Standard Techniques for Collecting and Preparing Herbarium Specimens

Author(s): Miguel N. Alexiades

Source: Advances in Economic Botany , 1996, Vol. 10, Selected Guidelines for
Ethnobotanical Research: A Field Manual (1996), pp. 99-126
Published by: New York Botanical Garden Press

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/43927613

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Èsili Ži^l8Sā§ļĒ!SļSfflll

Standard Techniques for

Collecting and Preparing
Herbarium Specimens
Miguel N. Alexiades
Institute of Economie Botany,
The New York Botanical Garden

Introduction
The Herbarium Specimen
Collecting Specimens
Tools and Equipment
General Considerations
Choosing the Sample
Gathering Sufficient Material
Sterile versus Fertile Specimens
General Procedure
Using a Field Press
Using a Collection Bag
Collection Numbers
The Collection Notebook and Field Notes
The Herbarium Label
Pressing and Drying Plant Specimens
The Plant Press
Arranging Specimens for Pressing
Pressing Large or Fleshy Parts

Selected Guidelines for Ethnobotanical Research: A Field Manual, 99- 1 26

Edited by Miguel N. Alexiades
° 1996 The New York Botanical Garden

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4 • 100 Selected Guidelines for Ethnobotanical Research

Balancing the Press

Drying Specimens
Preserving Plants before Drying
Packing and Shipping Specimens
Acknowledgments
Literature Cited

Introduction

Properly collected voucher specimens of ethnobotanically im-

portant plants are essential for obtaining taxonomie identifica-
tions. In addition, voucher specimens provide a permanent
record of information that can be reviewed or reassessed. Ethno-
botanical information without adequately vouchered specimens
has little scientific value, since vernacular names vary widely
among individuals, ethnic groups, and geographical areas. Taxo-
nomie determinations thus provide an important basis for sys-
tematizing ethnobotanical knowledge and serve as a critical link
between folk and Western knowledge systems (Bye, 1986). This
chapter summarizes standard techniques used to make herbarium
specimens. For other discussions, readers may consult Archer,
1945; De Wolf, 1968; Fidalgo & Ramos, 1989; Fosberg, 1939;
Fosberg & Sachet, 1965; Johnston, 1939; Ketchledge, 1970?;
Liesner, 1985; Mori et al., 1989; Savile, 1962; Smith, 1971; and
Womersley, 1981. General discussions on managing herbarium
collections and herbaria can be found in Forman & Bridson,
1989; Lot & Chiang, 1986; and Mori et al., 1989.

The Herbarium Specimen

Herbarium specimens are the main tools for taxonomie identifi-
cation. In most cases, determinations will be only as good as the
specimens on which they are based. Collecting sterile (lacking
flowers or fruits), insufficiently annotated, or poor-quality speci-
mens is a waste of time and space and, at best, will yield incom-
plete or unreliable determinations. Indeed, many taxonomists re-
fuse to identify poorly made or sterile specimens. Well-pressed
specimens on the other hand, provide much scientific informa-
tion and are valuable additions to a specialist's collection.

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 MIGUEL N. ALEXIADES 4 • 101

A good herbarium specimen consists of

tion of a plant containing well-preserved
ductive (flowers, fruits) structures. Plant
for permanent storage on sheets of stand
suring about IIV2 X I6V2 in. (28.7 x 4
right corner of the sheet there is a label
on the plant, a description of its appeara
it was collected. A small paper pouch att
sheet is used to keep small pieces of th
become dislodged with time, as well as e
purposely collected (Figure 1). Herbari
clude photographs of the live plant or its
lection area, and hand-written annotation

Collecting Specimens
Tools and Equipment
Pruning Shew (Cuppers) These should be stur
Pruners are often carried in a sheath atta
and convenience.

Bush Knife or Machete A bush knife, known as machete in Latin America

and panga in parts of Africa, is very useful for cutting trails
through thick undergrowth and for cutting large branches, fruits,
and so on. Longer blades allow delivery of more powerful
strokes, but they also are harder to control and so are consider-
ably more dangerous than shorter blades; a blade about 16 in.
long is adequate for most purposes. Bush knives should always
be used with extreme caution; they can easily inflict very deep
cuts, especially if they are well sharpened. When cutting through
vegetation, always swing the knife in arcs leading away from the
body. Exercise caution, particularly when cutting through vines,
because the blade can ricochet off a stem. When not in use, bush
knives should be kept in a sheath.

