INTRODUCTION

Introduction to Meat Science and Technology

Welcome to the course on Meat Science and Technology! This module serves as a
foundational introduction to the key concepts and practical skills associated with the
production, processing, and quality assessment of meat products. In this module, we
will explore various aspects of meat science and technology, equipping you with the
knowledge and skills necessary to excel in the field.

Course Overview:
Meat is a fundamental component of diets worldwide and a significant source of
essential nutrients. The process of transforming live animals into the meat products
that reach our tables involves a series of intricate steps, from proper handling and
slaughtering to the conversion of carcasses into specific cuts and processed products.
Understanding these processes, along with the evaluation of meat quality, are
essential for professionals in the meat industry.

Course Outcomes:
Throughout this module, you will be guided towards achieving the following course
outcomes:

CO1: Perform proper handling, slaughtering, and conversion of carcass to (required)

cuts of meat.
In this segment, you will delve into the fundamental practices of animal handling,
humane slaughtering techniques, and the conversion of whole carcasses into various
cuts of meat. You will gain insight into the anatomical structure of animals and how it
relates to the yield of specific cuts. Hands-on demonstrations and theoretical
knowledge will ensure that you develop the necessary skills for efficient and precise
meat processing.

CO2: Assess meat quality through physical examination and sensory characteristics.
Meat quality is not solely determined by its appearance; it also encompasses factors
such as texture, flavor, and juiciness. This course outcome will guide you through the
methods of evaluating meat quality through physical examination and sensory
analysis. You will learn how to identify desirable traits and detect potential defects in
meat products, ultimately contributing to consumer satisfaction and safety.

CO3: Demonstrate mastery of the meat processing technologies.

Modern meat processing involves a range of technologies that enhance preservation,
flavor, and convenience. In this segment, you will explore the various processing
methods used in the meat industry, such as curing, smoking, fermentation, and more.
By understanding the principles behind these technologies, you will be better equipped
to optimize meat products for both commercial and consumer purposes.

CO4: Develop a processed meat product.

Applying theoretical knowledge to practical scenarios is a vital aspect of this course.
During this module, you will have the opportunity to develop a processed meat
product. This hands-on experience will require you to combine your understanding of
meat science and processing techniques to create a product that meets specific
criteria for taste, texture, and safety.

As we embark on this journey into the world of Meat Science and Technology,
remember that the meat industry is dynamic and constantly evolving. By mastering the
concepts and skills outlined in these course outcomes, you will not only lay a solid
foundation for your career but also contribute to the continued innovation and
improvement of meat production and processing.

Get ready to explore the intricate world of meat, from farm to table, and to develop the
expertise required to thrive in this exciting field.
1 PROPER HANDLING AND SLAUGHTERING OF ANIMALS

Introduction

Specific Learning Outcomes

• Discuss the biochemical changes of meat during pre-rigor, rigor

maximum and postmortem process.
• Explain the proper handling of animal before slaughtering
• Organize process map on the different method and process of proper
slaughtering of animals
• Discuss the different carcass cuts and its suitable uses
• Demonstrate through video presentation the proper handling and
slaughtering of the animal

Meat is a significant dietary component for many cultures around the world,
providing essential nutrients and flavors. Four prominent meat sources include fish,
beef, pork, and poultry, each with unique characteristics that make them distinct. In
this discussion, we will delve into the differences between these meat sources,
considering aspects such as nutritional content, flavor profiles, culinary uses, and
environmental impact.

Fish Meat:
Fish is an excellent source of high-quality protein and is rich in omega-3 fatty acids,
which are essential for heart health and brain function. The omega-3 content varies
depending on the species, with fatty fish like salmon, mackerel, and sardines being
particularly abundant in these healthy fats. Fish meat is generally low in saturated fat
and calories, making it a heart-healthy option.

Beef:
Beef is prized for its rich flavor and high protein content. It's an exceptional source of
essential nutrients such as iron, zinc, and B vitamins, particularly vitamin B12.
However, beef can also contain higher amounts of saturated fat compared to other
meat sources, which should be consumed in moderation to maintain cardiovascular
health. Different cuts of beef offer varying levels of tenderness and flavor, making it
versatile for a range of culinary creations.
Pork:
Pork meat is known for its tender texture and versatile nature. It contains a good
amount of protein and essential nutrients like thiamine, phosphorus, and selenium.
However, similar to beef, pork can also have a higher fat content, including both
saturated and unsaturated fats. Choosing lean cuts and cooking methods can help
mitigate excessive fat intake.

