1) Explain printmaking of semiconductor wafer also write specifications of good

semiconductor wafer and importance of annealing process.

Ans:

Printmaking of Semiconductor Wafer: The printmaking of a

semiconductor wafer involves a process known as photolithography1. In this process, a thin and
uniform layer of photoresist is applied onto a wafer2. This is akin to turning the wafer into a
sheet of photographic paper. A mask, which is a plate with transparencies or holes formed in
the pattern of the desired semiconductor circuit, is placed above the photoresist 2. Ultraviolet
light is used to transfer a geometric design from an optical mask to a light-sensitive chemical
(photoresist) coated on the substrate1. The photoresist either breaks down or hardens where it
is exposed to light. The patterned film is then created by removing the softer parts of the
coating with appropriate solvents1.
Specifications of a Good Semiconductor Wafer: A good
semiconductor wafer is formed of highly pure, nearly defect-free single crystalline material,
with a purity of 99.9999999% (9N) or higher34. It undergoes many microfabrication processes,
such as doping, ion implantation, etching, thin-film deposition of various materials, and
photolithographic patterning3. The wafer should have a low total thickness variation (TTV),
which is the absolute difference in thickness between the thickest and thinnest parts of the
wafer4. It should also have low warp, which is the difference between minimum and maximum
values of the wafer surface measured from a reference plane4. Additionally, the wafer should
be free of defects, as defects in silicon are one of the principal causes for rejection of silicon
wafers4.
Importance of Annealing Process: The annealing process is a high-
temperature furnace operation that can relieve stress in silicon, activate or move dopants,
densify deposited or grown films, and repair implant damage in wafer processing5. It can also
modify the film-to-film or film-to-substrate interface for wafers with multiple films, bonded
wafers, and SOI applications5. Annealing is the heat-treatment used to restore disordered
semiconductor wafers to crystalline perfection, after selected ‘dopant’ impurities have been
implanted into the wafers (as energetic ions) to adjust the electrical conductivity 6. With
dimensions approaching atomic scales, the need for low thermal budget processes offered by
millisecond annealing (MSA) becomes more important to precisely control the impurity profiles
and engineer interfaces

2) Write the mathematical form of Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle (i) find the
smallest possible uncertainty in position of an electron moving with velocity 5 ×
106 m/s (ii) An electron is confined to a box of length 2.0 × 10-10 m. Calculate the
minimum uncertainty in its velocity.
Ans:

3)Explain in briefly of the following :

(i) diffusion process (ii) normal heating and annealing process (iii) .metallization
process (iv) lithography .
Ans)
(i) Diffusion Process: This is a part of semiconductor manufacturing where a
chemical variety flows or moves from an area of high concentration to an area of
lower concentration1. Controlled diffusion of dopants into silicon is achieved
through a diffusion furnace1. It’s the basis for building p-n junctions and fabrication
of devices during wafer manufacturing1.
(ii) Normal Heating and Annealing Process: Annealing is a high-temperature
process used in semiconductor device fabrication. It can relieve stress in silicon,
activate or move dopants, densify deposited or grown films, and repair implant
damage in wafer processing2. It can also modify the film-to-film or film-to-
substrate interface for wafers with multiple films, bonded wafers, and SOI
applications2.
(iii) Metallization Process: Metallization is the final step in the wafer processing
sequence. It’s the process by which the components of IC’s are interconnected by a
conductor, usually aluminium3. This process produces a thin-film metal layer that
will serve as the required conductor pattern for the interconnection of the various
components on the chip4.
(iv) Lithography: Lithography is a crucial step in the chipmaking process, because it
determines just how small the transistors on a chip can be5. During this stage, the
chip wafer is inserted into a lithography machine where it’s exposed to deep
ultraviolet (DUV) or extreme ultraviolet (EUV) light5. The process involves
transferring a pattern from a photomask to a substrate6. This is primarily done
using steppers and scanners, which are equipped with optical light sources6.

4) Describe the semiconductor wafer preparation and mention the role of photo-
masking and photo-resist layer in IC fabrication.

Ans:

1. Formation of Crystalline Material: Wafers are formed of highly pure, nearly

defect-free single crystalline material, with a purity of 99.9999999% (9N) or
higher1. One process for forming crystalline wafers is known as the
Czochralski method, where a cylindrical ingot of high purity monocrystalline
semiconductor, such as silicon or germanium, is formed by pulling a seed
crystal from a melt1.
2. Slicing and Polishing: The ingot is then sliced with a wafer saw, machined to
improve flatness, chemically etched to remove crystal damage from
machining steps, and finally polished to form wafers1.
3. Coating with Photoresist: The wafer is coated with a light-sensitive organic
material known as a photoresist5. This is akin to turning the wafer into a
sheet of photographic paper.
4. Photomasking: A mask, which is a plate with transparencies or holes formed
in the pattern of the desired semiconductor circuit, is placed above the
photoresist6. Ultraviolet light is used to transfer a geometric design from an
optical mask to the photoresist6.
The role of photomasking and the photoresist layer in IC fabrication is crucial 65789:
• Photomasking: Photomasks are commonly used in photolithography for the
production of integrated circuits (ICs) to produce a pattern on a thin wafer of
material (usually silicon)6. Several masks are used in turn, each one
reproducing a layer of the completed design, and together known as a mask
set6.
• Photoresist Layer: The photoresist serves as a protection layer to keep
materials underneath intact during subsequent fabrication processes8. For
example, it can avoid the etching of areas covered with the photoresist
during the etching process8. Finally, the target pattern is transferred to the
substrate by a combination of lithography and etch process8.

