnia,
Chrysanthemum, Gladiolus, Gerbera, etc.
Purple, Lavender or Blue Daisy, Rose, Carnation, Dahlia, Ageratum, China aster, Clitoria,
Delphinium, Petunia, Viola, Verbena, Tithonia, Torenia, Daisy, etc.
Yellow or orange Antirrhinum, Marigold Calendula, Zinnia, Gaillardia, Rose,
Gladiolus, Carnation, etc.
Red, pink Antirrhinum, Rose, Gladiolus, Carnation, Gerbera, Dahlia, etc.

Based on purpose of Growing:

Rockery Ageratum, Alyssum, Brachycome, Phlox, Portulaca, Linum, Nemesia,
Saponaria, Godetia, Euphorbia, etc.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 113

 Hanging basket Dwarf Ageratum, Petunia, Portulaca, Verbena, Torenia, Begonia.
Edging of beds or Dwarf Ageratum, Alyssum, Brachycome, Dianthus, Nigella, Portulaca, etc.
path
Fragrant flowers Sweet Alyssum, Sweet Sultan, Sweet pea, Stock, Phlox, Carnation, Rose,
Jasmine, Tuberose, etc.
Bedding purpose Dahlia, Marigold, Phlox, Verbena, Carnation, Petunia, Ice Plant, Candy
Tuft, Balsam, Portulaca, etc.
Aromatic Rose, Jasmine, Tuberose
For pots Carnation, Chrysanthemum, Dahlia, Rose, Antirrhinum, Petunia,
Aglaonema, Alocasia, Anthurium, Orchids, Aralia, Begonia,
Chlorophytum, Dracaena, etc.
For loose flowers Marigold, Jasmine, Crossandra, Berlaria, Chrysanthemums, China Asters,
Sunflowers, Zinnia, Gaillardia, Rose, Dahlia, etc.
For Dry flowers Statice, Helichrysum, Acroclinum, Gomphrena, Limonium, Marigold,
Rose, Lady’s Lace, Nigella, etc.
For Hedge purpose Lawsonia, Duranta, Tecoma, Bougainvillea, Thevetia, Hibiscus, Murraya,
Dodonea, Acalypha, Aralia, Ipatorium, Chlorodendron spp, etc.
Cut flowers/modern Rose, Chrysanthemum, Carnation, Gerbera, Anthurium, Orchids,
flowers Gladiolus, Tuberose, etc.

Based on Photoperiodic requirement:

Short day plants Salvia, Poinsettia, Primerose
Long day plants Aster, Calendula, Gardenia, Delphinium, Stock
Day neutral Plants Carnation, Hibiscus

Based on ability to grow:

a. Climber: Plants capable to grow over a support. These plants possess tendrils, rootless, thorns as
climbing structure. For example, Antigonan, Ficus repens, Wild rose, etc.
b. Twiner: Plants devoid of climbing structure, but still able to climb over the support. For example,
Asparagus, Madhu lata (Hiptage benghalensis), etc.
c. Rambler: Plants unable to climb, but somehow manage to support themselves over the stem or
branches. For example, Rangoon-ki-Bel (Quisqualis indica).
d. Creeper: Plants unable to climb vertically but grow horizontally over the ground surface. For
example, Potato vine (Dolanum jasminoides).

MUGHAL GARDEN (FORMAL GARDEN)

❖ Introduction of Mughal garden to India: Baber
❖ Famous garden style of India is Mughal garden: Replica of the ancient Persian garden.
❖ Running water is the life of Mughal garden.
❖ Baradari is a canopied structure with 12 doors, specific feature of Mughal Garden.
❖ Chabutras or stone platforms, High protecting wall, Terminal building, Entrance gate, Terraces and
Baradari are important features of Mughal garden
❖ Garden shape: rectangular or square style

114 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

MUGHAL GARDEN IN INDIA
Name of Garden Place
Pinjore garden or Yadavindra garden Pinjore (Haryana)
Taj Mahal Agra, Uttar Pradesh (UP)
Ram Bagh Agra (UP)
Mehtab Bagh Agra (UP)
Khusro Bagh Allahabad (UP)
Roshanara Garden New Delhi
Humayun's tomb Nizamuddin, New Delhi
Rashtrapati Bhavan (President House) New Delhi
Safdarjung's Tomb New Delhi
Shalimar Bagh Srinagar (Jammu and Kashmir)
Nishat Gardens Srinagar (Jammu and Kashmir)

JAPANESE GARDENS:
❖ Also known as 'Nature in miniature’
❖ Famous in the world for their unique style, natural, spiritual beauty and calmness
❖ Japanese natural landscape elements of the country: Mountains, Islands, Rivers, Lakes, Streams,
Bridges
❖ Prominent features of Japanese gardens: Water, stones and evergreen plants
❖ Type of Japanese gardens: Hill garden, Tea garden and Flat garden
❖ Example of Japanese Garden: Ryoanji garden, Budha jyanti park,

ENGLISH GARDEN:
❖ Formation of formalism and naturalism
❖ Amongst all European gardens most beautiful garden is English garden.
❖ Main feature of English gardens: Lawn, Herbaceous Garden, Rockery
❖ Rockery: An idea of a mountain or alpine garden with plants growing in the crevices of rocks.
Name of English Gardens:
Royal Botanical Garden (Kew, England) 1757
Royal Horticultural Society (RHS) 1804
Indian Horticultural Society (IHS) 1942
Royal Agri-Horticultural Society garden (Kolkata) 1820

BONSAI: ORIGIN: CHINA

❖ Bonsai is the ancient Japanese craft of dwarfing trees
❖ Japanese art of growing miniature tree and shrubs in containers.
❖ Optimum size of bonsai: 30 to 60 cm
❖ Wiring needs to bonsai to get different shape
❖ Root pruning and repotting is a necessary practice in bonsai culture.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 115

GARDENS IN INDIA:
Bryant Park Kodaikanal, Tamil Nadu
Botanical Garden Ooty, Tamil Nadu
Sim's Park ❖ Conoor, Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu
Lal Bagh garden(King Hyder Ali established) ❖ Bangalore, Karnataka
Brindavan Gardens ❖ Krishnarajasagara dam, Mysore, Karnataka
(Bigest formal garden )
Baradari garden ❖ Patiala, Punjab
Rose Garden ❖ Chandigarh and Ludhiana, Punjab

Flower arrangement:
❖ Term flower' in flower arrangement includes fresh flowers, foliage, dried twig and fruits (dry and
fresh)
❖ Veni: A special kind of flower arrangement is widely used in South India to decorate to decorate the
long plait of hair (Veni) at the time of Bharat Natyam or during marriage ceremonies
❖ 2 styles of flower arrangement: Occidental and Oriental style
❖ Occidental or western or British style: Massing of flowers
❖ Oriental or Eastern Style: Line arrangement with foliage and flowers
❖ Japanese style flower arrangement is called as "Ikebana
❖ 3 basic lines in Japanese flower arrangement: Earth (Hikae), Man (Soe), Heaven (Shin)

FLOWER CROPS

1. Rose
Introduction:
❖ Botanical name: Rosa spp.
❖ Family: Rosaceae
❖ Origin: India
❖ It’s also called symbol of beauty.
❖ National flower of England (JRF-2019), Iran, UK
❖ Type of fruit: Hips (AFO-2021)
❖ Rose seed: Acenes
❖ Rose colour: Anthocyanin pigments.
❖ Gulkand is prepared by mixing petal and sugar in 1:1 ratio.
Soil pH, Climate and Temperature:
❖ pH of 6.0 and 7.5.
❖ Night temperature between 15 to 18°C and day temperature of 20 to 25°C.
Spacing:
❖ Hybrid Teas and Floribundas: 75 cm apart.
❖ For cut flower production, ideal spacing of 60 x 30 cm is recommended.
❖ Miniatures: 30 cm
❖ Polyanthas: 45 cm

116 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 ❖ Normally roses are planted at 60 x 60 cm spacing.
Seasons in Rose:
❖ In Northern plains: Best time for planting – Sep- oct.
❖ It can be planted up to Feb.
❖ Karnataka and Maharashtra: Planting time is Oct to Dec and late May to June.
❖ Season for raising cutting: June to November.
❖ Pruning: Exactly 45 days prior to the date of requirement of flowers during October-December.
❖ Best time for Budding: November to February.
Propagation:
❖ Growth regulators: IBA/NAA improving rooting
❖ Best rooting media for rose: Sand.
❖ Stem cutting: Easiest and least expensive method
❖ ‘T’ budding is the most popular and successful method.
❖ Best budding time in eastern India: Jan-March
❖ N India: December-February
Rootstocks:
❖ Rosa Multiflora most commonly used rootstock of western India.
❖ Rosa indica var adorata: most commonly used rootstock in North India.
❖ Rosa bourboniana (Edourad rose): Popular in northern plains of India.
❖ R. indica var odorata: Tolerant to powdery mildew & other insects. Resistance to extreme soil
conditions.
❖ R multiflora Var. inermis: Good for outdoor roses. Resistant to nematodes.
Special practices:

Wintering Pinching Disbudding Deshooting

Defoliation Bending Bud capping

❖ Wintering (Root pruning): practice is followed for early flowering in Pune region of Maharashtra.
After root pruning it takes 45 days to flower.
❖ Pinching: Removal of terminal growing portions and is mainly done to reduce the plant height and
encourage lateral branching.
❖ Disbudding: Undesirable bud is removed keeping only the central bud intact.
❖ Deshooting: Mainly done in Hybrid and increase the yield to 50-75%.
❖ Defoliation: is the removal of leaves during pinching manually/using chemicals for improves the
flower production.
❖ Bending: is done in 3 months old plants, to induce the new sprouts (Balance between source and
sink)
❖ Bud capping: Bud caps are placed on the flower bud at pea size. Increase the bud size and shape.
❖ Trimming: Removal of undesired plant part, general practice done in rose and marigold

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 117

❖ Pulsing: treating the flower with high conc. of sucrose and germicide for short period of time in order
to improve self-life and promote flower opening. Treating of cut flowers with 2-4% sucrose solution
for 3-4 hours.
Varieties:
❖ Developed by IARI varieties: Pusa shatabdi, Pusa Ajay, Pusa Mohit (Thornless variety), Pusa Arun,
Pusa ranjana, Pusa Abhishek
❖ Hybrid: Pusa bahadur, Pusa mahak, Pusa garima,
Harvesting:
❖ The rose flowers are cut while still in the bud stage after the sepals curl back and the colour is fully
showing.
❖ Flowering starts from 1st year onwards.
❖ Economic yield 2nd to 10th year.

2. MARIGOLD
Introduction:
❖ Botanical name: African marigold: Tagetus erecta, 2n=24
❖ French marigold: Tagetus patula, 2n=48
❖ Family: Asteraceae
❖ Origin: Mexico
❖ African marigold is also known as Rose of India
❖ French marigold is dwarf in nature and profuse flowering.
❖ Essential oil content of fresh matured flower: 1.25%
❖ Marigold is cross pollinated crop.
pH and Temperature:
❖ 7.0 – 7.5
❖ Optimum temperature for seed germination: 18-30 degree Celsius.
❖ Mild climate during growing period (14.5°-28.6°C) greatly improves flowering while higher
temperature (26.2°-36.4°C) adversely affects flower production.
Propagation: Marigold is mainly propagated by seeds.
Seed Rate: 1kg/ha
Transplanting: Mid July, mid-October and February-March are suitable time for transplanting.
Spacing:
Tagetes erecta 40 × 30 cm
T. patula 20 × 20 cm

❖ Pinching is done 40 days after transplanting.

Seasons:
Flowering season Sowing Time Transplanting time
Late rains Mid-June Mid July
Winter Mid-September Mid October
Summer January-February February-March

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Seed Rate and Yield:
❖ Seed rate: 1-1.5 kg/ha
❖ Harvesting: Marigold flowers are plucked when they have attained full size.
Yield:
Particular Flower number Flower Weight
African 1.5 to 2.5 million/ha 11-18 t/ha
French 6 to 8 million/ha 8-12 t/ha

3. CHRYSANTHEMUM / GULDAUDI
Introduction:
❖ Botanical name: Chrysanthemum cineraraefolim/ Dendranthema grandiflora
❖ Family: Asteraceae
❖ Origin: Europe & Asia / China
❖ Also known as Glory of east/Queen of the east/National flower of Japan
❖ Cut flower Chrysanthemum produce one flower per stem.
❖ Inflorescence: capitulum.
❖ It is a short-day plant.
❖ Pollination: Cross Pollinated
❖ C. cineraraefolim in the temperate regions for making an insecticide called ‘Pyrethrum’.
Soil pH and RH:
❖ Soil pH is 6.5- 7.0
❖ Optimum RH is 70-90% for its growth.
Temperature:
Based on the temperature requirements are classified into 3 groups:
1. Thermozero cultivars: Varieties, which flower at any temperature between 10-27°C, but most
constantly 16°C night temperature.
2. Thermopositive cultivars: A minimum of 16°C required for initiation and at 27° C there will be
rapid initiation but delayed flowering.
3. Thermonegative cultivars: Bud initiation occur at low or high temperature between 10°C and 27°C
but continuous high temperature delay bud development.
Propagation:
❖ In India small- flowered varieties are mostly propagated by Suckers or Stolons.
❖ Commercially method of propagation: Suckers and terminal cutting
Spacing:
❖ Rooted cuttings are planted at a spacing of 30 ×30 cm in month of July.
Flowering time:
❖ South India: July to January
❖ North India: November to January
Varieties:
Garland purpose Cut Spray
Baggi, Basanti, Shanti, Indira, Rakhi, Red Gold, Apsara, Birbal Sahani, Jayanti, Jubilee,
Birbal Sahani, Meera and Jaya Kundan, Purnima, Nanko

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❖ Most critical technique in formation of a cascade: Pinching
❖ Pinching is one of the most important operations in chrysanthemum.
❖ Main purpose to reduce the plant height and promote axillary branches.
❖ Pinching done at 14-21 DAS or 8-10cm tall plants. Pusa guldasta – open pollinated, do not require
pinching
Harvesting:
The flowers are harvested 3 months from the date of planting at an interval of 4 days.
Types of Period of Harvest
Chrysanthemums
Standard variety When 40-50% of the bloom is fully open.
Dwarf variety When 80-85% of the blooms has opened.
Spray variety When 40-50% of the bloom has opened.
Single When the maximum number of flowers open, but before the
pollen shed from the outer row of the disc florets.
Anemone Before the central cushion in the topmost flowering fully
developed.

Yield: The average yield of loose flowers varies widely from 8-15 tonnes/ ha.
Storage: Chrysanthemum can be stored for 3-6 weeks period at 0-3°C. For increasing the vase life of
cut flowers, preservative solution for containing sucrose (1.5 %) and 8 HQC (200 ppm) is
recommended.