Field Pick or Trowel Particularly useful for digging roots or removing

the entire plant.

Extendable Tree Pruners These consist of a number of telescoping or

attaching poles (wood, fiberglass, or aluminum) with a pair of

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 Figure I. The herbarium specimen.

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 MIGUEL N. ALEXIADES 4 • 103

shears or a saw at the end. Telescoping

mum length of 12 m and are used for r
Aluminum poles should not be used where th

Collection Notebook This should be sturdy, o

made of weatherproof paper, and with
cover. Weakly bound books or spiral bin
pages to slip out or tear easily, should n
tors keep their collection notebook safe a
a pocket notebook to jot down notes wh

Fíelo Press In most cases it is best to arrang

newspaper in the field, carrying them in a
usually consists of two 12 X 18 in. pl
frames, held together with a pair of cord
(Figure 2). Some of the more portable m
made of lightweight waterproof fabric.
Specimens are folded in old newspapers
stock and slipped between sheets of blott
gated cardboard or aluminum. To save sp

/ A Fastener

^ Pocket
' s' A
U' 6« 12"
ģj
A

12"

Figure 2. The field press.

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4 • 104 Selected Guidelines for Ethnobotanical Research

newspapers with their enclosed plants between the corrugated

sheets; a pair of rubber strands or cords hold the press together.
Field presses are particularly useful when collecting few speci-
mens, for transporting plants that wilt easily, and for small plants
or fragile material that could otherwise be damaged or lost.

Pocket Press This consists of two pieces of cardboard, or an old

notebook small enough to fit in a pocket, containing small sheets
of blotting paper and held together by a strong elastic band.
Pocket presses are used to collect delicate flowers.

Newspapers These are used for carrying specimens in the field press.
Old newspapers or unprinted newsprint may be used, as long as
they measure 11 x 16 in. or less; larger specimens will not fit in
the 12 X 16 in. mounting sheet. Some tabloids are just the right
size. Larger newspaper sheets may also be cut or folded to size.

Urge, Heavt-Dutt Pustíc Bags These may be used to carry the plant speci-
mens to the base camp, where they can subsequently be pressed.
Carrying plants to the base camp may be a good option when
collecting time in the field is limited, when large amounts of ma-
terial are collected, under extremely wet conditions, or when the
plant material is sturdy enough.

Seaubu Pustíc, Cotton, ano Brown Paper Bags (Assorted Sizes) Cotton or paper
bags may be used to carry loose fruits and other fragile segments
from the field to base camp. In some cases, the fruits can be dried
in the same bags. Nylon net and cotton bags are ideal for storing
fruits and plant parts after they have been dried. Plastic and, to a
lesser extent, paper favor growth of mold. Sealable plastic bags
can be used for transporting plant parts from the collection site
to the base camp, as well as for a wide range of other purposes.

Alcohol Alcohol (70% solution or higher) is used to "pickle" fruits

or flowers and to preserve bundles of plant specimens before dry-
ing. In many tropical countries, sugarcane alcohol can be ob-
tained locally and cheaply.

Pustíc Waterproot Jars These can be used to "pickle" fragile or rare

flowers and fruits. An assortment of sizes should be carried.
Glass jars are too heavy and fragile to transport.

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 MIGUEL N. ALEXIADES 4 • 105

Pape* Tags These are used to label nonpres

the field, as well as whole specimens co
The most convenient are 1-in. tags with s

Penol Or Wateapaoof Pen A soft pencil or wa

label news sheets. Field notes should be written with a no. 2
pencil or with a pen with indelible ink. Collectors planning to
use a pen to label news sheets that will be soaked in alcohol
should ensure that the ink does not run.

Caheaa Photographs can provide the specialist who will identify

the plant specimens with valuable information on the plant's
habit and the appearance of its parts. Furthermore, the photo-
graphs can be glued to the herbarium sheet, providing valuable
information for future reference. Ideally, large leaves, such as
those from some palms and ferns, should be photographed intact
and next to a scale before they are cut into portions for pressing.
A flash or tripod is needed for most shots inside the forest. When
it is not possible to carry the camera to the field (during rainy
weather or when collecting alone, for example), collected bulky
plant parts may be photographed in the base camp.

Measuring Tape This is used to measure the diameter at breast height

(dbh) of trees as well as large leaves and inflorescences that need
to be cut up before they are pressed. Some forester tapes have
both metric and dbh scales.

Pocket Hand Lens (10 X ) This is used as an aid in identifying specimens

in the field.