5) Write the properties of matter waves? If wavelength λ associated with a moving

electron of mass m and kinetic energy K, prove that wavelength , λ=h/√𝟐𝒎𝑲.
Calculate the wavelength of matter waves for a bullet of mass 0.08 kg moving with
velocity 625m/sec.

Ans:

Matter waves, also known as de Broglie waves, have the following

properties1234:

1. Non-Electromagnetic: Matter waves do not have electromagnetic

properties1.
2. Independent of Charge: The charge of a material component has no
effect on matter waves1.
3. Non-Mechanical: Even though matter waves can travel through a
vacuum, they are not mechanical waves1.
4. Phase Velocity: Matter waves’ phase velocity could be larger than that
of the speed of light1.
5. Probability Representation: The likelihood of locating a particle in
spacetime is represented by a matter-wave1.
6. Applications: The electron microscope would be constructed on de-
Broglie waves1.

The wavelength λ associated with a moving electron of mass m and kinetic

energy K can be derived from the de Broglie relation and the definition of
kinetic energy:

1. The de Broglie relation states that the wavelength of a particle is given

by λ = h/p, where h is Planck’s constant and p is the momentum of the
particle.
2. The momentum of a particle is related to its mass and velocity by p =
mv.
3. The kinetic energy of a particle is given by K = 1/2 mv².

Substituting the second equation into the first gives λ = h/mv. Then,
substituting v from the third equation (v = sqrt(2K/m)) gives λ = h/sqrt(2mK),
which is the desired result.

For a bullet of mass 0.08 kg moving with velocity 625 m/sec, the wavelength of
the associated matter wave can be calculated using the above formula with h =
6.62607015 × 10^-34 m² kg / s (Planck’s constant).
6) State Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle and using it show that electrons cannot exist
inside the nucleus. The speed of a particle is measured to be 4×103 m/s to an accuracy of
0.005%. Find the minimum uncertainty in the position of the particle also compare the
uncertainties in the velocities of an electron and a proton confined to a 2-nm box. Use
the mass of electron= 9.10 x 10-31 Kg and mass of proton = 1.67 x 10-27 Kg.

Ans:
7) Describe the top-down and bottom up approaches with suitable diagram. also explain
the 0D, 1D and 2D structure of nano-materials with examples and sketch the diagram
of quantum well. quantum wire and quantum dots.

Ans:

The top-down and bottom-up approaches are two fundamental methods for
producing nanomaterials12.
1. Top-Down Approach: This approach involves miniaturizing or breaking down
bulk materials (macro-crystalline) structures while retaining the original
integrity2. It’s a process of reducing the size of larger materials to the
nanoscale, often through mechanical forces1. Examples of top-down methods
include lithography, etching, and physical vapor deposition1.
2. Bottom-Up Approach: In this approach, nanostructures are assembled from
smaller starting materials such as atoms, molecules, or clusters 1. Short-range
forces like van der Waals forces, electrostatic forces, and different
interatomic or intermolecular forces cause these atoms or molecules to
coalesce into nanometer-sized particles1. Examples of bottom-up methods
 include chemical vapor deposition, molecular beam epitaxy, and self-
assembly1.
0D, 1D, and 2D Structures of Nano-Materials:
1. 0D (Zero-Dimensional) Nanostructures: These are nanostructures where all
dimensions are measured within the nanoscale (1-100 nm). They are often
spherical in shape, but can also be cubes or polygonal shapes with nano-
dimensions3. Examples include quantum dots and nanoparticles45.
2. 1D (One-Dimensional) Nanostructures: These are nanostructures with one
dimension outside the nanoscale. They include structures like nanowires,
nanorods, and nanotubes35.
3. 2D (Two-Dimensional) Nanostructures: These are nanostructures with two
dimensions outside the nanoscale. They are often thin layers of material, such
as graphene sheets45.
Quantum Well, Quantum Wire, and Quantum Dots:
1. Quantum Well: A quantum well is a potential well with only discrete energy
values. It’s a thin layer which confines particles in the dimension
perpendicular to the layer, but allows free movement in the other two
dimensions6.
2. Quantum Wire: A quantum wire is a wire of atomic dimensions. It confines the
motion of electrons or holes in two spatial dimensions and allows free
movement in the third7.
3. Quantum Dots: Quantum dots are zero-dimensional structures that confine
electrons and holes in all three spatial dimensions. They are often referred to
as artificial atoms because they have discrete, atom-like energy levels7.