4. GLADIOLUS
Introduction:
❖ Botanical name: Gladiolus grandifloras
❖ Family: Iridaceae
❖ Origin: Africa
❖ pH should be slightly acidic in the range of 5.5-6.5.
❖ Optimum temperature for growth 10-25 ℃ (Night temperature should not be above 16oC). Tolerate
temperature up to 40oC
❖ Planting time: Sept.-December
❖ Commercial propagation: Corms and tissue culture
❖ Corms size: 4-5 diameter
Varieties:

Developed by IARI Pusa unnati, Pusa Srijana, Pusa shubham, Pusa sweta, Pusa kiran, Pusa
swarinma
Developed by NBRI Archna, Arun, Hans, Indrani, Kalima, Kohra, Manohar, Manisha, Mohini,
Mukra
Developed by IIHR Arka amar, Arka gold, Arka Naveen, Apsara, Nazrana, Shobha, Sindu
New varieties Arka Aayush, Arka Manorama
Other Varieties American beauty, Friendship, Oscar

120 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

Harvesting: The spikes would be ready for harvest from 60-120 days after planting depending upon the
variety
Harvesting stage: The spikes should be harvested at tight bud stage, with one to five florets showing
colour and at least four leaves on the plant for development of corms and cormels.
Planting of corm is done in the month of September; the harvesting of spikes will begin from
November/December and continues up to January/February.
Yield:
Spike yield 80000 spikes/ acre
Cormel Yield 1.5 - 2.5 quintals/ acre

5. DAHLIA
Introduction:
❖ Botanical name: Dahlia variabilis
❖ Family: Asteraceae
❖ Origin: Mexico
Propagation:
❖ Commercial propagation: Terminal cutting
❖ Dahlia is propagated by seeds, tuberous roots, and cuttings
Planting time:
❖ North India: September to December
❖ South India: May-June
Variety:
❖ Decorative varieties: Bappaditya, Glory of India, Prantis, Nirmal Chandra,
❖ Natural mutant cultivar: Junita

6. ORCHIDS
Introduction:
❖ Botanical name: Vary according to variety
❖ Family: Orchidaceae
❖ Origin: India
❖ NRC for Orchids located at Pakyong, Sikkim
❖ Most of the orchids are day neutral.
❖ Modified tapel of orchids is known as lip or labium
❖ Pollen in orchids is generally waxy masses known as pollinia (2-8)
❖ Type of Inflorescence: Simple Raceme or Spike
❖ Type of Fruit: Capsule
❖ No. Seeds range per capsule: 50000 to 60000.
❖ Pollination: Insects
❖ Main characteristic of the orchids is the layer of spongy tissue known as Velamen around the root.
❖ Velamen common feature of Epiphytic orchids
Propagation:
Monopodial Orchids: Vanda and Arachnis Top cuttings. Layering is successful.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 121

 Commercial cultivation Tissue culture
Sympodial orchids: Dendrobium, Cattleya, and Divisions.
cymbidium
Dendrobium Keikis (Keikis are Shoots growing on
plants)

Classification of orchids:
❖ Epiphytes: Orchids, which grow on trees, are known as epiphytes. These are in Tropical zone. Eg.
Dendrobium, Vanda, Bulbophyllum
❖ Terrestrial: Those that grow on the ground are referred to as terrestrial. These are in temperate zone.
Eg. Rhizomatous orchids are Habenaria, Eulophia
❖ Lithophytes: Those that grow on rocks are known as lithophytes. Eg. Cymbidium
❖ Saprophytes: Some relatively less known ones growing on decaying matter or rotting logs are known
as saprophytes.

Growth habits of orchids:

❖ Monopodial: This type has a single non branching stem, which grows upwards, e.g., Vanda and
Arachais.
❖ Sympodial: This type has a rhizome, which grows horizontally producing new growth. E.g.,
Dendrobium, Cattleya, Oncidium, Cymbidium.
❖ Pseudomonopodials: An orchid plant grows simultaneously in the apical direction season after
season as well as in the horizontal direction.
Harvesting: The spikes of orchids are harvested when a few buds on the top remain unopen.
Storage: A storage temperature below 7oC causes chilling injury to the flowers.
Vase life: Use of 8-HQC (100-200 ppm) with sucrose (3-5%) and boric acid (0.1%) improves the vase
life.

7. JASMINE
Introduction:
❖ Scientific name: Jasminum spp.
❖ Hindi name: Juhi, Chameli, Mogra, Champa Bela etc.
❖ Family: Oleaceae
❖ Introduced in the mid sixteenth century.
❖ Pollination: Cross pollinated
❖ The fruit is a berry and black in colour.
❖ They also contain yellow pigments and hence are used as substitute for saffron.
Some important jasmine is:
❖ J. sambac: It is commonly Arabian Jasmine. It is native of the East Indies. It is sensitive to frost.
❖ J. grandiflorum- It is known as Royal or Spanish Jasmine. Subtropical Himalayan Region. The
world-famous jasmine oil is extracted from the flowers of Spanish jasmine. It is sensitive to frost.
❖ J. multiflorum- This is one of the resistant Jasmine, not scented and very ornamental. India, China,
Myanmar, Malaysia, U.S.A
❖ Temperature: The ideal conditions for their successful cultivation are warm summer and mild
winter. Temperature of 7-13º C

122 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

Propagation:
❖ Commonly used method is by cutting and layering.
❖ Easy means of vegetative propagation is by stem cuttings.
❖ Ground layering method is the most successful method of layering.
Harvesting:
❖ Jasmine gives economic yield only from the third year and up to 12-15 years and then the yield starts
declining.
Stage of harvest:
❖ For fresh flowers, fully developed unopened flower buds.
❖ Extraction of concrete only fully opened fresh picked flowers are required.

8. CARNATION
Introduction:
❖ Botanical name: Dianthus caryophyllus.
❖ It is a long day plant.
❖ Ooty and mid hills of Himachal Pradesh are ideal for round the year cultivation of carnation.
Temperature and RH:
❖ The locations having day temperature 25oC and night temperature 10oC are good for high quality
carnations.
❖ The optimum temperature for standard carnation is 18-23oC.
❖ The RH inside the greenhouse should be 50-60 %.
Soil and pH:
❖ A rich sandy loam or loam soil is ideal for its successful cultivation.
❖ pH of 6-7 is ideal.
Varieties:
❖ Standard type: These have single large flower on an individual stem used as cut flower.
❖ Spray type: Spray carnation is generally a bunch of flowers on short branches of a single stalk. The
flowers are small and compact on each branch.
Locations Standards Spray
Solan (H.P) Espana, Red Corso, Light Pink, Sam’s Pride, White Lilia and
Candy, Cabaret, Isac, Scania cherry Bag
Ludhiana (Punjab) Espana, Manon, Sam’s Pride and Scarlet Elegance
Pune (Maharashtra) Fambia, Scania and Arthur sim
New Delhi Candy, Espana, Red Corso and
William sim

Propagation:
Carnation (D. caryophyllus) for cutflower is multiplied through stem cuttings

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 123

❖ There are annual carnations that are multiplied by seeds. These annual carnations are suitable as
potted ornamental plants.
❖ Carnations can be propagated round the year providing temperature inside the polyhouse around 20oC
with 75-80% RH.
Planting:
❖ Approximately 150-180 days are required from planting to flower under open conditions.
❖ Under Protected conditions, its flower can be obtained within 120-150 days depending up on the
season.
Area Planting Flowering
N Plains Mid Sept- Nov Feb- April
Hilly Areas Oct- Feb Mid-April to Mid-July
Snowfall areas March- April August to October

Pinching: It is done 30-35 days after planting.

Three types of Pinching:
❖ Single pinching: Single pinching is done to obtain early crop.
❖ Pinch and a half: This system reduces the amount of first crop and provides steady production of
flowers without any peak time.
❖ Double pinch: This is generally done for late harvesting or delaying the flower period.
❖ Note: Generally, single pinch and pinch and a half method produce excellent quality flowers. Double
pinching delays the flowering and produces weak shoots.
Harvest and Yield:
❖ Longevity of flowers can be increased 2-3 times with various post-harvest treatments.
Harvesting stage:
❖ The bud size and petal growth are generally used to judge the stage of harvesting.
❖ The flowers of standard carnation are cut when outer petals have unfolded nearly perpendicular to
stem or at paint brush stage.
❖ Spray carnations are cut, when 2-3 upper flowers in the inflorescence are open and remaining buds
are showing colour.
Yield:
Open crop 150-200 flowers/m2
Greenhouse crop 300-400 flowers/m2
In Ratoon crop An additional 50 % yield can be obtained in
ratoon crop.

Conditioning of flowers: The flowers after harvesting and grading should be pulsed with 10% sucrose
+ 1mm STS (silver thio sulfate) for 8-10 hr before transportation to increase storability and vase life of
cut carnation.
Storage:

124 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

❖ After pulsing, the flowers should be stored at 2oC- 4oC temperature and 95% RH in water with a
nutritive solution.
Disorder:
❖ Calyx splitting: It is the major disorder in carnation. As the flower bud opens and petals approach
their full size, the calyx may split down either half or completely. It occurs due to low temperature
(<10oC)

SUMMARY OF FLOWER CROPS

Family:
Crop Flower
Mariglod, Chrysenthemum and Dhalia Asteraceae
Orchid Orchidaceae
Jasmine Olaceae
Gladiolus Iridaceae
Rose Rosaceae

Inflorescence:
Crop Inflorescence
Orchids Raceme/Spike
Chrysenthemum Capitulum

Type of Fruit:

Crop Type of fruit

Orchid Capsule
Rose Hip
Jasmine Berry

Propagation
Crop Propagation
Marigold Seed
Chrysenthemum Sucker and terminal cutting
Rose T budding
Gladiolous Corm/ Tissue culture
Dhalia Terminal cutting/ seeds/ tuberous roots

Temperature of flower crops

Crop Temperature
Jasmine 7-13 oC
Gladiolus 16-30 oC (Optimum growth)
Rose Night- 15-18oC
Day- 20-25oC
Marigold 18-30oC (Seed germination)

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 125

Season:
Crop Season
Chrysanthemum (Flowering Time) South India: July- Jan
North India: Nov- Jan
Rose Planting Sep- Oct
Raising cutting June- Nov
Budding Nov- Feb
Pruning Oct- Dec
Gladiolus (Planting) Sep- Dec
Dahlia (Planting) N. India: Sep- Dec
S India: May- June

126 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

PLANTATIONS CROPS
Classification of Plantation crops:
1. Based on botanical relationships:
A. Monocot:
Arecaceae Coconut, Arecanut
B. Dicot
Theaceae Tea
Rubiaceae Coffee
Moraceae Rubber
Sterculiaceae Cocoa
Piperceae Black pepper
Lauraceae Cinnamon
Myrtaceae Clove
Myristicaceae Nutmeg
Anacardiaceae Cashewnut

2. Base on Growth Behaviour:

Vine Vanilla, Black pepper
Shrub Tea
Tree Cashewnut, Nutmeg

3. Based on Utility:
Food Coconut, Cashewnut
Industrial Rubber, Arecanut, Oil-palm

4. Based on extent of growing:

Homestead plantation Coconut, Black-pepper
Estate plantation Tea, Coffee, Rubber

5. Based on intensity of cultivation:

Single-storeyed Clove, Nutmeg
Multi-storeyed Coconut

PLANTATION CROP

1. TEA
Introduction:
❖ Botanical name: Camellia sinensis
❖ Family: Theaceae/ Camaliaceae
❖ Origin: China
❖ Tea is also known as Golden leaf/Queen of Beverage crop.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 127

 ❖ Study of Tea is Known as Tsiology
❖ Compound responsible for colour – Theaflavins and Thearufigens
❖ Flowers: Bisexual
❖ Fruit: Capsule
❖ Fresh tea leaves contain approximately 36% polyphenolic compounds.
Three main types of tea produced from leaves
1. Green tea is unfermented or un-oxidized tea
2. Oolong tea (Partly fermented)
3. Black tea (Fermented) Commonly consumed in India)
Soil pH, Climate and Temperature:
❖ Best soil pH for cultivation of Tea 4.8-5.0
❖ Average maximum temperature varies between 22 and 28oC during oct-March, but it may rise to
37oC between April and Sept.
❖ In Darjeeling hills temperature does not exceed 25oC
❖ Minimum temperature usually does not go below 7oC
Propagation and planting:
❖ Commercial propagation: Softwood cutting/Single node cutting
❖ Cuttings are taken on April-May & august to September. Semi hardwood cuttings most adopted.
❖ Methods of Planting: Single Hedge system & Double Hedge system.
❖ Season of planting: June to July and October to November.
Pruning:
❖ Pruning: April to May or Aug-Sep
Types of Pruning:
❖ Rejuvenation Pruning: The whole bush should be cut near the ground level less than 30 cm with a
view to rejuvenate the bushes.
❖ Hard pruning: Hard/ formation pruning of young tea is done at 30 to 45 cm (12" to 18") for proper
spread of bushes.
❖ Medium Pruning: To check the bush growing to an inconvenient height this type of pruning is done
in order to stimulate new wood and to maintain the foliage at lower levels less than 60 cm.
❖ Light Pruning:
➢ Skiffing: is the lightest form of pruning and collar pruning is the severe most pruning for
rejuvenation of tea garden.
❖ Tipping: Done at a height of 35 cm from the base and 2nd tipping at 60 cm from ground. Tipping is
the practice of removal of terminal portion of shoot (four leaves and a bud).
❖ Plucking starts when tea bush is 3-year-old.
❖ Centering: is a training method, Removal of main stem at a height of about 20cm from the ground,
Promotes the auxiliary bud or lateral branches.
Harvesting, Yield and Storage:
❖ Plucking commences when the tea bush is 3 years old. The plucking of extreme tip of the growing
branch consists of an unopened bud together with two leaves is popularly known as "Two leaves and
a bud".
❖ In South India plucking continues throughout the year at weekly intervals during March - May and
at intervals of 10 -14 days during the other months.
❖ Rush period: During rush period harvesting is done at 7 to 10 days interval.
❖ Lean period: During lean period harvesting is done at 10 – 15 days interval.

128 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

Yield: Green leaves 10 t/ha
Storage: 3 % moisture when packed. If 6 % then keeping quality is impaired.
Processing:
Three Types of Processing:
➢ Crush, Tear and Curl (CTC) tea
➢ Orthodox tea
➢ Green tea
CTC: Withering—Rolling—Fermentation---Heating and Drying---Sorting and Grading---Gapping---
Packing and Transporting. (NABARD-2021)
Withering: Withering is carried out to prepare the green tea shoots biochemically and physically.
Withering essentially consists of storage of green shoots for about 12 to 20 hours with the partial removal
of moisture (known as physical wither) from the leaf.
Natural Withering: The fresh tea leaves are laid out in thin layers and dried in the fresh air for at least
20 hours.
Artificial withering: The leaves are laid out in layers of up to 20 cm. thick on a mesh. This considerably
reduces the total withering time. Around 70% residual moisture suitable for tea processing of the withered
green leaves.
Rolling is the next step of manufacturing in which cell membranes are damaged allowing mixing of
chemical components of leaves with enzymes. This technique is also known as maceration.
1. It is known as preconditioning roll.
2. This roll is usually very gentle.
3. During rolling the temperature should never be rises beyond 35ºC (95ºF). Temperature higher than
35ºC detrimental (TR formation) to the quality of made tea.
➢ Fermentation/ oxidation: biochemical reactions in the presence of oxygen
➢ Heating and drying : completion of moisture removal
➢ Sorting and grading: fiber removal, grading based on size.
Gapping: During the process of sorting and bulking tea picks up moisture and it reaches above 4%. Before
packaging it is detrimental, so it is required to bring down the moisture content to about 3%.
Packing and transporting: During packing moisture percentage, should not be more than 4%, preferably
3% during packing.
Varieties:
❖ UPASI: 9 most suitable for higher pH
❖ UPASI-1,2,8: Biclonal Varieties
❖ Tea research: UPASI started in 1893
❖ UPASI: United planters Association of South India, connor, Tamilnadu
❖ UPASI tea research station, Valparai, TN
❖ UPASI is an apex body of tea, Coffee, pepper and Cardamom in the Southern states
Pest of Tea:
❖ Red coffee borer (Zeuzera coffeae) is the major pest of tea.
❖ Mites is a serious problem: Pink mite- Acaphylla theae)
❖ Yellowing of tea is due to Sulphur Deficiency
❖ Imperta cylinderica (thatch Grass) Important weed of Tea.