Masking and Dun Tape Masking tape can be used to label specimens, tie
packages, and so on. Duct tape is very useful for general repairs
of equipment.

Taee Cumbers and Harness These are needed when herbarium collections
must be made from trees whose canopy is inaccessible from the
ground. Tree climbing is dangerous and should be done only by trained
personnel. In many areas, it is possible to hire local tree climbers.
There are types of equipment available for climbing trees, includ-
ing French telephone pole climbing spikes or "griffes," single
forester spikes, climbing straps or peçonhas, "Swiss Tree Grip-

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4 • 106 Selected Guidelines for Ethnobotanical Research

pers" (Mori, 1984, 1987), and mechanical ascenders (Perry, 1978;

Perry & Williams, 1981; Whitacre, 1981).
Using mechanical ascenders requires the most amount of
equipment, expertise, and time and is usually appropriate only
for longer term studies, when repeated access to one tree is de-
sired. French telephone pole climbing spikes ("griffes") provide
the cheapest and lightest method of access, but they are suitable
only for trees with a diameter of 49 cm or less. The canopy of
larger trees can often be accessed from smaller trees using the
extendable tree pruner. Forester spikes are also lightweight and
cheap, and they can be used on larger trees, but they do not
provide the level of support of griffes. Both types of spikes injure
trees and probably increase mortality, so their use may not be
acceptable in certain areas or in long-term studies. The Swiss
Tree Grippers are usable for diameters from 18 to 72 cm and,
unlike spikes and griffes, do not damage the tree. They are, how-
ever, considerably heavier and more expensive.
Specimens from trees may also be collected by throwing a line
over a small branch and then either pulling until the branch
breaks (Hyland, 1972) or sending a wire saw or cutter over the
branch to cut it down (Collis & Harris, 1973). A review of tech-
niques used to climb and collect specimens from trees may be
found in Wendt, 1986.

First-Aid Kit Collectors should be able to provide first-aid treatment

for broken or sprained limbs, insect and snake bites, allergic
rashes, cuts, blisters, minor infections, and sunburn.

General Considerations

Choosing the Sample

Most plant individuals will have a range of foliage and inflores
cence sizes. The sample chosen for pressing should be representa
tive of the size, variation, and general appearance of the plant
or population collected. Even though collection of excessively
damaged leaves and plant parts should be avoided, the selection
of samples for pressing should not be based on their attractive
appearance or convenient size but rather on their representative
ness of the plant or species in question.

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 MIGUEL N. ALEXIADES 4 • 107

Gathering Sufficient Material

Enough material should be gathered to pro
cates as needed. Usually at least three sets a
the collector's institution, one set for the s
the specimen, and one more set for the hos
sets are often required or welcomed by oth
host country and abroad. Thus, most botan
to eight fertile duplicates for each collecti
plicates of sterile specimens, however, is
Collectors should gather more than enough
some may become dislodged or damaged, an
need to remove and dissect a few. Extra
packed in small packages and included w
these are often extremely useful for identi
rescences may be trimmed down, and the
separately and eventually included in a s
individuals of small plant species should
whole sheet, but collectors should ensure t
from the same population. Also, care should
ularly when collecting in frequently visited
the populations of rarer species.
In some cases, flowers are taxonomically m
fruits, and in some cases the opposite is tru
be collected, so two collections may be
flowering and another during fruiting. For tr
to include a strip of bark or a picture of a
the trunk with a knife. Collections of smal
the roots, but care should be taken to remo

Sterile versus Fertile Specimens

Sterile specimens, without flowers or fruits
tify and are taxonomically useless. Their de
unreliable and usually is incomplete. Steril
made only if the plant is important from a
point and if a fertile specimen cannot be lo
be directed during the remaining time in
fertile specimen. Individual trees can be m
ribbon and collected at a later date when th

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4 • 108 Selected Guidelines for Ethnobotanical Research