8) Discuss wave -particle duality . Find the de Broglie wavelength of (i) a neutron whose
speed is 2x104 m/s, and (b) a ball of mass 50g, whose speed is 80 m/s. Compare the
wavelengths of a photon and an electron if the they have the (i) same energy, and (ii)
same momentum.

Ans:
9)Explain n-type and p-type semiconductors by doping. we cannot take one slab of p-type
semiconductor and physically join it to another slab of n-type semiconductor to get p-n junction.
justify your answer also Describe the process of wafer preparation in semiconductor and
mention the role of photo-resist layer.

Ans:

N-Type and P-Type Semiconductors by Doping:

• N-Type Semiconductor: This is formed when a pentavalent impurity (like

phosphorus or arsenic) is added to a pure semiconductor (like silicon). The
extra electron from the impurity atom contributes to the conduction.
 • P-Type Semiconductor: This is formed when a trivalent impurity (like
boron or gallium) is added to a pure semiconductor. The impurity atom
creates a ‘hole’ which can accept an electron, contributing to the conduction.

We cannot simply take a slab of p-type semiconductor and physically join it to a

slab of n-type semiconductor to create a p-n junction. This is because a p-n
junction is formed at the atomic level during the manufacturing process. The
junction is a boundary between the p-type and n-type regions where the charge
carriers (electrons and holes) combine. Simply joining two slabs together would
not allow for this atomic-level interaction.

Wafer Preparation and Role of Photo-Resist Layer:

Wafer preparation involves several steps including the formation of a crystalline

material, slicing and polishing, and coating with a photoresist. The photoresist
layer plays a crucial role in the photolithography process, which is used to create
the circuit patterns on the wafer. The photoresist is sensitive to light, and when it is
exposed through a mask, the exposed areas undergo a chemical change. This
allows selective removal of either the exposed or non-exposed regions of the
photoresist, transferring the circuit pattern from the mask to the wafer.

10) Discuss Einstein's theory of photoelectric effect . Explain the term "work-function"
and "threshold frequency". Calculate the maximum kinetic energy in eV of photo
electrons if the work function of the material is 2.5.0 eV and frequency of radiation is
3.0 x1015 Hz.
Ans:
Einstein’s Theory of Photoelectric Effect:
Einstein proposed a theory of the photoelectric effect using the concept that light
consists of tiny packets of energy known as photons or light quanta12. Each packet
carries energy that is proportional to the frequency of the corresponding
electromagnetic wave12. The proportionality constant has become known as the
Planck constant12. Einstein theorized that when a photon falls on the surface of a
metal, the entire photon’s energy is transferred to the electron12. A part of this energy
is used to remove the electron from the metal atom’s grasp and the rest is given to
the ejected electron as kinetic energy12.
Work Function:
The work function, often denoted by the Greek letter phi (Φ), is the minimum amount
of energy required to induce photoemission of electrons from a metal
surface345. The work function is the binding energy of electrons to the metal
surface5.
Threshold Frequency:
The threshold frequency is the minimum frequency of the incident radiation below
which photoelectric emission or emission of electrons is not possible from a metal
surface6789. The threshold frequency refers to the frequency of light that will cause
an electron to dislodge emit from the surface of the metal9.
To calculate the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons, we can use the equation
derived from Einstein’s theory of the photoelectric effect:
KE = hν - Φ
where:

• KE is the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons,

• h is Planck’s constant (6.62607015 × 10^-34 m² kg / s),
• ν is the frequency of the incident radiation,
• Φ is the work function of the material.

Given that the work function of the material is 2.50 eV and the frequency of the
radiation is 3.0 x 10^15 Hz, we can substitute these values into the equation:
KE = hν - Φ = (6.62607015 × 10^-34 m² kg / s * 3.0 x 10^15 Hz) - 2.50 eV = 1.98 x 10^-
18 J - 2.50 eV
To convert the kinetic energy from joules to electronvolts, we can use the conversion
factor 1 eV = 1.602176634 x 10^-19 J:
KE = (1.98 x 10^-18 J / 1.602176634 x 10^-19 J/eV) - 2.50 eV = 12.37 eV - 2.50 eV =
9.87 eV
So, the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is 9.87 eV.

11) Draw the experimental diagram of photo-electric effect and define stopping
potential. If the stopping potential for the electrons emitted from a metal surface with
the wavelength 𝝀𝟏 is 𝐕𝟏. When the incident wavelength is changed to a new value 𝝀𝟐,
the stopping potential is 𝐕𝟐. establish the relation{ (𝝀𝟐 − 𝝀𝟏)𝒉𝒄}/𝝀𝟏𝝀𝟐 = e (V1- V2).