2. COFFEE
Introduction:
❖ Botanical name: Coffea spp.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 129

❖ Family: Rubiaceae
❖ Origin: Ethiopia
❖ Also known as King of Beverage crop
❖ Coffee Introduced 16th century.
❖ Coffee is perennial crop.
❖ Short day plant
❖ 45 Days required for germination.
❖ Fruit type: Drupe
❖ Ideal soil pH- 4.5-6.5
❖ Coffee is propagated by Seed
Species:
❖ Coffea arabica, Self-Pollinated
❖ Coffea robusta, Cross pollination
Spacing:
❖ Arabica: 1.5 to 2.0 m
❖ Robusta: 2.5 m
Varieties:
❖ Kents (Earliest variety of Arabica), San Roman (Mutant variety), Sln795,9, Cauvery
Flowering time: September to march
Planting Season: June - December
Training system in Coffee is single stem system (Most common method in India).
Harvest starts during November and harvesting extends up to February.
Yield: 750 - 1000 kg dry parchment /ha
Coffee berry borer (Hypothenemus hampei) serious pest of coffee.

3. COCONUT
Introduction:
❖ Botanical name: Cocos nucifera
❖ Family: Aeraceae
❖ Origin: Southeast Asia
❖ Also known as Kalpavriksha/ Tree of life
❖ Heliophile plant
❖ India’s largest agricultural imports is Edible oils.
❖ The main roots may go as deep as 10m.
❖ Coconut oil contain lauric acid.
❖ Highest production: Kerala
❖ World coconut day 2nd September
❖ Type of fruit: Drupe
❖ Type of Inflorescence: Spadix
❖ Moisture content in copra is 5-6 % and oil content: 70 %
❖ Economic life of the coconut palm is about 60 years. (AFO-2017)
❖ Fully matured nut has 30-40% coir (Fiber is called coir)

130 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

❖ Copra obtained by drying the kernel of coconut is the richest source of vegetable oil containing 65 %
to 70% oil.
❖ It takes 12-13 Month for ripening from opening of inflorescence.
❖ Coconuts become mature in about 12 months after the opening of the spathe
Climate, pH and Temperature:
❖ Humid tropical perennial monoecious palm. (AFO-2018)
❖ Optimum temperature is 20-32 oC
❖ To get highest yield mean annual temperature of 27oC with diurnal variation 5-7oC.
❖ pH range is 5.2-8.0 (5.5-7.0 is ideal)
❖ The humidity should be 80-90%
Propagation and Planting System:
❖ Coconut is propagated by only through seeds.
❖ In India, 9-12 months old seedlings are generally transplanted.
❖ Square system spacing: 7.5 × 7.5 m.
Varieties:
❖ Tall varieties: Long Live for an age of 80-90 years. It begins to bear in about 8-10 years after
planting. West Coast Tall,Kalpa Mitra, Kalpa Pratiba, Kalpa Thenu, Kalpa Tharu, Kalpa Haritha,
Chandra Kalpa
❖ Dwarf varieties: Flower as early as 3rd year after planting and come to regular bearing in 9th year.
Kalpa Raksha, Chowghat orange Dwarf, Kalpa Sree, Kalpa jyothi, Kalpa surya
Yield:
Average yield 80-100 nuts/palm/year
Dwarf variety 70-80 nuts/palm/year
Tall variety 80-100 nuts/palm/year
Hybrid 100-130 nuts/palm/year

4. CASHEWNUT
Introduction:
❖ Botanical Name: Anacardium occidentale
❖ Origin: Brazil
❖ Cashew is a cross pollinated crop.
Temperature and climate:
❖ Areas where the temperatures range from 20 to 30°C are ideal for cashew growing.
❖ Best production is noticed up to the altitude of 400 m with at least 9 hr sunlight/day from Dec to
May.
❖ The shelling percentage of cashew varies between 20-25%.
❖ Propagation: Epicotyl grafting, and softwood grafting are found to be successful because it is easy
to produce large number of grafts in a short time. The percentage of field establishment is also
reported to be high with these grafts.
Spacing
❖ 7.5 m X 7.5 m (175 plants/ ha) or 8 m X 8 m (156 plants/ ha) is recommended.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 131

❖ High density planting: 4 m X 4 m (625 plants/ ha) in the beginning and thinning out in stages to
maintain a final spacing of 8 m X 8 m in the tenth year is also recommended.
❖ The training and pruning of cashew plants is done during August – September.
Varieties:
Karnataka Chintamani 1, Chintamani 2, Dhana ( H – 1608), NRCC Selection 2, Bhaskara,
Ullal 1, Ullal 3, Ullal 4, UN 50, Vengurla 4 &Vengurla 7
Kerala Dhana, K 22-1, Madakkathara 1, Madakkathara 2, Kanaka, Amrutha and
Priyanka
Maharashtra Vengurla 1, Vengurla 4, Vengurla 6 &Vengurla 7
Goa Goa 1, Goa 2, Vengurla 1, Vengurla 4, Vengurla 6 &Vengurla 7

Harvesting and Yield:

Starts bearing After three years of planting
Full bearing 10th Year
Remunerative yields Continue giving for another 20 years

❖ Harvesting time: February – May

❖ The cashew apples are removed, and the nuts are dried in sun for 2-3 days to bring the moisture
level from 25 per cent to 9 per cent.
❖ The maturity of the cashew nut is tested by floatation method.
❖ The mature nuts sink in water while the immature/ unfilled one’s float.
Grading:
❖ Grading is done for export purposes based on "counts" or number of kernels per pound. Sound
kernels are named as "wholes" and broken ones as "splits".

5. RUBBER
Introduction:
❖ Botanical name: Hevea brasiliensis
❖ Family: Euphorbiaceae
❖ Origin: Brazil
❖ Most important commercial source of natural rubber: Para rubber
❖ The Rubber Research Institute of India (RRII-1955) is located at Kottayam, Kerala
❖ International Rubber Research and Development Board (IRRDB), Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Temperature, pH and climate:
❖ pH- 4.5 to 6.0
❖ Minimum and maximum temperature should be ranged from 25 to 34°C with 80 % relative
humidity is ideal for cultivation.
❖ Season: June – July is optimum for cultivation
❖ RRII-105: Highest yielding hybrid clone in the world.
❖ Commercial propagation: Forket budding
❖ Spacing: 4.9 × 4.9 meter
Latex and Tapping:

132 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

❖ Latex is obtained from the bark of the rubber tree by tapping.
❖ Tapping: Rubber tapping is the process by which latex is collected from rubber tree. The latex is
harvested by slicing a groove into the bark of the tree at a depth of a quarter inch with a hooked
knife and peeling back the bark.
❖ Tapping depth: 1mm close to cambium.
❖ Tapping time Early morning
❖ Measuring of Rubber Percentage: Metrolac, Latex meter
❖ Tapping panel dryness (Brown bast): It is characterized by prolonged dripping of latex with the
gradual decline in volume yield, pre coagulation of latex and partial or complete drying of tapping
area (10-25 per cent).
❖ Control: Reduce tapping intensity or give a tapping rest for 3 to 12 months.
Yield:
❖ Rubber yield steeply increases year by year.
Peak Yield After 14 years of planting
South India, Seedling Trees Annual yield 375 kg/ha
South India, Budded Plants 800 - 1000 kg/ha

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 133

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS
Common Name Scientific Name Family Chromosome Origin
number
Black Pepper/ King Piper nigrum Piperaceae 52 Western Ghats of
of spices India
Cardamom/ True Elettaria Zingiberaceae 48 Western Ghats
cardamom cardamomum
Ginger Zingiber Officinale Zingiberaceae 22 Southeast Asia
Turmeric Curcuma longa Zingiberaceae 2n = 3X = 63 Southeast Asia
Clove Syzygium Myrtaceae 2n = 22 Indonesia
aromaticum
Cinnamon Cinnamomum sp Lauraceae 2n= 24 Sri Lanka
Saffraon Crocus sativus Iridaceae 2n = 3X= 24 Greece or Iran

CLASSIFICATION OF SPICES:
Based on Botanical relationship:
Monocot
Zingiberaceae Ginger, turmeric, Cardamom
Dicot
Piperaceae Black-pepper, Piplamool
Umbelliferae Cumin, Coriander, Fennel, Ajwain, Asafoetida, Black cumin, Dill seed,
Celery, Parsley
Labiateae Ocimum
Solanaceae Chilli
Alliaceae Onion, Garlic
Myrtaceae Clove
Myristicaceae Nutmeg, Mace
Lauraceae Cinnamon, Tejpat
Papaveraceae Khas-khas
Rutaceae Curry leaves
Crucifereae Mustard
Iridaceae Saffron
Orchidaceae Vanilla
Guttiferae Kokam
Araceae Buchh
Papilionaceae Fenugreek

Classification of spices based on growth habit:

Growth habit Spices
Herbs Coriander Cumin, Fennel, Fenugreek, Chilli, Parsley
Shrubs Rosemary, perennial chilli, pomegranate
Trees Garcinia, nutmeg, clove, Cinnamon, tamarind
Climbers Black pepper, Tailed pepper, vanilla

134 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 Perennial Ginger, Turmeric, mango ginger, asafoetida
herbs/Rhizomatous herbs

Classification of spices based on the completion of life cycle:

Annual Cumin, Fennel, Coriander, Fenugreek
Biennial Onion, Garlic, Seed crops of Radish, Carrot, Turnip
Perennial Cardamom, Cinnamon, Clove, Saffron, Tejpat

Classification based on photoperiodic requirement:

Short day plants Onion
Long day plants Onion, Nutmag, Garlic, Chilli, Fennel, Dill, Henbane, Anise
Day Neutral Plants Capsicum, Basil

Classification based on part used:

Seed spices Fenugreek, Ajwain, Cumin, Coriander, Fennel, Dill seed
Fruit spices Cumin, Coriander, Fennel, Black pepper, Chilli, Dill seed
Flower spice Saffron
Bud spice Clove
Underground rhizome: Turmeric, Ginger, Onion, Garlic
Bark Spices Cinnamon, Tajpat
Leafy Spices Mentha, Coriander, Tejpat, Fenugreek

Commercial Classification based on Production/ importance:

Importance/Production basis Spices
Major spices Black pepper, cardamom, Ginger, turmeric, chilli
Major seed spices Coriander, cumin, fennel, fenugreek
Minor seed spices Ajowan, celery, parsley, dill, caraway, black cumin, black
caraway
Major tree spices Nutmeg, clove, cinnamon, tamarind, allspice, kokum, curry leaf
Minor tree spices Bilimbi, carambola
Herbal spices Basil, rosemary, thyme, horseradish, garlic, sage, oregano

Classification of spices based on utility:

Taste imparting spices Cardamom, Ginger, Coriander, Cumin, Garlic, Onion,
Tamarind, Black pepper, Chilli.
Flavour imparting spices Clove, cardamom, Coriander leaf, Curry leaves, Cinnamon,
Asafoetida, Garlic

Classification based on useful part:

Useful Fruit Spices
Whole fruit All spice, Black pepper, chilli, cumin, fennel, Ajowan
Bark Cinnamon, cassia
Aril Mace of nutmeg
Unopened flower bud Clove

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 135

 Tripartite Funnel Saffron
shaped stigma/stigma
Kernel Nutmeg
Leaves Basil, bay leaf, Marjoram, sage, curry leaf, rosemary
Rhizome Ginger, turmeric, mango ginger, rosemary
Dried latex Asafoetida
Root Horse radish, angelica
Seeds/fruits Aniseed, caraway, coriander, dill, fenugreek, mustard
Fruit pulp/rind Tamarind, Garcinia

Basic uses of spices and herbs:

Basic Uses Spices
Flavouring Allspice, cardamom, cinnamon, cumin, mint, nutmeg
Masking/deodorizing Clove, garlic, bay leaves, coriander, onion, thyme, sage, rosemary
Pungency Chilli, pepper, ginger, horse radish, mustard
Colouring Paprika, saffron, turmeric

Major flavour, taste and colour contributing compounds:

Spices Predominant flavour, taste and colour compounds
Black pepper Piperine
Cardamom α-terpenyl acetate, 1,8-cineole
Chilli Capsaicin, capsanthin, capsorubin
Turmeric Curcumin
Ginger Zingiberene
Coriander Linalool
Cumin Cuminaldehyde
Fenugreek Trigonellin
Fennel Anethole
Cinnamon Cinnamaldehyde
Clove Eugenol
All spice Eugenol
Nutmeg Sabnene
Star Anise Anethole
Horse radish Sinigrin
Basil Methyl chavicol
Celery Limonene
Rosemary Cineol
Thyme Thymol
Parsley 1,3,8-p-Menthatreiene
Vanilla Vanillin
Saffron Crocin
Asafoetida Ferulic acid

Colour compounds present in spices:

136 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 Colour compounds Colour Spices
β-Carotene Reddish orange Chilli, paprika, saffron, mustard
Crytoxanthin Red Paprika, Chilli
Lutein Dark red Paprika, parsley
Violaxanthin Orange Paprika, parsley
Zeaxanthin Yellow Paprika
Capsanthin Dark red Paprika, chilli
Capsorubin Purple red Paprika, chilli
Crocetin Dark red Saffron
Crocin Yellow orange Saffron
Neoxantin Orange yellow Parsley
Cucurmin Orange-yellow Turmeric
Flavonoids Yellow Ginger

1. BLACK PEPPER
Introduction:
❖ King of spices: Piper nigrum
❖ Family: Piperaceae
❖ Chromosome no. : 2n = 52
❖ Origin: Western Ghats of India
❖ Black Pepper (Piper nigrum L.) christened as the 'King of spices'
❖ Perennial climbing vine
❖ Inflorescence type: Catkin
❖ Fruit type: Single seeded berry
❖ Edible portion: Fleshy pericarp and hard endocarp
❖ Pungency in black pepper is due to Piperine.
❖ Oleoresin is produced by solvent extraction of pepper powder.
Climate:
❖ Black pepper is a humid tropic crop it requires high rainfall and humidity
Propagation:
❖ Majority of the cultivated varietal types are monoecious.
❖ Pepper is naturally self-Pollinated crop due to presence of geitonogamy.
❖ For commercially propagation mainly cuttings selected from: Runner shoots
❖ Cuttings taken from middle of 1/3rd of the shoot.
❖ Rapid multiplication ratio: 1: 40
❖ Spacing: 2.7 m x 2.7 m = 110 vines/ha (mono-cropping system)
Cultural Practices:
❖ Lopping: Done for regulation of shade, it provides optimum light to the vines and standard trees to
grow straight
Varieties:
❖ Karimunda is the most popular cultivar in Kerala.
❖ Pournami: Tolerant to root – knot nematode
❖ Panniyur 5: Tolerant to nursery diseases and shade
Maturity Index:

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 137

❖ Black Pepper: Fully mature and 1-2 berries start turning from yellow to red in each spike.
Harvesting and Yield:
❖ Duration of flowering to fruiting: 6 months.
❖ Full bearing stage of vine: 7-8 year after planting
❖ Pepper fruit setting percentage: 50%
❖ Harvesting stage: Fully mature and nearly ripe
❖ Spike shedding percentage: 14-65%
❖ Pepper vine starts yield from 3-4th year of planting.
❖ Pepper vines yield decline starts after 20-25 years.
❖ The major products are white pepper, canned tender green pepper, bottled green pepper in brine,
dehydrated green pepper, pepper oleoresin and pepper oil.