General Procedure

Using a Field Press

As stated previously, specimens should be pressed in the fiel
whenever possible. Before pressing herbaceous plants, shake the
roots or wash them to remove any mud or sand. Clumps o
grasses and sedges may need to be broken up, in which case the
fact that clumps were broken should be indicated in the notes.
Specimens should be cut and/or folded to fit neatly inside a
folded sheet of newspaper and then slipped between two pieces
of felt paper and placed inside the field press.
Whenever possible, the whole plant should be collected. Some
herbaceous plants and most woody plants are too large to fit in
a newspaper sheet, even when folded. In this case, an appropriate
section of the plant must be selected for the press. A plant with
intermediate-sized foliage and inflorescence should be selected,
together with a separate leaf of the largest size found on th
plant. All duplicates should be collected from the same individ-
ual, except for individuals too small to fill a herbarium sheet. In
this case, collectors can include several individuals of the same
population.
Large compound leaves, such as those of palms and ferns,
should be measured and the number of pinnae or leaflet
counted. Photographs of the whole leaf and plant are also useful.
Apical, mid, and basal sections of the appropriate size can then
be cut (see Balick, Chapter 5, this volume). If not pressed in th
field, loose parts should be tagged and carried in a collecting bag
back to the base camp, where they can be dried separately.
Delicate or ephemeral flowers should be placed in small enve-
lopes of folded, preferably waxed, paper with some corollas open
to show the internal structures. These envelopes can be place
with the plant specimen or labeled with the same collection num-
ber and carried separately in a pocket press or notebook.

Using a Collection Bag

When carrying specimens in a bag for subsequent pressing in th
base camp, collectors should cut each sample to a size slightly
larger than that of the pressed specimen. Each sample should b
labeled with masking tape or a paper tag with its respective col
lection number. This step is very important, as collections can

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 MIGUEL N. ALEXIADES 4 • 109

easily get mixed up. All samples of the

be carefully bundled and gently but firml
of the bag.
Delicate plants or plant parts, as well as loose material, should
be placed separately in labeled bags or enclosed in a newspaper
sheet and placed in the field press. Large, heavy fruits or samples
should not be placed on top of the bag, as they will crush the
specimens underneath. Instead, they should be labeled and
packed in a separate bag or placed at the bottom of the collect-
ing bag.
To prevent plants from wilting, do not leave specimens in the
bag for too long, especially in the heat. The bag should be kept
in a cool, shaded spot until the material can be pressed. Transpar-
ent plastic bags should be avoided unless placed inside an opaque
bag, as the "greenhouse effect" will accelerate wilting of plant
specimens. In addition, wet newspapers can be placed inside the
bag, or water can be sprinkled over the specimens.
When ready to press, do not pull specimens out of the bag,
because they will tear. Instead, hold the bag upside down and
carefully shake out its contents while trailing the bag across the
floor or tarp. This method should leave a neat row of plant bun-
dles along the floor, each corresponding to a different collec-
tion.

Collection Numbers

A standardized numbering system should always be used to labe

all collections and cross-reference them with the field notes. Ev-
ery collector should have his or her own collection number se-
ries, which usually consists of his or her name followed by a
number. Collections should be numbered sequentially, beginning
with number 1 and proceeding ad infinitum. Newspaper sheets
containing specimens should also be labeled with the collection
number: many collectors also include their initials to distinguish
them from the numbers of other collectors. Numbering systems
that initiate a new number series every field trip or year are not
recommended because repeated numbers may subsequently be
confused and will create difficulties for workers and monogra-
phers referring to the collections.
The following points should be borne in mind:

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4 • 110 Selected Guidelines for Ethnobotanical Research

• Any one collection number should be used only once. If two

collections are accidentally given the same collection num-
ber, they can subsequently be distinguished by using a letter
as a suffix (e.g., a and b). Thus, all duplicates of Martin
Smith's first collection will be M. Smith 1 or MS 1. There
should never be another Martin Smith collection with the
same collection number.
• Except for very small plants, in which case one individual
is insufficient to fill one sheet, any one collection number
(including all its duplicates) should contain fragments from
only one individual plant. Other individuals, even if they
are of the same species and variety, should be given new
collection numbers. Similarly, if the same individual plant is
collected at a later date, a different collection number should
be used.
• In cases where each set consists of several sheets, as with large-
leafed plants, each sheet should be labeled accordingly: for ex-
ample, sheet 1 of 3, sheet 2 of 3, etc. When a group of collec-
tors are collecting together, only one collection series number
should be used for each plant: the same individual plant should
not be collected using several collectors' numbers.