Poultry:
Poultry, including chicken and turkey, is recognized for its lean protein content and
relatively lower fat profile compared to red meats. White meat from poultry is lower in
calories and saturated fat than dark meat, making it a popular choice for health-
conscious individuals. Poultry is also a good source of B vitamins, particularly niacin
and pyridoxine.

Nutritional Comparisons:
Fish offers a unique advantage with its omega-3 fatty acids, promoting heart health
and reducing inflammation.
Beef and pork are rich in nutrients like iron and zinc, but their saturated fat content
should be managed for a balanced diet.
Poultry stands out for its lean protein content, making it suitable for those aiming to
control calorie intake and maintain muscle mass.

Environmental Impact:
Fish can have varying levels of environmental impact depending on fishing methods
and species. Overfishing and destructive practices can harm marine ecosystems.
Beef and pork production generally have a higher environmental footprint in terms of
land use, water consumption, and greenhouse gas emissions.
Poultry has a comparatively lower environmental impact, making it a more resource-
efficient choice.
General Procedure of Proper handling and slaughtering of Chicken

Pre-Slaughter Preparation:
Ensure the slaughtering area is clean, well-lit, and properly ventilated.
Designate different zones for each stage: reception, slaughtering, evisceration,
cleaning, and chilling.
Establish clear pathways to prevent cross-contamination between areas.

Worker Hygiene and Attire:

All personnel must wear clean uniforms, hairnets, gloves, and rubber boots.
Implement a mandatory handwashing protocol before and after handling chickens.
Anyone with symptoms of illness should not be allowed to work with the chickens.

Humane Slaughtering:
Choose a humane slaughtering method compliant with local regulations.
Calmly move chickens from the farm to the slaughtering area using low-stress
techniques.
Ensure chickens are not overcrowded during transportation.

Stunning and Bleeding:

Administer stunning following approved guidelines to ensure immediate
unconsciousness.
Bleed the chicken promptly after stunning to ensure efficient blood drainage.
Maintain a clean and organized area for bleeding to prevent cross-contamination.

Feather Removal and Evisceration:

Immerse chickens in hot water (140-150°F or 60-65°C) for feather removal.
Remove feathers carefully to avoid damage to the skin.
Eviscerate the chicken methodically, removing organs and entrails.
Inspect organs for abnormalities; discard any that do not meet safety standards.

Washing and Chilling:

Rinse carcasses with cool, potable water to remove debris and contaminants.
Prepare a clean and sanitized ice water bath (32-40°F or 0-4°C) for rapid chilling.
Monitor water temperature throughout the chilling process to prevent bacterial growth.
Drain excess water after chilling and ensure proper drainage to avoid contamination.

Food Safety Protocols:

Enforce a strict "no-touch" policy for carcasses to prevent contamination.
Use color-coded cutting boards and utensils for different tasks to prevent cross-
contamination.
Implement a rigorous sanitation schedule for equipment, surfaces, and utensils.

Packaging and Storage:

Properly package chilled chicken products to prevent exposure to contaminants.
Label packages with accurate information, including date of processing.
Store packaged chicken in a designated refrigerated storage area (below 40°F or 4°C).
Monitor storage temperature regularly and document temperature logs.

Transportation:
If transporting chicken to processing or distribution centers, use sanitized containers.
Maintain proper temperature controls during transportation to prevent bacterial growth.

Recordkeeping:
Maintain detailed records of each batch, including slaughter date, processing steps,
and temperatures.
Keep records of worker training, health checks, and compliance with hygiene
protocols.

General Procedure in proper handling and Slaughtering of Pigs

Pre-Slaughter Preparation:
Designate a clean, well-ventilated area for slaughtering, equipped with separate zones
for each stage.
Ensure a clear layout with designated pathways to prevent cross-contamination.
Have all necessary tools and equipment ready, including sharp knives, restraining
devices, and cleaning supplies.

Worker Hygiene and Attire:

All personnel must wear clean and appropriate clothing, including gloves, hairnets,
and rubber boots.
Implement a strict handwashing protocol before and after handling pigs.
Sick or symptomatic workers should not be allowed to participate in the process.

Humane Handling and Transport:

Implement low-stress handling techniques to move pigs from the farm to the
slaughtering area.
Avoid overcrowding and rough handling during transportation to minimize stress.

Stunning and Bleeding:

Administer a humane stunning method that renders the pig unconscious.
Bleed the pig immediately after stunning to ensure proper blood drainage.
Maintain a clean and organized area for bleeding to prevent contamination.

Scalding and Hair Removal:

Scald the pig in hot water (140-150°F or 60-65°C) to facilitate hair removal.
Remove hair carefully using appropriate tools while preventing skin damage.
Maintain proper hygiene during the process to prevent contamination.