2. CARDAMOM
Introduction:
❖ Queen of Spices/True cardamom: Elettaria cardamomum
❖ Family: Zingiberaceae
❖ Chromosome no.: 2n = 48
❖ Origin: Western Ghats
❖ Cardamom, is a herbaceous perennial bushy herb with underground (Subterranean) Rhizomes and
aerial leafy stems (tillers) made of leaf sheaths
❖ Cardamom is commercially cultivated for its dried fruits (capsules)
❖ Economic age of plantation: 12-15 years
❖ Highly prized spices in the word
❖ Shade loving plant (Sciophytes)
❖ Humid tropical climate is ideal for cardamom cultivation
❖ Type of pollination: Cross pollination
❖ Mode of pollination: Honeybees (Apis cerana indica)
Propagation:
❖ Suckers (Most preferred method)
Seed rate and planting:
❖ Trench system of planting is generally preferred.
❖ 1 kg of seed capsules (500-800 fruits) produces 3000-5000 seedlings.
❖ Acid scarification with 25% nitric acid for 10 minutes: increases the germination percentage.
❖ Peak period of harvest is October-November.
❖ Average yield of dry capsules: 500 kg/ha
Oil percentage:
❖ Major constituents for cardamom oil: 1,8-cineole and terpenyl acetate
❖ Volatile oil content of cardamom seeds: 6.6-10.6%
❖ Most of cardamom varieties contain 5-9% oil
Post-harvest practices:
❖ Curing temperature for cardamom: 500 C (Moisture of freshly harvested capsules reduced from 8-
12%)
❖ Generally cured cardamom have 12% moisture

138 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

❖ Flue curing: 45-500 C @ 18-22 hrs. it is one of the best methods of drying (getting high quality green
cardamom)
❖ Bleached cardamom: Prepared by using SO2, KMS(25% containing 1% HCl for 30 min) and H2O2
(4-6% at pH 4.0)
Pest and Diseases:
❖ Mosaic or katte viral disease is transmitted by aphids (Pentalonia caladii)
❖ Cardamom thrips is the most destructive and persistent pest of cardamom

3. GINGER
Introduction:
❖ Ginger: Zingiber Officinale
❖ Family: Zingiberaceae
❖ Chromosome no.: 2n= 22
❖ Origin: Southeast Asia
❖ Type of inflorescence: Spike
❖ Rhizomes are used as a spice.
❖ Ginger is an herbaceous perennial, having underground branched rhizome with small scales.
❖ Ginger grows well in warm and humid climate.
❖ Unbleached ginger: Peeled rhizomes washed and sun drying
❖ Oleoresin content in ginger: 3.5-9.5%
❖ Major pungent principle of ginger: Gingerol
❖ Ginger Oil (0.5%-z0%) possesses only aroma and not the flavor of spice.
❖ Exhaustive Crop (it is not desirable to grow ginger in the same soil year after year)
❖ Ginger is always propagated by cuttings of rhizomes known as seed rhizome or sets.
❖ Seed rate: 1500-1800 kg/ha
Harvesting:
Ginger attains full maturity 210-240 days (7-8 months) after planting
Vegetable purpose After 5-6 month
Dry ginger harvesting 6-7 months after planting

Yield:
Dry ginger 19-25% of fresh ginger
Average yield 15-25 t/ha
Recovery of dry ginger 16-18%
Fiber content of ginger 5-19%

Moisture content:
Fresh ginger 80-82%
Storage purpose 10%

4. TURMERIC:
Introduction:
❖ Turmeric: Curcuma longa

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 139

❖ Family: Zingiberaceae
❖ Chromosome no.: 2n = 3X = 63
❖ Origin: Southeast Asia
❖ Shade loving condiment crop.
❖ Turmeric is the dried underground rhizome of perennial herbaceous herb.
❖ It is used as a condiment, dye, drug and cosmetic in addition to its use in religious ceremonies.
❖ Curcumin (4-7%) is the golden-yellow principal colouring pigment present in turmeric. It is used at
levels of 5-20 ppm.
❖ Curcumin is used as therapeutic effects and anti-cancer property.
❖ Average curcumin content in rhizomes 1.8 to 5.5%
❖ Essential oil content: 2.5 to 7.2%
❖ Whole or split mother rhizome or finger rhizomes are used for planting.
❖ Optimum sowing time: May-June or July-August
❖ Seed rate: 2500 kg/ha (35-45 g of weight)
❖ Average yield of green turmeric 25-25 tonnes /ha
❖ Drying recovery: 20-25%
❖ Yield of oleoresin: 7-15%
❖ Processing 3 steps: Curing ≥ polishing ≥ colouring
Seed spices:
Major seed Spices in India Cumin, coriander, Fenugreek, fennel
Suitable spice for eroded soils Dill
Suitable for nutritionally eroded soil Coriander, cumin and fenugreek
National Research Center for seed Spices (NRCSS) Ajmer, Rajasthan

TREE SPICES

1. CLOVE
Introduction:
❖ Clove: Syzygium aromaticum
❖ Family: Myrtaceae
❖ Origin: Indonesia
❖ Economic part: Unopened flower bud
❖ Tropical evergreen tree, grown in humid tropics.
❖ Type of fruit: Single seeded drupe
❖ Propagation: Seeds
Harvesting and Yield:
❖ Clove trees starts yield on 7-8 year after planting.
❖ Full bearing stage Clove attains after 15 year.
❖ Harvesting stage: Unopened flower bud begin to turn pink colour
❖ Average annual yield : 2 kg/tree
Oil content:
Clove oil 70-80% of tree eugenol and 5-12% of eugenyl acetate
Leaves oil content 1.5-1.8% oil

140 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 Stem oil 5-7% oil (70-90% eugenol)
Bud oil (17%) Superior in odor and flavor to stem oil and leaf oil
Clove bud oil 85% eugenol
Mehtyl-n-amyl ketone Present only in bud oil
Volatile oil content of oleoresin 70-80%

2. CINNAMON:
Introduction:
❖ Cinnamon: Cinnamomum verum
❖ Family: Lauraceae
❖ Origin: Srilanka
❖ The Cinnamon popularly known as Dalchini (From ICAR)
❖ Cinnamon is hardy plant and evergreen in nature.
❖ Edible part: Bark
❖ Bark is used to extract oil and oleoresin.
❖ Mainly cultivated as a rainfed crop
❖ Oleoresin content in cinnamon: 7-10%
❖ The shoots having finger thickness and uniform brown color are ideal for bark extraction.
❖ Propagation: Commonly by Seed and can also by cuttings and air layers
Oil content:
❖ Cinnamon Bark has 0.5-2.5% oil (75% cinnamaldehyde & 5-10% Eugenol)
❖ Major constituent of cinnamon leaf oil: Eugenol
❖ Average yield: 200-300 kg/ha (Dried barks)
❖ The peels after dried contracts and assumes the shape of quill.
Grading:
00000 Finest quality
0 Coarsest
Small pieces of bark left after preparing quills Quillings
Very thin inner pieces of bark are dried Featherings
From the coarser canes the bark is scrapped off, instead of peeling Scrapped chips
Bark scrapped off without removing the outer bark Un scrapped chips

❖ The different grades of bark are powdered to get ‘cinnamon powder’

CONDIMENTS

1. SAFFRON:
Introduction:
❖ Saffron: Crocus sativus
❖ Family: Iridaceae
❖ Chromosome no.: 2n = 3X= 24
❖ Origin: Greece or Iran

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 141

 ❖ Perennial herb with globular underground corm
❖ Economic part: Dried (Strikingly dark red or orange tripartite funnel shaped) stigma.
❖ Propagation: Corms (Planted in August)
❖ Flowering time: End of October
Pigmentation:
❖ Crocin responsible for its colouring strength (from ICAR)
❖ Picrocrocin for bitter taste
❖ Safranal for aroma
❖ Yield: 160kg of fresh flowers/ha (5kg of dried saffron)
❖ Drying percentage: 20%
❖ Major Diseases in Spices:
Disease Causal Organisms Remarks
Major Spices:
1. Black pepper
Quick wilt/foot rot Phytophthora capsici Sudden collapse of vines
Pollu disease/berry Colletotrichum gloeosporiodides Malformation of Berries
spot/Anthracnose
Slow decline/slow wilt Fusarium sp., Rhizoctonia sp, Vector: Radopholus similis
pythium sp., Diplodia sp., Meloidogyne incognita
2. Cardamom
Katte disease Virus Vector: Pentalonia
nigronervosa
Chirkey disease Virus Vector: Rhopalosiphum
maidis, R.padi,
Brachycaudus helichrisi
Forkey disease Virus Vector: Micromyzus
kalimpongensis
Azhukal capsule rot Phytophthora meadii, P.
nicotianae var. nicotianae
Damping/rhizome rot Pythium vexans, Rhizoctonia
solani
3. Ginger
Soft rot/ Rhizome rot Pythium aphanidermatum Yellowing of leaves
Bacterial wilt Pseudomonas solanacearum Major disease in Kerala
4. Turmeric
Rhizome and root rot Pythium graminicolum
Seed spices
5. Coriander
Powdery mildew Erysiphe polygoni Major foliage disease
Grain mould Helminthosporium sp, Alternaria Storage disease
sp., Carvularia sp., and Fusarium
sp.,
6. Fenugreek
Root rot Rhizoctonia solani
Tree spices

142 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

7. Nutmeg
Dieback Diplodia natalensis
Thread blight Marasmius sp.
Fruit rot Diplodia natalensis and
phytophthora spl.,
8. Cinnamon
Pink disease Corticlium javanicum
Seedling blight Diplodia sp.,
Leaf spot Gloeosporium sp.,

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 143

 MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS
Common Name Scientific Name Family Origin Usage
Aloe/First aid Aloe vera Liliaceae Used as a biogenic
medicine plant stimulators and wound
healing hormone
Indian Withania Solanaceae India Immuno-Modulator, Anti-
ginseng/winger somnifera stress, Improve the male
cherry/Ashgand potency
King of bitters/Rice Andrographis Acanthaceae India To treat snake bites, acute
bitters/kalmegh paniculata jaundice
Safed musli Chlorophytum Liliaceae India Aphrodisiac, helpful in
borivilianum curing impotency,
diabetes, as alternative to
viagra
Guggul/Indian Commiphora Burseraceae Africa Treatment of arthritis and
Bdellium Tree wightii amnd obesity
Asia
Medicinal Yam Dioscorea Dioscoreaceae Central
floribunda America
Foxglove Digitalis lanata Scrophularace Europe Digoxin: used for heart
ae diseases/life saving
medicine
Opium Papaver Papaveraceae Eastern Painkiller, used for
somniferum Europe analgesia and hypnotic
effects
Sarpagandha Rauvolfia Apocynaceae India Controlling blood pressure
serpentina
Senna Cassia Fabaceae South used for laxative and
angustifolia Africa purgative purpose
Pipali/Long pepper Piper longum: Piperaceae western Stimulant, appetizer, tonic
Ghats of
India
Indian Glycyrrhiza Fabaceae India Chronic viral hepatitis,
liquorice/Mulhati glabra taste modulator, anti-
inflammatory, treatment of
peptic ulcers
Deadly Atropa Solanaceae Europe Leaves are widely used for
Nighshade/Belladon belladonna the manufacture of
na tinctures, extract, plasters.
Treatment of gout,
rheumatism parkinson's
disease
Medicinal Solanum Solanum Solanaceae India Contraceptives,
khasianum corticosteroids and
sexhormones

144 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 Psyllium/ isabgol Plantago Ovata Plantaginaceae Persia Used for anti-diarrhoea
drug, due to property of
absorbing and retaining
water

Medicinal plants:
Economic Part Medicinal and aromatic plant
Fruits Senna, S. viarum, Datura
Leaves Senna, Datura, Periwinkle, Tylophora
Flowers Butea, Bauhinia
Stems Liquorice, Ginger, Dioscorea, Costus, Garlic
Roots Rauvolfia, Periwinkle, Ginseng
Seeds Isabgol, Abrus, Nuxvomica
Bark Cinchona

1. Aloe/First aid medicine plant: Aloe vera

❖ Family: Liliaceae
❖ Perennial succulent plant
❖ The source of the drug: Aloin and C-glucosides (Barbaloin)
❖ Aloe vera gel contains glucomannan: Used as a biogenic stimulator and wound healing hormone.

2. Indian ginseng/winger cherry/Ashgand/Ashwagandha: Withania somnifera

❖ Family: Solanaceae
❖ Chromosome Number (2n) = 48
❖ Origin: India
❖ Economic part: Roots
❖ Uses: Adaptogenic, Immuno-Modulator, Anti-stress, Improves the male potency
❖ Major alkaloids: Withanine and Somniferine
❖ Withaferine: Antibiotic and Antitumor activities found highest in leaves.

3. King of bitters/Rice bitters/Kalmegh: Andrographis paniculata

❖ Family: Acanthaceae
❖ Origin: India
❖ Economic part: Whole herb
❖ Uses: To treat snake bites, acute jaundice
❖ Alkaloids:
➢ Major alkaloids in leaves: Andrographolide
➢ Major alkaloids in roots: Andrographidin A, B, C, D, E and F

4. Safed musli: Chlorophytum borivilianum

❖ Family: Liliaceae
❖ Origin: India
❖ Saponin is the chief medicinal compound present in the roots.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 145

❖ Uses: Aphrodisiac, helpful in curing impotency, diabetes, as alternative to viagra
❖ Propagation: root cuttings

5. Guggal/Indian Bdellium Tree: Commiphora wightii

❖ Family: Burseraceae
❖ Origin: Africa and Asia
❖ Economic part: Gum resin
❖ Uses: Treatment of arthritis, obesity, heart problems.
❖ Propagation: Semi-wood stem cuttings

6. Medicinal Yam: Dioscorea floribunda

❖ Family: Dioscoreaceae
❖ Origin: Central America
❖ Economic part: Tubers

7. Foxglove: Digitalis lanata

❖ Family: Scrophularaceae
❖ Origin: Europe
❖ Economic part: leaves
❖ Digoxin: used for heart diseases/lifesaving medicine
❖ Propagation: by seeds (8 kg/ha)

8. Opium: Papaver somniferum

❖ Family: Papaveraceae
❖ Origin: Eastern Europe
❖ Economic Part: Latex extracted from mature capsule (40 alkaloids).
❖ Uses: Painkiller
❖ Opium and codeine are used for analgesia and hypnotic effects.
❖ Heroine is a semi-synthetic derivative of morphine.
❖ Fruit type: Capsule
❖ Lancing: Making an incision on the poppy pod using an instrument locally called nada, exudes a
viscous substance with a high morphine content. Skilled workers perform this task during the day.
❖ Propagation: Seeds (Broadcasting- 7-8 kg/ha, Line sowing – 4-5 kg/ha)

9. Sarpagandha: Rauvolfia serpentina

❖ Family: Apocynaceae
❖ Origin: India
❖ Economic part: Dried root (Total alkaloids: 55 alkaloids)
❖ Uses: Controlling blood pressure, insomnia, epilepsy, asthma
❖ Average total alkaloid content: Root bark: 2.4% Wood: 0.40% and Fibrous root: 2.52%
❖ Propagation: Seeds (6kg/ha), root cuttings, stem cutting

10. Senna: Cassia angustifolia

❖ Family: Fabaceae

146 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

❖ Origin: South Africa
❖ It is a leguminous crop but lacks nodule formation.
❖ Economic parts: Leaves and pods (Contains Sennosides A, B, C, D)
❖ Sennosides is used for laxative and purgative purposes.

11. Pipali/Long pepper: Piper longum

❖ Family: Piperaceae
❖ Origin: Western Ghats of India
❖ Economic part: Unripe female spikes (i.e., catkins)
❖ Uses: Stimulant, appetizer, tonic
❖ The roots contain alkaloids piper longuminine (0.2-0.25%) and piper longumine (0.02%)
❖ Inflorescence type: Spike

12. Indian Liquorice/Mulathi: Glycyrrhiza glabra

❖ Family: Fabaceae
❖ Origin: India
❖ Economic part: Roots-sweet substance is glycyrrhizin (5- times sweeter than sugar)
❖ Uses: Chronic viral hepatitis, taste modulator, anti-inflammatory, treatment of peptic ulcers
❖ Glycyrrhizin is high in older roots.
❖ Yellow colour of roots is due to Isoliqril

13. Deadly Nightshade/Belladonna: Atropa belladonna:

❖ Family: Solanaceae
❖ Chromosome Number (2n) = 72(Hexaploid)
❖ Origin: Europe
❖ Tropane alkaloids: Hyoscine, Hyoscyamine and Atropine- Anticholinergic
❖ Uses: Leaves are widely used for the manufacture of tinctures extract, Plasters, Treatment of gout,
Rheumatism, Parkinson’s disease.