The Collection Notebook and Field Notes

Field notes are one of the most important, yet most frequent
overlooked, aspects of collecting. Good field notes make the her
barium sheet a valuable research tool and are essential for ob-
taining accurate taxonomie determinations. Notes should be
taken when collections are made, since later in the day it is easy
to forget or confuse important details of the plant or collecting
site. Notes should be written dearly and legibly, especially if they
are to be transcribed onto labels by others. Abbreviations should
generally be avoided, unless these are universally recognized. If
abbreviations are used, a key must be provided in the notebook.
Some botanists prefer to take notes in the field in a small
pocket book, transcribing the final notes neatly onto a larger
book at the end of the day. This procedure takes more time, but
the choice of method is up to the individual. Collectors should
not wait to get back to the camp to write field notes from mem-
ory. Also, a separate set of photocopies or carbon copies of the

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 MIGUEL N. ALEXIADES 4 • 1 1 1

collection notebook should always be kept,

lost, stolen, or damaged.
In addition to the collection number, date, and collectors'
names, the following information should be included in the col-
lection notebook for each collected plant.

• Latitude and longitude. Can be obtained from a detailed map

of the area.
• Altitude above sea level. Can be obtained from large-scale
topographic maps or, preferably, read from a calibrated al-
timeter. Although extreme accuracy is unnecessary, some of
the cheaper makes should be avoided, as these may be highly
inaccurate and subject to variation.
• Locality. Country, state or region, province.
• Exact location. The description of the exact location should
be detailed enough to allow another person to find the site
on a map or to return to the site at a later date. The distance
and direction from important, well-known topographical or
man-made reference points such as a river mouth, mountain
top, town, or road should always be indicated.
• Habitat and vegetation. Type of habitat (e.g., riparian, pri-
mary forest, secondary forest, cultivated field, etc.) should
be described. If possible, a description of the dominant vege-
tation, as well as of typical or associated species should be
provided.
• Topography and soil. Notes should be included on the char-
acteristics of the terrain (e.g., rugged, sloping, flat), as well
as on the type of exposure (sunny, shaded) and soil type
(e.g., clay, sand, alluvial, volcanic, well- weathered, extent
of organic accumulations).
• Taxonomie identification (family, genus, species). Field
identifications are only tentative, especially beyond the level
of family. A list of field guides to neotropical families is pro-
vided in Appendix 1.
• Plant description. This should include information about
characteristics of the plant not visible in the dried specimen.
Some important characters include:
Habit. Whether the plant is a tree, shrub, epiphyte, vine,
herb (annual, biennial or perennial), solitary, or colonial.
Height of plant. A rough estimate is usually adequate.

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4 • 112 Selected Guidelines for Ethnobotanical Research

Stem or trunk characteristics. The diameter at breast height

(dbh) of the stem or trunk of woody plants should be
indicated. Any distinguishing characteristics of the bark,
including color, texture and thickness, should also be
noted. For fleshy stems particularly, collectors should in-
dicate if the cross section is round, flattened, or square.
Architecture. Any characteristic type of branching (erect,
pendulous, etc.) and crown shape should be noted.
Flowers and fruits. Color, odor, shape, and size should be
indicated. The numbers of stamens and styles on flowers
are easier to determine in the field than when the material
is dry. Floral formulae are a useful and quick way of re-
cording the number of parts. Fruits should be opened,
and the aril and seeds described if present. Information on
fruit texture and consistency should also be recorded.
Other. Any other characteristic anatomical or morphologi-
cal feature that may not be visible in the voucher should
be noted, including extremes of morphological variation
found in leaves and other organs. The presence, consis-
tency, and color of any latex, resin, or sap should be
indicated, noting any differences between trunk and twig
exudate. Finally, the presence of any insects associated
with the plant, including pollinators and symbionts,
should also be recorded.
• Number of duplicates collected. This can be annotated under
the collection number, in the left-hand margin of the field-
book. This information is necessary to print the correct
number of labels during processing of collections at a later
stage. The number of duplicates left in the host country
should be specified for each number, so that labels can be
sent there.
• Others. Collectors should also indicate in their field notes
whether any photographs have been taken, whether fruits
have been dried and stored separately, and whether the
vouchers were preserved in ethanol or given any other
chemical treatment.
• Local name and uses. See Alexiades, Chapter 3, this volume.

To save space and time, you can note the date, collectors, lati-
tude and longitude, altitude, and locality at the beginning of a

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 MIGUEL N. ALEXIADES 4 • 113

series of collection numbers, if they are a

area on the same date and by the same pe
lecting date, collectors, or geographical lo
beginning of a new section (but not a ne
the collection notebook. Some collectors indicate at the start of
each series which collection numbers are included for that partic-
ular series. Another system is to write the full information for
the first collection number (e.g., 509). If the next 10 collections
were made in the same locality, "509" can be written next to
"Locality" for each. The latter system is generally more cumber-
some, especially when typing labels from the notes or when
needing to refer to the collection notebook. The beginning of a
new series of collections is often indicated by drawing a hori-
zontal line across the page. The increasing availability of portable
computers makes electronic data entry an increasingly accessible
option.

The Herbarium Label

The herbarium label contains the information recorded in the
field collection notebook and is affixed to the herbarium speci-
men. Although labels can be mechanically typed on any acid-
free, archival paper, the most effective way to prepare labels is
by using a label-generating program, usually as part of a database
or word-processing software. The advent of portable hardware
means that labels can be produced in the field, thus speeding up
the processing of collections. A typical layout of information and
sample herbarium labels are illustrated in Figures 3 and 4.

Pressing and Drying

Plant Specimens
Plants collected in a plastic bag should be pressed as soon as pos-
sible. Plants brought from the field press should be transferred
to an ordinary press for drying.

The Plant Press

Plant presses are used to dry plant specimens while keeping them
flat. Freshly cut plant specimens are arranged inside a folded

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4 • 114 Selected Guidelines for Ethnobotanical Research

0 The New York Botanical Garden

<D Plants of BOLIVIA
(~ļj Morac.

Poulsenia armata (Miq.) Standi,

det. M. Nee, 1991
©

Depto. Santa Cruz, Prov. Ichilo, Parque Nacional^ /g'

Amboró, Río Saguayo near mouth of Quebrada 5
Yapojé. Secondary tropical evergreen forest near>/«'
camp around abandoned slash and burn plot.

^7*34'S, 63*44'W. ^ It . 350 m.

Young tree, 2 m. tall; sap milky.
<S>
© ©
Coll.: M. Nee 40910

Figure 3. The herbarium label. I . Institution w

Project title. 3. Genus, species, and author. 4.
mination. 6. Locality. 7. Vegetation and habit
10. Plant description. 1 1. Collector(s). 12. Co

sheet of newspaper, which is in tu

sheets of blotting paper and two p
or aluminum, each 12 X 18 in. (Fig
After all specimens have been arr
and sandwiched between blotter
wooden frame is placed at both e
together as tightly as possible wit
straps, 6-10 ft long. The blotting
water from the plant tissues, while
prevents the specimen from wrink
cilitate the flow of air through blo
drying of the plant specimen.
Plant press frames may be purch
made from slats (V4 in. thick, 1 in
wood. Five pieces, 18 in. long, an
nailed or riveted together to make

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 Economic Botany of the Bora Indians: Peru

No. 1006
Abuta rufascans Aublet
dat. B.A. Krukoff 1981

Dept. Loreto, Pror. Maynai: Rio Y if a *17 «cd, affluent of Rio Ampiya
Brillo Nuero «od Vicinity, epprox. lot. loop. 7te00'

Vine 2 meters tall, leaves dark green

above, light green beneath. Underside
of leaves and stem are hairy. In 1
forest .

Bora i namityahkeu

Use: to make curare, now little used

as shotguns are common.

M.J. Balick ,D . R .Al Ion , J . P. Razon 2/78

The le« York Bouokal Gard»

INSTITUTE OF ECONOMIC BOTANY
Taibopata Etbnobotaiical Sarte] Project

„ MALVACEAE
„ Gossypium

PERU, Dpto Madr

Tambopata. Rio Tambopata. Comunidad Nativa de
Infierno. Quebrada de Torén. 12°50'S, 069°17'W.
00260m. cultivated next to house of Don Walter
Toren .

pinkish° ^ranc^e^' flowers yellow, maturing

u.V.: Al oodÓD Blaoco [Spanish] .

ÖSE: Antifungal for skin f nngns lunripe fruiti. Apply fruit
peel scrapings
Parturifacient llea?esl. Drink infusion
M. N. Alexiades 1006 August 1, 1990

Pieldwk Supported by tbe Edvard Jobo lobie Foundation

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4 • 116 Selected Guidelines for Ethnobotanical Research

Figure 5. The plant press, a. Assembled view. b. Exploded view showing compo-
nents. (Redrawn from Savile, 1962.)

should be placed on the same side of the lattice. Plant presses can
also be improvised in the field by placing plants between two
boards and applying pressure with a heavy rock.
Blotters and corrugated sheets may be purchased, though it is
also possible to use thick pads of newspaper instead of blotters,
and corrugated sheets can be cut from cardboard boxes (be sure

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 MIGUEL N. ALEXIADES 4 • 117

that the channels run along the width o

blotters are cheap and lightweight, but
regular intervals because they absorb m
specimens. Also, time and use cause the
and the sheets need to be replaced. Alum
other hand, are very durable but heavy
cardboard corrugated sheets need to be
the press and dried, collectors need to c
aluminum ones.
While specimens are drying, particularly during the early
stages, the press should be regularly checked to ensure that the
straps remain pulled tightly enough: as the plant specimens dry
and shrink, the press tends to become loose, resulting in wrin-
kled specimens.