14. Medicinal Solanum: Solanum khasianum

❖ Family: Solanaceae
❖ Origin: India
❖ Steroid bearing perennial bush
❖ Economic part: Seed
❖ Uses: Contraceptives, corticosteroids, and sex hormones

15. Psyllium/ Isabgol: Plantago Ovata

❖ Family: Plantaginaceae
❖ Chromosome Number (2n): 8
❖ Origin: Persia
❖ Economic part: Seed and husk
❖ Uses: anti-diarrhea drug, due to property of absorbing and retaining water (40-90%),laxative effects
(AFO-2020)

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 147

❖ Husk (Odourless and tasteless) yields a colloidal mucilage consisting of xylose, arabinose and
galacturonic acid.
❖ Type of flowers: Protogynous
❖ Type of fruit: Capsule
❖ Propagation: Seed (4-6 kg/ha)
Medicinal Plants:
S.no Medicinal plants Part used Variety Alkaloids Uses
1. Aloe vera Leaves - Aloin Laxative Purpose
2. Asgand Roots Jawahar Withanine Aphrodisiac
(Aswagandha) Asgandh-20 Somniferine property Immuno-
Indian Ginseng Modulator Anti-
stress
3. Medicinal Yam Tubers Arka Upkar, FB Diosgenin Production of
(c)-1 contraceptive pills
4. Foxglove Leaves - Digoxin Heart disease
5. Opium Capsule Telia, Dholia Codeine Painkiller
(Latex)
6. Dill or sowa Seeds - Carvone Improve digestion,
control vomiting,
Carminative
property
7. Guggal (Kiluvai) Olegum - Z and E- Anti-inflammatory
Resin Gugglusteroids Hypoglycaemic
8. Henbene Leaves - Hyoscyamine Anti-asthma Anti-
chloicgenic
9. Isabgol Husk, seed Gujarat Isabgol- Mucilage Anti-diarrhoea
1,2 Laxative
10. Khasi-Kateri Fruits Arka Solasodine Production of
Sanjeevani contraceptive pills
11. Liquorice Roots Haryana Glycyrrhizin Anti-inflammatory
Mulathi 1 Spasmolytic
activity
12. Periwinkle Roots and Nirmal, Dhawal Vinblastine Tranquilizer
Leaves Vincristine Anticancer Anti-
Ajmalcine Neoplastic
13. Pipali Unripe fruit Vishwam Piperine Improve appetite
(Female laxative
spike)
14. Sarpagandha Roots RS-1 Serpentine Anti-Blood
Ajmalicine pressure
Reserpine
15. Senna Leaves and KKM-1 Sennosides (A, Laxative and
pods B, C) constipation
16. Kalmegh (King Whole plants - - Jaundice
of Bitterness)

148 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

17. Lory Lily (state Seeds - Colchicine Anti-Gout (Joint
flower of Tamil pain)
Nadu)
18. Cinchona Bark - Quinine Treatment of
Malaria
19. Datura Whole plant Hyoscine, Preanasthetic
Tropane surgery
20. Abroma Root bark Intra-uterine
disease and other
gynaecological
disorders
21. Datura (Umattai Datura Solanaceae Economic part: Leaves and fruits
stamonium Alkaloids: Stramonium
(Hyoscyamine and scopolamine)
Uses: pre-anaesthetic in surgery and
childbirth
22. Madhunasini Gymnema Asclepiadaceae Economic parts: Leaves
sylvestris Uses: anti-diabetic property
Alkaloids: Gymnemic acid
23. Cinchona C. officinalis Rubiaceae Economic part: Bark
Uses: Anti-malarial drugs
Alkaloids: Quinine

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 149

 POST-HARVEST AND FOOD PROCESSING

MATURITY INDICES, HARVESTING AND POST-HARVEST HANDLING OF FRUITS AND

VEGETABLES
Types of Maturity:
❖ Horticultural maturity: It is a developmental stage of the fruit on the tree, which will result in a
satisfactory product after harvest.
❖ Physiological maturity: It refers to the stage in the development of the fruits and vegetables when
maximum growth and maturation has occurred. It is usually associated with full ripening in the
fruits. The Physiological mature stage is followed by senescence.
❖ Commercial maturity : It is the state of plant organ required by a market. It commonly bears little
relation to Physiological maturity and may occur at any stage during development stage.
❖ Harvest Maturity : It may be defined in terms of Physiological maturity and horticultural maturity,
it is a stage, which will allow fruits / vegetables at its peak condition when it reaches to the
consumers and develop acceptable flavour or appearance and having adequate shelf life.

MATURITY OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES:

Maturity indices of vegetable crops:

Crop Maturity indices

ROOT, BULB AND TUBER CROPS:
Radish and carrot Large enough and crispy
Potato, onion and garlic Tops beginning to dry and topple clown
Yams, bean and ginger Large enough
FRUIT VEGETABLES:
Cowpea, snap bean, sweet pea, winged Well filled pods that snap readily
bean
Lima bean and pigeon pea Well filled pods that are beginning to lose their
greenness.
Okra Desirable size reached and the tips of which can be
snapped readily
Egg plant, bitter gourd, slicing Desirable size reached but still tender
cucumber
Tomato Seeds slipping when fruit is cut, or green colour turning
pink
Muskmelon Easily separated from vine with a slight twist leaving
clean cavity (full slip stage).
Watermelon Dull hollow sound when thumped
FLOWER VEGETABLES:
Cauliflower Curd compact
Broccoli Bud cluster compact

Maturity index of important horticultural crops:

150 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 Horticultural crops Maturity index
Mango Tapka
Banana Finger filling/Angularity
Jackfruit and watermelon Tapping
Muskmelon Netting or full slip stage
Onion and Garlic Neck fall (50%)
Citrus Juice content (50%)
Avocado Oil Content
Apple T stage
Pineapple Flattening of eyes

Methods of Maturity indices:

Maturity Indices Fruits / Vegetables

EXTERNAL
Visual (OECD colour charts) All fruits and most vegetables
Heat unit Apple, pear, grape, mango, ber, litchi, sweetcorn etc.
T-Stage Apple
Size All fruits, beans, carrot, cucumber, cherry,
asparagus and cauliflower, zucchini
Surface morphology Grape (cuticle formation), banana, mango, sapota, litchi,
tomatoes, netting on some melons, glossy ness of some fruits
(development of wax)
Specific gravity (Sinker/floater) Cherries, mango and ber
Fruit retention strength Apple
Colour –Surface All fruits, tomato, watermelon
Seed Apple, Pears
Flesh Mango, papaya, watermelon and muskmelon, tomato (jelly
Instrument used colorimeter like material)
Leaf changes Potato, onion, melons (leaf axis on fruit dries)
Textural Properties
Firmness (Penetrometer /Fruit Pome and stone fruits, beans, lettuce, and melons
presser tester)
Tenderness (Tenderometer) Pea
Touch/Finger Squeezing Beans, okra, peas
Shape Compactness in cabbage, cauliflower & broccoli Angularity of
banana
Full shoulder development in mango
Abscission layer Melons
Solidity-Bulk density/X/Gamma Lettuce, cabbage, brussels sprouts
rays
Tight bud/ bud crack Rose and many cut flowers Loose flower- crossandra,
Flower opening marigold etc
INTERNAL

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 151

 Total solids: Dry weight Potato, Avocado, Kiwi fruit etc
TSS All fruits, tomato, water melon
Starch content -Iodine test Apple, banana, pear etc
Sugar content (Hand All fruits
Refractometer)
Acidity or Sugar/acid ratio Pomegranate, citrus, papaya, kiwi fruit and grape
Juice Content Citrus Sp.
Astringency (Tannin) Persimmon and dates
Oil content Avocado
Physiological: Apple and pears and many fruits
Respiration and C2H4 rate
Fruit opening Nutmeg, chow- chow (over mature), Ackee
Acoustic / Vibration Melons/ Apple, tomato (unripe 110- ripe 80 Hz)

Optimum stages of harvesting for important flowers:

Flower name Stage of harvest

Rose 1-2 petals beginning to unfold
Gladiolus 1-5 florets show colour
Lilium Coloured buds
Carnation Paint brush stage
Narcissus Goose neck stage
Anthurium Spadix almost fully developed (RRB-SO 2021)
Chrysanthemum-standard When outer florets fully expanded
Gerbera Flowers open but outer 2 rows show shedding of pollens
(fully mature)
Alstroemaria 4-5 florets open
Dendrobium Fully open flowers
China Aster Fully open flower

Post-harvest technology of Flower crops:

Particulars Flowers
Highly sensitive to ethylene Alstroemeria, carnation, freesia, gypsophila, lily,
narcissus, orchids, antirrhinum
Insensitive to ethylene Anthurium, gerbera, rose
Highly sensitive to chilling injury Anthurium, bird of paradise
Less sensitive to chilling injury Chrysanthemum, gerbera, china aster
Highly susceptible to grey mould Gladiolus, bird of paradise
Highly toxic to fluorides Gladiolus, freesia, gerbera, chrysanthemum and rose
Sensitive to geotropic bending Freesia, snapdragon and gladiolus
Flowers sensitive to geotropic bending must be transported in upright position

Post-harvest treatments:

Most commonly used sugar in the vase solution Sucrose

152 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 Floral preservatives have two basic constituents sugar and biocide
Most commonly used acidifying agent in the vase Citric acid
solution
New promising fresh flower preservatives amino-oxy acetic acid (AOA)
Best preservative for cut flowers silver thiosulphate (STS)
Pulsing It refers short duration (16-24 hr) pre-
shipment or pre-storage treatment
Bud opening solutions Bud opening solutions
Holding or Vase solutions It is meant to hold flowers continuously, till
the termination of their vase life
Biocides inhibit the growth of bacteria, fungi, and
other microorganisms in the vase solution
Most commonly used biocide in the vase solution Quinoline salts

Important biocides used for treating cut flowers:

❖ 8-hydroxy quinoline citrate (8-HQC), 8-hydroxy quinoline sulphate (8-HQS) silver nitrate, aluminum
sulphate, citric acid
❖ Gibberellin (GA3): Promotes the bud opening in carnation
❖ Important post-harvest disease is due high humidity and temperature: grey mould (Botrytis cinerea)
Important Terms used in post-harvest treatments for flowers:
❖ Light requiring flowers: chrysanthemum, alstroemeria, marguerite daisy (darkness leads to
yellowing)
❖ Air embolism: Air embolism occurs when small bubbles of air (emboli) are drawn into the stem at
the time of cutting. E.g., Rose
Water quality:
❖ Sodium sensitive/toxic to flower crops: carnation, rose
❖ Fluoride (F) is very toxic to gerbera, gladiolus, roses and freesia
❖ Ethylene sensitive flowers: Carnation, gypsophila
Pulsing/ loading:
❖ Pulsing is done by standing the freshly harvested cut flowers in solution for a short period e.g.,
Gladiolus
❖ Time of pulsing: 12-24 hrs, under a light intensity of 1000 lux and 20 to 27oC
❖ Pulsing treatment promote opening and increase the shelf life of flower
❖ Sugar and other chemicals used for pulsing
❖ Sucrose (2 to 20%) is most commonly used for pulsing (Osmoregulation)
❖ Pulsed with silver thiosulphate (STS) e.g., ethylene-sensitive flowers e.g., carnation, delphinium and
gypsophila
❖ Pulsed with GA: prevent leaf yellowing e.g., Alstroemeria
Bud opening solutions:
❖ Bud-cut flowers must be opened in bud-opening solutions before they are sold to the consumer.
❖ Bud opening method is identical to pulsing, longer duration and low concentration of sugar
❖ 8-HQC, silver thiosulphate (STS), KCl, Al2SO4, 4% sucrose are used for bud opening
Vase solution:
❖ Holding solutions used in the vases to keep flowers for extending their vase life
❖ Solutions: Sugar+ Germicide +Growth regulator +organic acid + Ethylene inhibitor
❖ Commonly used: sucrose + Citric acid + Quinoline salt (8-HQC, 8-HQS)

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 153

Holding solution:
❖ Prepared by mixture of chemicals (sugar, germicides, salt, growth regulator)
Conditioning/Hardening:
❖ Flowers are kept standing loosely in a big container, so that air can circulate around the stems.
❖ Purpose: Restore the turgidity of cut flower from water stress during storage and transportation
❖ Water + Germicides + Citric acid @500 ppm pH: 4.5-5.0
Impregnation:
❖ Ends of the cut flower stems are impregnated for short time with chemicals
❖ Prevents blockage of xylem vessel in the stem by microbial growth and stem decay.
❖ Commonly used chemicals for impregnation: AgNO3, NiCl2, CoCl2 @ 10-15 minutes

POST-HARVEST TECHNOLOGY OF FRUIT CROPS:

Storage techniques for fruits:
❖ Normally storage temperature for temperate fruits: 0-1.10 C
❖ Relative humidity inside the cold room should preferably be maintained high (90-95%)
❖ For perishable commodities, the RH is kept in the range of 90 to 95%
High-cost storage technology:
1. Controlled atmosphere storage (CA storage)
2. Modified atmosphere storage (MA storage)
3. Low pressure storage (LPS) / hypobaric storage (HBS)
4. Refrigerants commonly used in refrigerated storage: Freon, ammonia, and methyl chloride
5. Freon is most popular, odourless, non-toxic
1. Controlled atmospheric storage (CAS):
❖ Low O2 and high CO2 stored at gas tight containers at optimum storage temperature e.g., Mango,
pear and tomato.
❖ Generally, above 1% of CO2 and below 8% of O2 used in CA storage
❖ CA storage was first suggested by W.R. Philips, Canada.
❖ Apple: CA storage: 10% of CO2 and 11% o2 with a temperature of 40 C
2. Modified Atmospheric storage (MAS):
❖ Recently in MAS method maintaining the RH at 90 to 95% is recommended for the storage of green
vegetables and other root and tuber vegetables to prolong the storage life.
❖ Most commonly used oxygen absorbers in MAS: hydrated lime, activated charcoal, magnesium
oxide.
❖ Most commonly used ethylene absorbers in MAS: Potassium permanganate absorbed on celite,
vermiculite, silica gel or alumina pellets.
Recommended storage temperature, relative humidity, and storage life of fresh fruits for
commercial storage:
Fruit Temperature (0C) Relative humidity (%) Approx. storage life
Apple -1 – 4 85-90 4-8 months
Apricot -0.5-0.0 85-90 1-2 weeks
Grape -1.1 90-95 3-6 weeks
Guava 7.2-10.0 90 2-3 weeks
Kiwifruit -0.5-0 90-95 3-5 months
Lemon 8.9-10.0 85-90 1-6 months
Litchi 2.1 90-95 3-5 weeks

154 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 Mango 11.7-12.8 85-90 2-3 weeks
Olive 7.2-10.0 85-90 4-6 weeks
Papaya 7.2 85-90 1-2 weeks
Peach 0.0-3.0 85-90 2-4 weeks
Pomegranate 0.0 90 2-4 weeks
Mandarin 0.0-4.2 85-90 2-4 weeks
Strawberry 0.0 90-95 5-7 days

Storage techniques for flowers:

❖ Storage temperature for tropical flower: 10-150 C e.g., Anthurium, cattleya and poinsettia
❖ Storage temperature for sub-tropical flowers: 2-80 C e.g., Gladiolus, strelitzia and anemone
Refrigerated storage for flowers:
Storage Crop Storage temperature Max storage period
Dry Carnation 0-10C 16-24 weeks
Chrysanthemum 10 C 3 weeks
Gerbera 20 C 2 days
Gladiolus 40 C 2-3 weeks
Rose 0.5 to 20 C 2 weeks
Wet Anthurium 130C 2-4 weeks
Carnation 40C 4 weeks
Dendrobium 5 to 70C 10-14 days
Gerbera 40 C 3-4 weeks
Gladiolus 0.5 to 1.60C 10 days
Tuberose 7 to 100 C 3-6 days
Seed storage:
❖ Orthodox seeds: Desiccation tolerance during development and may be stored in the dry state for
predictable periods under defined conditions
❖ Recalcitrant seeds do not survive drying to any large degree and are thus not amenable to long term
storage
Classification of fruit seeds based on storage behaviour:
Orthodox seeds Recalcitrant seeds
Apple, grapes, ber, peach, plum, phalsa, Mango, Mangosteen, citrus, jackfruit, loquat, litchi,
pomegranate, passion fruit, custard rambutan, avocado, Barbados cherry, carambola,
apple, date palm, fig, guava durian, bread fruit, rubber, cocoa, oil palm

Cryopreservation:
❖ Storage of seed material in liquid nitrogen N2 @ -1960 C and liquid dioxide -430C
❖ Most commonly used cryoprotectants: Glycerol and Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO)

POST-HARVEST FACTORS:
Curing: Curing is done immediately after harvesting. It strengthens the skin. The process is induced at
relatively higher temperature and humidity, involving suberization (conversion of the cell walls into cork
tissue by development of suberin) of outer tissues followed by the development of wound periderm which

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 155

acts as an effective barrier against infection and water loss. It is favored by high temperature and high
humidity.
E.g., Potato, sweet potato, colocassia, onion and garlic are cured prior to storage or marketing. Potato
tubers are held at 18°C for 2 days and then at 7°—10°C for 10—12 days at 90% relative humidity.
Curing also reduces the moisture content especially in onion and garlic. Drying of superficial leaves of
onion bulbs protects them from microbial infection in storage.
Degreening: It is the process of decomposing green pigment (Chlorophyll) in fruits usually applying
ethylene or similar metabolic inducers to give a fruit its characteristic colour as preferred by consumer. It
is applicable to banana, citrus and tomato. Degreening is carried out in special treating rooms with
controlled temperature and humidity in which low concentration of ethylene (20 ppm) is applied. The best
Degreening temperature is 27oC. Higher temperature delay Degreening.
Pre-cooling: High temperatures are detrimental to keeping quality of fruits and vegetables, especially
when harvesting is done during hot days. Pre-cooling is a means of removing the field heat. It slows down
the rate of respiration, minimizes susceptibility to attack of micro-organisms, and reduces water loss. Peas
and okra which deteriorate fast need prompt pre-cooling.
Blanching: Blanching is used for variety of purposes. It is defined as a mild heat treatment applied to
tissue (usually plant) primarily to inactivate enzymes prior to freezing, drying or canning. It is also known
as scalding.
Lye peeling: Fruits like peaches, apricots, sweet oranges, mandarin oranges and vegetables like carrots
and sweet potatoes are peeled by dipping them in 1 to 2 per cent boiling caustic soda solution (lye) for 30
seconds to 2 minutes depending on their nature and maturity.

FOOD PRESERVATION
Blanching is done at about 100oC. Blanching is primarily done to inactivate enzymes
Pasteurization below 100oC. Pasteurization is done to kill only maximum harmful microbes.
Sterilization above 100oC. Sterilization for complete killing of microorganisms. In this process, food is
heated at a sufficiently high temperature (121°C) and for long time (10-15 minutes) to destroy microbial
and enzyme activity.

METHOD OF FOOD PRESERVATION

PHYSICAL METHODS:

Refrigeration
Freezing
Pasteurization
Sterilization
Drying and dehydration
Irradiation

156 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

1. Refrigeration: In this method, foods are preserved at a temperature of 0 to 5°C.
2. Freezing: Freezing temperature of -18 to -40°C reduces the growth of microorganisms and enzyme
activity is also reduced.
3. Pasteurization: Foods are heated at boiling water temperature, under pasteurization method.
Pasteurization is a heat treatment that kills part but not all the microorganisms present
4. Sterilization: Foods are held at a temperature higher than 100°C. Through this method, all possible
microorganisms are destroyed completely.
5. Drying and dehydration: In these methods, attempt is made to remove the moisture. Removal of
moisture prevents the growth of spoilage causing microorganisms in the food. E.g., Raisins (<17 %
moisture)
6. Irradiation: Irradiation is very potent mode of prevention of spoilage of food. The reaction between
ion particle and food, forms the basis of prevention of spoilage of food. Application of irradiation for
suppressing sprouting and hence extension of shelf life Sprouting of onion and potato can be checked
by gamma irradiation. In
Canning temperature:
1. Fruit processing- 100 oC
2. Veg. processing- 115-121 oC
Cryopreservation: Preserved in liquid nitrogen at -196oC

METHODS OF PRESERVATION
1. Preservation by high temperature:
Pasteurization Sterilization
Partial destruction of microbes Complete destruction of microbes
Temperature < 1000 C Temperature > 1000C
Commonly used for fruit juices Commonly used for canning of vegetables

2. Preservation by low temperature:

❖ Cellar storage (150C): e.g., Root crops, potatoes, onions and apples are most suitable
❖ Refrigeration or chilling method: 0 to 50 C
❖ Freezing method: 180C to -400C
➢ Best way preserving pure fruit juice: Freezing
3. Preservation by chemical preservatives:
❖ Any substances added to food by the process of curing is known as smoking
Salt act as a preservative 15-25%
Sugar act as a preservative 62-65%
Alcohol acts as a preservative in wines 14%
Vinegar contains 5% acetic acid

This method is based on utilization of various chemicals for preservation of foods. Salt, Sugar, Acetic
acid and Chemical preservatives like Potassium met bisulphite and Sodium Benzoate are known chemicals
for food preservation.
❖ Class I preservatives or natural preservatives: salt, sugar, vinegar, syrup, spices, honey and edible
oil

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 157

❖ Class II Preservatives or chemical preservatives: benzoates, sorbates, nitrites and nitrates of
sodium or potassium, sulfites, glutamates, glycerides. Maximum limit for these substances under FPO
(Fruit Products order) in different fruit and vegetable products vary between 40 to 2000 ppm (SO2),
120 to 750 ppm (benzoic acid) and 50 to 500 ppm (sorbic acid) depending upon the type and category
of foods.
❖ Both, natural and chemical preservatives are categorized into 3 types:
(i) Antimicrobial: that destroy or delay the growth of bacteria, yeast, and molds. E.g., nitrites and
nitrates, sulfur dioxide, Benzoates and sorbates are anti-fungal used in jams, salads, cheese, and
pickles.
(ii) Antioxidants that slow or stop the breakdown of fats and oils in food that happens in the presence
of oxygen (Oxidation) leading to rancidity. Examples of antioxidants include BHT, BHA, TBHQ,
and propyl gallate.
(iii)Anti-enzymatic preservatives that block the enzymatic processes such as ripening occurring in
foodstuffs even after harvest. E.g., Erythorbic acid and citric acid

Two important chemical preservatives are permitted to beverages according to the FPO (1955).
1. Sulphur dioxide: It is widely used throughout the world in the preservation of juice, pulp, nectar,
squash, crush, cordial, and other products. It has good preserving action against bacteria and moulds and
inhibits enzymes, etc. it acts as an antioxidant and bleaching agent. It is generally used in the form of
its salts such as sulphite, bisulphate, and metabisulphite. Potassium metabisulphite (K2O 2SO2 (or)
K2S2O5) is commonly used as a stable source of SO2. According to FPO, the maximum amount of SO2
allowed in fruit juice is 700 ppm, in squash, crush and cordial 350 ppm and in RTS and nectar 100 ppm.
The advantages of using SO2 are:
❖ It has a better preserving action than sodium benzoate against bacterial fermentation
❖ It helps to retain the colour of the beverage for a longer time than sodium benzoate
❖ Being a gas, it helps in preserving the surface layer of juices also.
❖ Being highly soluble in juices and squashes, it ensures better mixing and hence their preservation.
❖ Any excess of SO2 present can be removed either by heating the juice to about 71oC or by-passing
air through it or by subjecting the juice to vacuum. This causes some loss of the flavoring materials
due to volatilization, which can be compensated by adding flavours.
Disadvantages (or) limitations:
❖ It cannot be used in the case of some naturally coloured juices like those of jamun, pomegranate,
strawberry, coloured grapes, plum etc. on account of its bleaching action.
❖ It cannot also be used for juices which are to be packed in tin containers because it not only corrodes
the tin causing pinholes, but also forms H2S which has a disagreeable smell and reacts with the iron
of the tin container to form a black compound, both of which are highly undesirable.
❖ SO2 gives a slight taste and colour to freshly prepared beverages but these are not serious defects if
the beverage is diluted before drinking.
2. Benzoic acid:
Benzoic acid is more effective against yeasts than against moulds. It does not stop lactic acid and acetic
acid fermentation.
❖ Sodium Benzoate: Check growth of yeast.
❖ KMS: Check the growth of bacteria and Fungi.

158 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

Permissible limits of Class II preservatives in food products (FPO)
Sulphur dioxide:

1. Fruit pulp 2000-3000 ppm SO2

2. Fruit juice concentrate 1500 ppm SO2
3. Dried fruits viz., apples, peaches pears and other fruits 2000 ppm SO2
4. Raisins 750 ppm SO2
5. Squashes, cordials, crushes, fruit syrups and fruit 700 ppm of KMS
juices
6. Jam, marmalade, preserve 40 ppm SO2
7. Crystallized and glazed fruits 150 ppm SO2
8. RTS 70 ppm
9. Pickles and chutneys 100 ppm SO2
10. Dehydrated vegetables 2000 ppm SO2
11. Syrups and sherbets 350 ppm SO2
12. Wines 450 ppm SO2
Benzoic acid
1. Squashes, crushes fruit, syrups, cordials 600 ppm
2. Jam, jelly, marmalade 200 ppm
3. Pickles and chutneys 250 ppm
4. Tomato and other sauces 750 ppm
5. Tomato puree and pasta 250 ppm

Sulphuring or sulphiting: Sulphur dioxide is used to preserve the colour and increase the shelf life of
dried foods. There are two main methods of adding sulphur to foods - sulphuring and sulphiting.
Sulphuring is more common for fruits and sulphiting for vegetables. Sulphuring uses rock sulphur which
may be more readily available than sodium or potassium metabisulphite. One of the disadvantages of
sulphiting is that it wets the fruit (the fruit is dipped into a solution of metabisulphite). This prolongs the
drying period required.

CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES BASED ON pH:

❖ Lacquering is the process of coating the inside of a can with lacquer (Golden coloured enamel) which
prevents discolouration.
❖ Acid resistant lacquer or R-enamel or AR cans: Acidic fruits and vegetables
❖ Sulphur resistant lacquer or C-enamel or SR cans: Used for vegetables and Non-acid foods
❖ SR cans used for non-acid foods: Used only for pea, corn, lima bean and red kidney bean
❖ Lactic acid fermentation: sauerkraut → Cabbage

PICKLES:
❖ Pickling is the result of fermentation by "lactic acid bacteria"
❖ Lactic acid bacteria are most active at 300C
❖ Lactic acid bacteria grow in 8-10% of salt solution
❖ Growth of majority of spoilage organisms is inhibited by 15% of salt
❖ Advisable to place vegetables in 10% salt solution for vigorous lactic acid bacteria
❖ Preservation by salt (15% or above) method of preservation is mostly used in vegetables

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 159

❖ Pickles preserved by oil: Mango, Cauliflower
❖ Finished pickle should not be less than 2% acetic acid

FERMENTED BEVERAGES:
❖ Optimum temperature for fermentation of grape wine is 22-280C
❖ Common yeast used in wine: Saccharomyces cerevisiasae var. ellipsoideus (20 ml/kg of grapes)
❖ Feni is a fermented wine made from cashew apple in Goa

Salt

Sugar

Vinegar

Potassium Meta bisulphite

and sodium benzoate

Fermentation

1. Salt: Salt at a concentration of 15-16 % is used for preservation of food and minimum 12 %
2. Sugar: Any product containing 65 % or more sugar can be kept in good condition for quite longer
period.
3. Vinegar: Vinegar contains acetic acid, and it turns to medium acidic. Acidic medium does not favour
the growth of many microorganisms. Food material containing 1-5 % acetic Solution can be kept
fresh for longer period.
4. Potassium Meta bisulphite and sodium benzoate: These chemicals are used widely for preservation
of foods.
➢ Potassium Meta bisulphite (KMS): It used against colour less fruit juices/pulp.
➢ Sodium benzoate: Used in colored fruit
5. Fermentation: Decomposition of carbohydrate by microorganism or enzyme into organic acid or
alcohol is termed as fermentation. E.g., Grape wine (7-20 % alcohol)
6. Asepsis: Prevent entry of microbes.

PREPARATION AND PRESERVATION OF SOME COMMON PRODUCTS

JAM:
❖ Jam is prepared by boiling the fruit pulp with enough sugar to a reasonably thick consistency, firm
enough to hold fruit tissues in position.

160 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

❖ It should contain not less than 68% per cent total soluble solids (TSS) & 45% portion of prepared
fruit. (Determined by a refractometer).
❖ Jam contains 0.5%-0.6% acid.
❖ Jam may be made from a single fruit (apple, strawberry, banana, pineapple etc.) or from a combination
of two or more fruits.
❖ The preparation of jam requires several unit operations viz., selection of fruit, preparation of fruit,
and addition of sugar, addition of acid, mixing, cooking, filling, closing, cooling and storage.
❖ Sugar is added according to acid content.
❖ Process: Ripe firm fruits → Washing → Peeling →Pulping (Remove seed and core) → Addition
of sugar and acid → Boiling (with continuous stirring) → Judging of end point by further cooking up
to 105o C (or) 68% TSS (or) by sheet test → Filling hot into sterilized bottles → cooling → Sterilized
bottles → cooling → Waxing → Capping → Storage (at ambient temperature).
❖ Judging of end point in JAM: Sheet test, TSS test, Temperature test

JELLY:
❖ Jelly is a semi-solid product prepared by boiling a clear, strained solution of pectin containing fruit
extract with enough sugar and measured quantity of acid.
❖ A perfect jelly should be transparent, well set, but not too stiff and should have the original flavor
of the fruit.
❖ Sugar is added according to Pectin content.
❖ Red colour of jelly is due to charring of sugar.
❖ Pectin is determined by Alcohol test and Jelmeter test.
❖ Different fruits like guava, plum, papaya, and gooseberry.
❖ Jelly contains 0.5-0.75% acid.
❖ Pectin content in jelly 0.5-1%
❖ As per FPO specification, jelly should have 65% TSS and 45 % portion of fruit juice.
❖ Final pH of jelly is 3.5.

MARMALADE
❖ Marmalade is a fruit jelly in which slices of the citrus fruit or its peels are suspended.
❖ Marmalades are generally made from citrus fruits like oranges and lemons in which shredded peels
are suspended.
❖ End point of Marmalade 65% TSS @1050C.

SQUASH:
❖ It is concentrated beverage prepared from juice of fruits after mixing it with strained sugar syrup
and preservative.
❖ As per FPO specification, squash contain 25% fruit juice and 40% TSS.