Arranging Specimens for Pressing

Correctly arranging the specimen in the newspaper before drying
is very important; dry specimens are brittle, and their parts can-
not be rearranged without breaking off. When arranging the
specimen, collectors should ensure that it is cut to the right size.
To do so, place it over the newspaper and cut the excess length
from the base (Figure 6). When cutting off leaves or twigs, leave
a portion of the base intact to indicate its position. It is also possi-
ble to fold the stem (Figure 7).
Both surfaces of the leaves and reproductive structures should
be visible, so at least one leaf and one flower should be turned
over. If only one leaf fits in the newspaper, it should be folded
in such a way that both surfaces are exposed (see Figure 1). Col-
lectors should note that often the lower leaf surface has more
diagnostic characters than the upper surface. If necessary, one
side of very large symmetrical leaves may be removed.
Some flowers should be pressed open, some closed. If possi-
ble, one flower should be dissected to show the internal struc-
tures. Extra fertile material for study and dissection should also
be included whenever possible. Care should be taken that nodes,
flowers, or fruits are not accidentally covered by folded leaves.
Large leaves should be folded away from these parts or tucked
underneath (Figure 8).
Leaves should be folded in a way that exposes most of their

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4 • 118 Selected Guidelines for Ethnobotanical Research

Figure 6. Cutting the specimen to size. (Redrawn from Liesner, 1985.)

surface - especially the apex and base (Figure 9). Leave all the
leaves you can; trim only if they lie several deep on the sheet.
Do not leave any plant part projecting out of the newspaper;
these parts will break off when they are dry. Instead, fold or tuck
in neatly any leaves or stems that jut out of the news sheet.

Pressing Large or Fleshy Parts

Sections from large tubers, corms, bulbs, and the like, may be
cut, noting the thickness and length of the part. Whenever possi-
ble, the outside surface should be included. Bulky adventitious
root systems can also be thinned down. Whenever pressing sam-
ples with bulky parts, pad hollow spaces with cardboard or foam

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 MIGUEL N. ALEXIADES 4*119

Figure 7. Folding the specimen. (Redrawn from

to maintain a constant pressure. This

gated sheets from slipping out from
when pressure is applied, and it also kee
kling.
Cross and longitudinal sections of fruits should be included
whenever possible. Fruits can also be cut and dried in a separate
sheet and combined with the leaves once dry. Large fruits, par-
ticularly when hard, can also be dried in individual nylon net,

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4 • 120 Selected Guidelines for Ethnobotanical Research

Figure 8. Correct and incorrect ways of folding leaves. (Redrawn from Liesner,
1985.)

cotton, or (least preferable) paper bags. When fruits are separated

from the main collection, the caption "Fruits Separate" should be
written in the newspaper folder and in the collection notebook.
Large inflorescences can be photographed, measured, and
thinned. Many of these thinnings can be pressed separately and
packed as extra material for dissection.

Balancing the Press

Usually no more than 60 to 90 specimens, fewer if they include
bulky material, should be placed in a single press; larger presses
often become unwieldy and difficult to balance. When building a
press, keep the numbered side of sheets facing up. The press can
be balanced by turning alternate collections around, so that the
open ends of the folded newspaper face opposite directions. The
press can also be balanced by placing large fruits and stems on
different parts of the sheet, padding these with pieces of foam.

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 MIGUEL N. ALEXIADES 4 • 121

Figure 9. Folding large leaves. (Redrawn from Lie

Drying Specimens
Plants kept for too long before drying may
may abscise. It is possible to dry small num
leaving the press in the sun, replacing the m
ones every 8 hours. The moist blotters and
should be thoroughly dried in the sun and
until the specimens are dry. No attempt sh