PRESERVES:
❖ Preserves (Murabbas) are prepared from whole fruits and vegetables or their segments by
addition of sugar followed by evaporation to a point where microbial spoilage can’t occur.
❖ The finished product can be stored without hermetic sealing and refrigeration.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 161

SYRUP:
❖ A solution of sugar in water is called a syrup and process of adding syrup in fruit product is
called as syruping.
❖ White, refined sucrose is used for making syrup.
❖ Syruping is commonly done in fruits.
❖ Syruping is to improve the flavor of product and to serve as a medium of heat transfer during
canning.

BRINING:
❖ Brine is a solution of salt in water is called a brine.
❖ The objective of brining is similar to syruping; however, brining is done only in vegetables.
Pickling is the result of fermentation by lactic acid forming bacterial which are generally present in large
numbers on the surface of fresh vegetables and fruits. Theses bacteria can grow in acid medium and in
the presence of 8-10% salt solution whereas the growth of a majority of undesirable organisms is inhibited.
Minimum of 12 % salt (ICAR).
The FPO specifications of sauces are TSS – 25% and acidity – 1%.
Syrup: This type of fruit beverage contains 25% fruit juice (or) pulp, 65% TSS, 1.3 to 1.5% acidity and
350 ppm of So2 or 600 ppm of KMS.
RTS: contains atleast 10% fruit juice and 10% total soluble solids besides about 0.3 per cent acid.
Squash: at least 25 per cent fruit juice (or) pulp, 45% TSS, 1.0% acidity and 350 ppm of So2 (or) 600
ppm of sodium benzoate.
Cordial: contains atleast 25% juice, 30% TSS, 1.5% acid and 350 ppm of So2.
Fruits and vegetables can be classified into the following four groups according to their pH value:
Class pH Product
Low acid (called Above 5.0 Vegetables such as peas, lima bean, asparagus, cauliflower, potato,
non-acid) spinach, beet, corn, french bean
Medium acid 4.5-5.0 Turnip, carrot, okra, cabbage, pumpkin, beet, green bean, etc., and
products like soups and sauces
Acid 3.7-4.5 Tomato, pear, banana, mango, jackfruit, pineapple, sweet cherry,
peach, apple and other fruits
High acids Below 3.7 Citrus juice, rhubarb, prune, sauerkraut, pickle, chutney, etc.

FPO Specifications for Some Preserved foods:

Food TSS Fruit juice or Pulp
Unsweetened juice Natural 100
Fruit Syrup 65 % 25
Fruit Nectar (Excluding 15% 20
orange and pineapple nectar)
Orange and Pineapple nectar 15% 40%
Jam 68 % 45%
Jelly 65% 45%

162 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 squash 40% 25%
RTS (Ready to Serve) 10% 10%
Cordial 30% 25%
Marmalade 65%
Sauce 25%

Type of spoilage in fruits and vegetables:

Grey mould rot Botrytis cinerea
Rhizopus soft rot Rhizopus nigricans
Blue mould rot Penicillium italicum
Black mould rot Aspergillus niger
Slimmings or soury Saprophytic bacteria

Important moulds:
Blue moulds Penicillium
Black moulds Aspergillus
Grey Moulds Mucor sp.
Spoilage of canned fruits Byssochlamys fulva

pH range of growth:
Moulds 1.5-8.5
Yeasts 2.5-8.5
Bacteria 4.0-7.5

Browning reaction: Browning reactions is due to enzymatic and non-enzymatic.

❖ Enzymatic browning: Apple, Bananas, Brinjal.
❖ Brown colour due enzymes: polyphenol oxidase (PPO), tyrosinase and catecholase.
❖ Non-enzymatic browning: Sugar and sugar related compounds

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 163

MOST IMPORTANT FACTS
❖ Symptom of citrus canker appear on which of the plant parts: Leaves, Fruits, Branch (AFO-2015)
❖ Jwala, Gazal, Priyadarshani variety of Gladiolus. (AFO-2015)
❖ Pant bahar is pear shaped variety of tomato. (AFO-2015)
❖ The time of planting main crop of potato in Northern plain: First fortnight of October (AFO-2015)
❖ Little leaf in mango and cashew is due to deficiency of: Zinc (AFO-2016)
❖ Propping in banana is: Giving the support (AFO-2016)
❖ The finest and most popular variety of Mandarin orange: Clementine (AFO-2016)
❖ Back hurt and hollow heart in potato occur due to: Environmental condition (AFO-2016)
❖ What should be the spacing for standard variety of apple tree: 20-30 feet (AFO-2016)
❖ Which state has the largest area and production of potato in India: UP(AFO-2016)
❖ Which mango variety yields on an average 16 t/ha and about 1600 plants can be accommodated in
one hectare: Amrapali (AFO-2016)
❖ Dieback in citrus and cracking of apple is due to the deficiency of: Boron (AFO-2016)
❖ In India, micro propagation in fruits crops is most common and popular in: Banana (AFO-2016)
❖ Super onion variety is suitable for kharif crop. (AFO-2016)
❖ Pramalini, Vikram and Chkradhar are varieties of: Lime (AFO-2016)
❖ To get maximum yield the spacing of Banana plantation for Robusta verities is (in cm): 1.8× 1.8
(AFO-2016)
❖ What is the ideal time for planting the unrooted cutting of grapes direct in the field: October (AFO-
2016)
❖ Chausa, Dassehari, langra verities of mango are available from: May-June (AFO-2016)
❖ The most popular grape variety in India is sororless (AFO-2016)
❖ Internal necrosis in mango and internal cork in apple is due to the deficiency of: Boron (AFO-2016)
❖ Jackfruit is an example of sorosis type of fruit. (AFO-2016)
❖ The pungency in uninjured garlic is due to the presence of: Alliinase (AFO-2016)
❖ Spongy tissue is a serious problem of which mango cultivar: Alphonso (AFO-2016) (TNPSC 2018)
❖ Which nutrient deficiency is responsible for little leaf in mango and mottle leaf of citrus: Zinc (AFO-
2016)
❖ Money allocated for 1 ha horticulture crop as per national horticulture mission programme: 15 lakh
per nursery (AFO-2017)
❖ Causal agent of Black mildew in mango plant: Meliola mangiferae (AFO-2017)
❖ Causal agent of Bacterial spot in citrus: Xanthomonas campestris pv. Citri (AFO-2017)
❖ Economic Life span of coconut in years for coconut palm: 60 years (AFO-2017)
❖ Black heart of potato is a: Oxygen deficiency disorder (AFO-2017)
❖ Citrus cracking is due to: Deficiency of boron (AFO-2017)
❖ What is the minimum amount of assistance under National horticulture Mission for adoption of
organic farming: 10000/ha (AFO-2017)
❖ Phytophthora parasitica is disease causing pathogen in citrus group. (AFO-2017)
❖ Colletotrichum gloeosporiodes is disease causing pathogen in mango group. (AFO-2017)
❖ Totapuri variety of Mango belongs to which state: Karnataka (AFO-2018)
❖ Ratna variety of Mango is a cross of: Neelam × Alphanso(AFO-2018)
❖ What is the optimum pH required for Grapes: 6.5-7.5 (AFO-2018)
❖ What is the optimum pH required for Guava: 6.5-8 (AFO-2018)
❖ What is the optimum pH required for Banana: 6.5-7.5 (AFO-2018)
❖ In Banana, which nutrient is given in largest amount through fertigation: K (AFO-2018)

164 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

❖ Coconut is a perennial crop. (AFO-2018)
❖ Which among the following propagation method is used in droopy/viney: Serpentine layering
(AFO-2019)
❖ Banana is exported to gulf area. India exports maximum banana to which among the following
Arabian country: Saudi Arabia (AFO-2019)
❖ What is the premium rate for commercial/ horticultural crops under PMFBY: 5 (AFO-2019)
❖ Which horticulture crop has lowest production: Medicinal (AFO-2019)
❖ Which horticulture crop has lowest productivity: Medicinal (AFO-2019)
❖ Which horticulture crop has highest productivity: Vegetable (AFO-2019)
❖ Golden revolution related to: Fruit (AFO-2020)
❖ What is the propagation method in Banana: Sucker (AFO-2020)
❖ Crown cleaning related to: Coconut (AFO-2020)
❖ Disease of rose greyish white powdery patches are seen on the tender leaves and flower buds, mature
leaves get malformed and flower bud fail to open and plant present wilted appearance: Powdery
mildew (AFO-2020)
❖ Pulsing is related to: Processing of flowers (AFO-2020)
❖ Tropical fruit is Papaya (AFO-2020)
❖ Removal of Male bud in banana: Denavelling (AFO-2020)
❖ Grape training system where the vines connected with each other: Telephone (AFO-2020)
❖ What is the Isolation distance required for foundation seed production of okra: 400 m (AFO-2020)
❖ Guava pest which deposit eggs on soft skin of ripening fruit, on hatching maggot bore into fruit and
feed on the soft pulp, the infested show depressions with dark green puncture and when cut opens the
maggots are visible and finally fruit rot and fall: Fruit fly (AFO-2020)
❖ Botanical name of pomegranate: Punica granatum (AFO-2020)
❖ Irregular bearing mango variety is: Kesar (AFO-2020)
❖ Isabgol is a medicinal plant which is known as laxative medicinal plant. (AFO-2020)
❖ Aesthetic and shady plantation for decoration purpose: Arboriculture (AFO-2020)
❖ In which grafting Rootstock debarked 45 cm from ground level two slopes cut given and wedge is
made tongue shape scion inserted: Wedge grafting (AFO-2020)
❖ Pungency in onion is due to: Allyl propyl disulphide (AFO-2021)
❖ What is the fruit type of Pineapple: Sorosis (AFO-2021)
❖ Rose fruit type is known as: Hip (AFO-2021)
❖ What is the ICMR recommendation of Vegetables (g/day): 300 (AFO-2021)
❖ Disorder in Pomegranate in which arils are disintegration, where arils become soft, light creamy –
brown to dark blackish brown and unfit for consumption and the deficiency is not seen externally:
Internal breakdown (AFO-2021)
❖ Symptoms of Powdery mildew of pea are first seen on which part of the plant: Leaves (AFO-2021)
❖ Late blight is the disease of: Potato (AFO-2021)
❖ Pusa Nanha variety of papaya is developed by: Mutation (AFO-2022)
❖ Coorg is a commercial variety of: Coffee (AFO-2022)
❖ When plant is propagated by small tissue or part of plant is termed as: Micropropagation (AFO-
2022)
❖ Amrapali variety of mango is made by the cross of: Dasehari X Neelam (AFO-2022)
❖ Cricket ball & Kalipatti variety of which crop: Sapota (AFO-2022)
❖ Guava flesh pink spot variety which is also known as sardar: L-49 (AFO-2022)

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 165

❖ Immature green fruits turned into edible, desirable flavour, quality, colour, palatable nature with
ethylene treatment: Ripening (AFO-2022)
❖ Condition where two batches of male flower and two batches of female flower are separated
temporally this condition is known as: Duo dichogamy (RRB-SO 2019)
❖ Lettuce does not belong to a umbelliferae family. (RRB-SO 2019)
❖ Tongue Grafting is done in which fruit crop: Malus domestica (RRB-SO 2019)
❖ Dark green streak on the lower portion of leaf midrib and later the secondary vein’s disease called
“Morse code”. This disease of banana will be called as: Bunchy top virus (RRB-SO 2019)
❖ Which instrument is used to cut the hard branches and Woody shrubs of plants: Bill Hook (RRB-SO
2019)
❖ Syconus is the fruit type of which of the following fruit: Fig (RRB-SO 2019)
❖ Horticulture nursery soil should be well drained, Black cotton soil type of soil is not suitable for
nursery. (RRB-SO 2018)
❖ Fruit of different varieties grown in different states King Mandarin is variety of citrus. (RRB-SO
2018)
❖ Mango is a tropical fruit, but high humidity and rain should be avoided during flowering. What is the
temperature range for the cultivation of fruit: 24 to 27℃ (RRB-SO 2018)
❖ In agronomy classified crop plants is done as a classified for better understanding. Which of the
following crop is medicinal crop based on economic use: Mint (RRB-SO 2018)
❖ Pomegranate is a favourite table food of tropical and subtropical countries. The different varieties
cultivated for both seeded type and soft seeded type. Dholka variety is soft seeded type. (RRB-SO
2018)
❖ Pineapple is mainly growing in tropical and subtropical climate. What is the pH for pineapple: 5.5-7
(RRB-SO 2018)
❖ There is different mother plant for Guava varieties cultivation. Which of the following mother plant
for Guava for cultivators in Maharashtra and South India: Sardar L-49 (RRB-SO 2018)
❖ Mound layering method for layering for vegetative propagation of plants is to propagate many of
the thick stemmed or closely branched plants especially when it is desirable to root all the branches.
(RRB-SO 2018)
❖ Mettocking operation is conducted in pseudo stem of banana after bunch harvesting: (RRB-SO 2020)
❖ When to harvest gerbera flower: Few florets open (RRB-SO 2020)
❖ Grafting method in which germinating seeds less than 2 weeks are wedge or splice graft on success
depends on temperature and high RH: Stone Grafting (RRB-SO 2020)
❖ Coorg honey dew variety of: Papaya (RRB-SO 2020)
❖ Which is correct Bacterial wilt of tomato symptom: Leaves do not turn yellow, but wilting is seen.
Vascular bundles show brownish discoloration (RRB-SO 2020)
❖ Which is natural mutant variety of coffee: Caturra (RRB-SO 2020)
❖ What is the isolation distance for foundation seed of Onion crop in m: 1000 (RRB-SO 2021)
❖ The physiological disorder of strawberry, due to lack of fruit color during ripening in which fruit
remain irregular pink or even totally white and sometimes swollen beside having acid test and less
firm: Albinism (RRB-SO 2021)
❖ The tree species which is rich in vitamin C and has a good medicinal property in Ayurveda is:
Emblica Officinalis (RRB-SO 2021)
❖ Endosperm is the edible portion of which fruit crop: Coconut (RRB-SO 2021)
❖ Anthurium flower is harvested at which stage: When the spathe is completely unfurls and the
spadix is developed (RRB-SO 2021)

166 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

❖ Which crop is related to term CTC processing: Tea (NABARD 2021)
❖ Pruning is a practice of selective removal of dead parts of the plants to manipulate plants for
horticultural production. (NABARD 2021)
❖ In temperate climate, tree leaves start shedding during autumn /winter: Deciduous (NABARD 2021)
❖ First fully organic state and state of flower: Sikkim (NABARD 2021).
❖ Which branch of horticulture deals with production, processing, and storage of vegetables:
Olericulture (NABARD 2021).
❖ The ministry of Agriculture has announced 2012 as the “Year of Horticulture".
❖ Type of grafting used to repair stem: Bridge grafting (JRF 2018)
❖ The media used in air layering: Sphagnum moss (TNPCS Assistance Horti. Officer 2020)
❖ Avocado is climacteric fruit grows between 16-320C and in the soil pH 6-7. (FSO-2019)
❖ Chip budding is done in: Grape (ARO 2022)
❖ Ber crop is summer dormant: (RPSC AAO 2019)
❖ An apple in a day keeps the doctor away was quoted by: Benjamin Franklin (ICAR JRF Horticulture
2021)
❖ The most critical requirement of water in apple is from: April to August (ICAR JRF Horticulture
2021)
❖ "King of Temperate Fruits" is called: Apple (FCI-2021)
❖ In north India, best time of pruning of Ber is: May (AARO 2022)
❖ Bitter pith in apple is due to deficiency of : Ca (JNKVV and RVSKVV fruit science PG 2020)
❖ "Flesh translucency" is a serious physiological disorder of: Pineapple (JRF 2020 horticulture)
❖ Recurrent type of apomixis is found in apples: (JNKVV and RVSKVV PhD fruit science 2020)
❖ Papaya is a Tropical fruit. (AFO 2020)
❖ Fruit cracking in pomegranate is due to the deficiency of : Ca, B and K (Raj Pre PG 2019)
❖ Vinegar made from Apple fruit juice is known as cider. (TSPSC AO 2023)
❖ Commercial method of Ber propagation: T – budding
❖ Ambri apple variety is indigenous to Kashmir and popular in the region. (ARS NET 2022)
❖ The somatic chromosome number(2n) of Illaichi cultivar of Ber (Ziziphus mauritinana) is: 96
(JNKVV & RVSKVV HORTICULTURE PhD 2020)
❖ Origin of pomegranate is: Iran (BHU RET 2022)
❖ Rosette disorder of apple is due to deficiency of: Zinc (BHU RET 2022)
❖ Ber which scientific name is Ziziphus mauritinana, best time for pruning in Ber is April- May, it has
a variety which are originating from Rajasthan and came under late maturity: Umran (RPSC, AO-
09, BFSC2023, AARO 2022)
❖ Fruit of the 21st century is called: Aonla (IGKV CET 2022)
❖ Choose the dwarf root stock of apple: Malling 9 (TNPSC 2018)
❖ Ber is commonly known as: Poor man’s fruit, King of arid fruit (HPSC HDO 2019)
❖ An Apple in a day keeps the doctor away was quoted by: Benjamin Franklin (JRF Horticulture
2021)
❖ The most critical period of water requirement in apple is from: April – August (JRF 2021)
❖ Bhima shubra variety of onion produces white coloured bulls. (FSO paper -2019)
❖ In which variety of banana hard lump is a common problem: Poovan (ICAR JRF 2021).
❖ Winter banana is a variety of : Apple (BHU PET 2018)
❖ Pomegranate is multi stemmed and mixed bearing habit and botanically its fruits is called balusta.
(UASS 2022)
❖ In Aonla, inter-varietal plantation is done due to : Shy bearing nature of Aonla (BHU PET 2018)

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 167

❖ Maharajaji is a variety of : Apple (ICAR 2021)
❖ In tickle method of degreening mosambi can be completely degreened in 48 hrs at: 26-30 ℃ (ICAR
JRF 2021).
❖ Ber crop is summer dormant. (RPSC AAO 2019)
❖ Lal ambri apple hybrid is a cross between: Red delicious x Ambri (JRF HORTICULTURE 2019)
❖ Jamun crop has Polyembryonic nature: (ICAR JRF 2018)
❖ Development of seedless fruit would not be useful in case of- Pomegranate (ICAR JRF PLANT
SCIENCE 2021)
❖ Fire blight of apple and pear is caused by: Erwinia amylovora (PRE PG 2020)
❖ Pink calyx is a disorder found in: Pear (JNKVV & RSKVVV PHD HORTI 2022)
❖ Fingertip disease mostly occurs in high density planting of banana. (ICAR JRF 2019)
❖ Patharnakh is a variety of: Pear (ICAR JRF 2019)
❖ "Spineless stigma" is related to maturity of: Sapota (JRF 2021)
❖ Hand pollination is recommended cultural practice in Date palm fruit crop. (ICAR SRF-2020)
❖ Flattening of eye take place during maturity in: Pineapple (BHU RET 2022)
❖ Date palm fruit has maximum fructose sugar per 100g of edible portion. (BHU RET2022)
❖ "T" shaped marking on marble sized mango fruits is a symptom produced by: Nut weevil (BHU-
2020)
❖ Seed production of Pusa chandrima varieties can't be cultivated possible in the plains. (ICAR JRF
Horticulture 2021)
❖ Panama disease of banana is caused by: Fusarium oxysporum f. sp cubense (ASRB NET 2019)
❖ Appearance of dry corky lesions in pear is caused by the deficiency of: Boron (JNKVV & RVSKVV
2022)
❖ Stenting propagation technique is followed commercially in: Plum (Horticulture Supervisor 2022)
❖ Maturity index of Sapota is: Scales of fruit surface (JNKVV&RVSKVV 2022)
❖ Flash translucency is a serious physiological disorder of : Pineapple (JRF 2021)
❖ Potassium plays an important role in stomata opening and closing process. (PRE PG 2022)
❖ The most used rootstock for plum in India: Prunus armeniaca (JRF 2021)
❖ Sharbati is a variety of: Peach (JRF 2021)
❖ Dibbis is a drink prepared from: Date palm (ICAR JRF 2019)
❖ Peach is a temperate fruit crop the double growth curve. (JRF Horticulture 2020)
❖ Pink calyx is disorder found in Pear (JNKVV & RVSKVV 2022)
❖ Date palm fruit is the richest source of carbohydrates. (ARO 2022)
❖ A physiological disorder in banana characterized by the abnormal & premature development of fruit
is known as: Yellow pulp (AARO 2022)
❖ Pineapple is a CAM plant. (MP RAEO 2019)
❖ Queen of fruits: Mangosteen (AO KPSC 2022)
❖ Partial pinching of crown to improve fruit size and shape of pineapple is done at: 45 days after fruit
set (ICAR JRF Horticulture 2021)
❖ Sapota fruit at full maturity develop a dull orange or potato colour and dried spine like stigma at top
of the fruit falls or drops of easily when touched. (UHSB 2021)
❖ Adriatic fig, Smyrna fig is suitable for drying purpose: (UAHSS 2020)
❖ The stage of inflorescence emergence in pineapple is: Red heart (ICAR JRF Horticulture 2020)
❖ Sterculaceae is the family of cacoa: (ICAR JRF 2019)
❖ The optimum age for transplanting of coconut seedling is: 9 to 12 month (ICAR JRF 2021)
❖ Coconut toddy is obtained by tapping the: Unopened spadix (JRF -Horticulture 2019)

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❖ Barren nut in coconut is due to the deficiency of: Boron (ICAR JRF 2019)
❖ Major producer of coconut in the world: Indonesia (ICAR JRF 2019)
❖ Crown chocking in coconut in due to deficiency of: Boron (ICAR JRF 2019)
❖ Kerala is the largest coconut producing state of in India. (ICAR JRF 2019)
❖ Dual purpose, drought tolerant and higher nutrient use efficient hybrid of coconut: Kalpa Samrudhi
(JRF Horticulture - 2021)
❖ Removal of undesirable branches by picking auxiliary buds is known as: Nipping (BHU RET 2022)
❖ The dry recovery rate of turmeric: 15 to 30% (ICAR JRF Horticulture 2021)
❖ 'Witches broom' is the major disorder of Cocoa crop. (JNKVV and RVKSKVV Horticulture 2022)
❖ Coconut cadang cadang disease is caused by: Viroid (KPSC 2022)
❖ The coconut development board is in: Kochin (ASRB NET 2019)
❖ The tea plantation requires rainfall of 150-250 cm (PRE PG 2022)
❖ Punjab hybrid is male sterile hybrid of Musk melon. (BHU RET 2020)
❖ The edible part of globe artichoke is: Immature flower head (BHU RET 2021)
❖ A thermo sensitive vegetable crop is Cauliflower (JNKVV & RVSKVV Horticulture PhD 2020)
❖ MRI is major source of resistance to fusarium wilt in muskmelon. (AARO 2022)
❖ Sugar baby variety of watermelon was introduced from USA country. (AARO 2022)
❖ Chromosome number of Elephant Foot Yam (2n) = 28 (JRF 2021)
❖ Pusa Rasraj is variety of : Hybrid of muskmelon (BHU-2020)
❖ Sauerkraut is generally prepared from: Cabbage (RPSC FSO -2019) (ICAR JRF Horticulture 2020)
❖ Roma and Punjab Chuhara variety of tomato is responsible for transport and processing: (BHU
2021)
❖ "Arka Jyoti" is a F1 hybrid of : Watermelon (JRF horticulture 2021)
❖ Generally seedless watermelon is : Triploid (UPCATET 2023)
❖ A thermo sensitive vegetable crop is: Cauliflower (JNKVV & RSKVV PhD Horti2020)
❖ Golden Acre, Pride of India and Express are the improved varieties of : Cabbage (UPCATET 2023)
❖ The first tropical variety of cabbage which can set seed in north Indian plains is : Pusa Ageti (JRF
HORTICULTURE 2019)
❖ The edible portion of cabbage is Head (UPCATET 2023)
❖ Sporophytic system of incompatibility is found in: Cabbage (ICAR JRF 2018)
❖ Pinching of male flower bud for easy and economic seed production is commercially followed in:
Watermelon (ICAR JRF 2021)
❖ Self-incompatibility led to cross pollination in: Cauliflower (ICAR JRF 2018)
❖ Pusa bedana is a seedless variety of: Watermelon (ICAR JRF 2018)
❖ Blossom end rot is disorder of Tomato plant and due to Ca deficiency. (BHU 2021, BAU 2022, AFO-
2021)
❖ Removal of central portion of curd for flower initiation in cauliflower is known as: Scooping (ICAR
JRF2021)
❖ Pointed gourd is propagated by: Stem cutting (JNKVV and RKSKVV MSC Entrance Exam
horticulture 2022)
❖ Whiptail disease of Cauliflower is favourable in Acidic soil condition. (MSc entrance 2021)
❖ Watermelon is known as 'Mood food’. (JRF Horticulture 2020)
❖ Cole crops are evolved from Brassica oleracea var. acephala. (JNKVV MSC 2022
HORTICULTURE)
❖ Pusa snowball is a variety of: Cauliflower (IACR JTF HORTICULTURE 2019)
❖ Botanical name of muskmelon is: Cucumis melo (TNPSC 2018)

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❖ Present day bitter gourd is: Aneuploid (JNKVV&RVSKVV 2022)
❖ Buttoning is a physiological disorder in: Cauliflower (OPSC AAO 2022)
❖ Gold mine of wasteland is known as: Cashew (MGKVV CET 2023)
❖ A source of highest level of natural insulin: Indian gourd (JNKVV & RVSKVV 2022)
❖ Heavy dull sound at the time of harvesting in watermelon shows: Maturity (ARS 2019)
❖ Beetroot vegetable is biennial, hermaphrodite and wind pollinated. (ICAR JRF HORTICULTURE
2021)
❖ First indigenous hybrid of cabbage is: KGMR-1 (JNKVV & RVSKVV vegetable science 2022)
❖ Ground spot is a maturity index of: Watermelon (PRE-PG 2023)
❖ Rubber plantation crop follows green budding or crown budding. (State exam 2020)
❖ White brinjal is recommended for: Diabetes (JRF HORTICULTURE 2019)
❖ Carrot is a biennial crop. (KRIBHCO -2019)
❖ Fall of immature leaf is due to the deficiency of: Phosphorus (2018 NEET)
❖ Pant Samrat is triple disease resistant variety of Brinjal while Punjab Surkh is the multiple disease
resistant variety of: Chilli (BAU 2021)
❖ Purple blotch is a disease of: Onion (MGKVV 2023)
❖ Isolation distance for foundation seed production of chilli: 400 m (ICAR NET 2023)
❖ Protandry type of flower is found in: Onion (BHU RET2022)
❖ Botanically the fruit of brinjal is Berry (JNKVV RVSKVV Ph. D Vegetable Science 2022)
❖ Bitterness in carrot is associated with: Iso coumarin (BHU RET 2021)
❖ The crop showing greatest inbreeding depression is Onion (JRF 2017)
❖ Most common disease in crucifers, radish, and sweet potato: White rots (JNKVV&RVSKVV 2022)
❖ Solasodine is present in Brinjal crop. (JNKVV And RKSKVV 2022)
❖ Pungency in chilli is due to: Capsaicin (JNKVV And RKSKVV MSC ENTRANCE Exam
horticulture 2022)
❖ Garlic contains amino acid namely: Allicin (JNKVV and RKSKVV 2022)
❖ Chemical used for seed extraction in tomato is: HCL (TNPSC AO2021)
❖ Wilt of pigeon pea is caused by: Fusarium odum (JNKVV2020)
❖ Arka gaurav is variety of: Chilli (MSC 2021)
❖ Pusa gaurav is the variety of: Tomato (BAU 2022)
❖ Chanchal is a variety of: Chilli (Dr. Y.S. Parmar solan2023)
❖ Solanine in potato is reduced by which operation: Earthing up (ICAR NET 2023)
❖ The ancestor of cultivated sweet potato is: Ipomea trifida (ICAR JRF Horticulture 2020)
❖ Brinjal variety with extra-long green fruits is Arka Shirish (JNKVV & RVSKVV Horticulture
Vegetable Science 2022)
❖ Top secret variety of Rose has red colour. (JRF horticulture 2021)
❖ Ajina purple is the most suitable variety of chrysanthemum for pot culture. (JRF HORTICULTURE
2021)
❖ Punjab state is largest producer of seeds of annual flowers. (JNKVV&RVSKVV 2022)
❖ Marigold flower crop is rich in lutein: (JNKVV &RVSKVV 2022)
❖ Hydrangea flower crops is used as pH indicator. (JNKVV & RVSKVV 2022)
❖ Floribunda Rose is crossed between: Hybrid tea x Polyantha (BHU RET 2022)
❖ Parterre is an important feature of: French garden (BHU RET 2022)
❖ Peace lily is the common name of: Spathiphyllum wallisii (BHU RET 2021)
❖ An example of mass flower: Rose (ICAR JRF 2018)
❖ Agnihotri is a variety of: Anthurium (ICAR JRF 2018)

170 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

❖ Carnation belongs to the family: Caryophyllaceae (ICAR JRF 2018)
❖ Carnation has originated from: Mediterranean region (JRF Horticulture -2021)
❖ Optimum time for pruning in rose is: October (MP PAT -2022)
❖ Carnation crop is most prone to red spider mite. (HORTI JRF 2020)
❖ Largest producer of loose flower in the world is: India (JNKVV PG Horticulture 2020)
❖ Topple disorder of gladiolus is caused due to deficiency: Ca (JNKVV and RVSKVV PG Horticulture
2020)
❖ The oil present in Rosa damascene is: 0.05% (RAJASTHAN FSO 2023)
❖ International flower market is situated at: Netherlands (BHU 2017)
❖ Directorate of floricultural research is located at: Pune (JRF-2020)
❖ Rose is the national flower of which country: England (JRF 2019)
❖ Dahlia is known as king of flowers. (UHSB 2021)
❖ Sucrose chemical is used for increasing vase life of cut flowers. (JET 2023)
❖ Bending is a specific technique being practiced in: Rose (ICAR JRF 2020)
❖ Marigold seed which fails to emerge, or seedling which die soon after emerging from wet soil are the
results of: Damping off (BAU 2021)
❖ AICRP on floriculture was stared in the year: 1970-71 (PRE PG 2022)
❖ International flower auction in India is situated at: Bengaluru (ICAR JRF 2019)
❖ Origin of tuberose (Rajanigandha) flower is Mexico (BHU PET 2021)
❖ Hybrid tea and floribunda roses are generally propagated by: Stem cutting (JET-2023)
❖ Gladiolus is propagated by: Corms (PRE PG 2021)
❖ National botanical garden is situated in which city: Lucknow (BAU 2019)
❖ Main physiological disorder of Carnation is Calyx split (Horticulture Supervisor - 2022)
❖ Calyx splitting disorder in carnation is due to: B deficiency (TNPSC 2018)
❖ The optimum stage of harvesting of marigold is: Fully open flower (Horticulture Supervisor 2022)
❖ Which marigold flower pigment is used as food colour: Lutein (TSPSC Horticulture Officer 2022)
❖ Gerbera is the best crop for playhouse cultivation. (DDH 2020)
❖ Thorn less variety of rose is Pusa Mohit. (PRE PG 2019)

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