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4 • 122 Selected Guidelines for Ethnobotanical Research

time to change the newspaper sheets in which the plant specimen

was pressed, as doing so may damage the specimen and lead to
confused numbers or lost plant parts.
An artificial source of heat is usually necessary to dry speci-
mens. Presses can be suspended above stoves or open fires,
placed close to chimneys or next to generator exhausts, . . . the
possibilities are innumerable. In any case, care should be exer-
cised to ensure that there is enough heat to dry the plants as fast
as possible while, at the time, avoiding excessively high tempera-
tures, which could cause a fire or destroy the specimens: the
press should never be too hot to touch.
One of the safest, most common ways of drying plants is to
build a dryer. A dryer consists of a wooden or aluminum rectan-
gular box measuring I8V2 in. across, 23 in. high, any desired
length, and a heat source. Two cleats, about 1 in. wide, run
along the top side of the box supporting the plant press. A wire
screen is often stretched between these cleats to prevent anything
from falling down onto the heating elements and starting a fire.
A prototype for a portable dryer is shown in Figure 10. A higher

Figure 10. Portable plant dryer. * = A longer section, totally or partially enclosing
the plant press, is more efficient but bulkier. ** = This section may be cut into two
or more parts and joined by hinges, making it more portable.

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 MIGUEL N. ALEXIADES 4 • 123

box in which the plant press is totally or

more efficient but obviously bulkier and he
When electricity is available, six or mor
light bulbs can be used as a heat source. Ligh
they need constant replacement and in som
Heat lamps, resistance coils, or heating str
In the absence of electricity, bottled gas p
of energy. Portable kerosene stoves sold all
are very basic, cheap, and effective. Any n
covered with a metal plate in order to mini
and to diffuse the heat. When drying sp
cover parts along the top length of the drye
by the plant press; this arrangement will f
the press corrugates.
Excessive drying of specimens will "coo
them very brittle. To check if specimens are d
parts, such as stems and fruits, as these tak
One way of checking is to press gently wit
slight crackle is heard or felt. If any par
damp, the specimen is not dry. Drying tim
to the amount of heat applied and the amo
plant tissues; times vary from 8 hours to se

Preserving Plants before Drying

In some cases, it is not possible to press a
field. One possibility is to soak bundles of
alcohol inside heavy-duty plastic fertilizer b
dried. Specimens can be stored in good-qua
70% or higher alcohol solution for sever
more-dilute solutions can be used for short
tions of less than 40% should be avoided. Some botanists add
formaldehyde to this solution, particularly as this seems to subse-
quently offer some protection to dried specimens against insect
attack. But formaldehyde makes subsequent handling of speci-
mens unpleasant and potentially hazardous owing to toxic fumes.
Specimens to be kept in a preserving solution should be
packed into package bundles 9 in. thick, wrapped in newspaper
sheets, and packed snugly into the plastic bag. The alcohol, 1-2
pints per bundle, should then be poured over the bundles. The

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4 • 124 Selected Guidelines for Ethnobotanical Research

use of any preserving solution should be clearly indicated in the

collection book and on the specimen labels, since some of the
properties of the specimens, including color and chemistry, may
be altered by the procedure. Note: When preserving specimens in
alcohol, test the pen to ensure that its markings on the newspaper sheets
will not be erased. Wax crayons are a good writing instrument
when specimens are to be preserved in alcohol.

Packing and Shipping Specimens

Dry specimens should be arranged into 9-12 in. bundles, placed
between two cardboard sheets, and securely tied with heavy
twine. For additional protection, each bundle can be wrapped in
heavy paper or plastic. Naphthalene may be added to prevent
insect damage. The bundles should be stored in a dry place. Un-
der humid conditions, it may be necessary to pack bundles in
tightly sealed fertilizer bags. When shipping specimens, snugly
pack bundles in strong wood or corrugated cardboard boxes.
The latter may not be suitable if the boxes are to be exposed to
rain or humid conditions. Collectors should arrange the neces-
sary export and import permits before shipping any specimens.
Often, clearance from CITES (Convention on International
Trade in Endgangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) must
be obtained, as well as a phytosanitary permit, certifying that
specimens do not include endangered species and are not contam-
inated with mold or insect pests.

Acknowledgments
Camilo Díaz introduced me to the science and art of collecting
plants. Bradley Bennett, Scott Mori, Michael Nee, Christine Pa-
doch, Daniela Peluso, Charles Peters, Oliver Phillips, and Jennie
Wood Sheldon provided many helpful comments on earlier
drafts of this paper. I am also grateful to Michael Balick and Jan
Stevenson for their helpful suggestions and support in writing
these guidelines. The Institute of Economic Botany of The New
York Botanical Garden and the National Cancer Institute sup-
ported the preparation of this paper.

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 MIGUEL N. ALEXIADES 4 • 125

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