Evisceration and Inspection:

Eviscerate the pig methodically, removing organs and entrails while ensuring
cleanliness.
Inspect internal organs for abnormalities; discard any that do not meet safety
standards.
Maintain a dedicated area for evisceration with proper sanitation measures.
Cleaning and Sanitizing:
Thoroughly clean and sanitize all surfaces, tools, and equipment after each pig.
Implement a systematic cleaning schedule to prevent cross-contamination.

Chilling and Storage:

Rapidly cool the pig carcass using ice or a refrigerated water bath (32-40°F or 0-4°C).
Ensure the carcass reaches the desired temperature within a safe timeframe.
Store chilled pig carcasses in a designated refrigerated storage area.

Packaging and Traceability:

Properly package pig products in clean, sealed containers to prevent contamination.
Label packages with accurate information, including date of processing and type of
cut.
Implement a robust traceability system to track each batch from farm to storage.

Transportation:
If transporting pig products, use sanitized containers and maintain proper temperature
controls.
Ensure that transportation practices align with food safety standards.

Recordkeeping and Training:

Maintain detailed records of each batch, including slaughter date, processing steps,
and temperatures.
Keep records of worker training, health checks, and compliance with hygiene
protocols.

General Procedure in proper handling and Slaughtering of Cows

Pre-Slaughter Preparation:
Designate a clean and well-organized area for slaughtering, with separate sections for
different stages.
Ensure clear pathways and signage to prevent cross-contamination between areas.
Have all necessary equipment, such as restraining devices, sharp knives, and
cleaning supplies, readily available.

Worker Hygiene and Attire:

All personnel must wear clean and appropriate clothing, including gloves, hairnets,
and rubber boots.
Enforce a rigorous handwashing protocol before and after handling cows.
Any workers with signs of illness should not participate in the process.

Humane Handling and Transport:

Use low-stress handling techniques to move cows from the farm to the slaughtering
area.
Ensure calm and controlled movement to minimize stress for the animals.

Stunning and Bleeding:

Administer a humane stunning method that ensures immediate unconsciousness.
Bleed the cow promptly after stunning to facilitate proper blood drainage.
Maintain a clean and well-maintained area for bleeding to prevent contamination.

Hide Removal and Evisceration:

Remove the hide carefully using proper tools and techniques to avoid skin damage.
Eviscerate the cow methodically, removing organs and entrails while maintaining
hygiene.
Inspect internal organs for any abnormalities; discard unfit organs.

Cleaning and Sanitizing:

Thoroughly clean and sanitize all surfaces, tools, and equipment after each cow.
Implement a rigorous sanitation schedule to prevent cross-contamination.

Chilling and Cooling:

Rapidly cool the carcass using a refrigerated water bath or ice to reach safe
temperatures.
Monitor and document temperature during cooling to prevent bacterial growth.
Store cooled carcasses in a designated refrigerated storage area.

Cutting and Packaging:

Cut and process carcasses into desired portions, adhering to approved practices.
Properly package meat products in clean, sealed containers to prevent contamination.
Label packages with accurate information, including cut type and processing date.

Traceability and Documentation:

Implement a robust traceability system to track each batch from farm to storage.
Maintain detailed records of each cow, including slaughter date, processing steps, and
temperatures.

Transportation and Storage:

If transporting cow products, use sanitized containers and ensure proper temperature
controls.
Store packaged meat products in a designated refrigerated storage area.

Supplemental Readings:
Danforth, A. A. (2014). Butchering poultry, rabbit, lamb, goat, and pork: The
comprehensive photographic guide to humane slaughtering and butchering. In C.
Madigan (Ed.), Art direction and book design (pp. 79-158, 323-433). Storey Publishing.
CABI. (2020). The slaughter of farmed animals: Practical ways of enhancing
animal welfare (pp.116-77, 271-347). Edited by Temple Grandin and Michael
Cockram. CABI.
Hasheider, P. (2017). The complete book of butchering, smoking, curing, and
sausage making: How to harvest your livestock & wild game (1st ed.) (pp.56-127,164-
252).. Quarto Publishing Group USA Inc.
 Structural, Biochemical Characteristics of Fish, Beef, Pork, and Poultry

Fish and Aquatic sources

Glycogen Degradation and Anoxia:

When fish or crustaceans are caught, their vigorous struggle in fishing gear and
on board leads to the exhaustion of energy reserves, particularly glycogen and high-
energy phosphates. Asphyxia sets in due to the gradual formation of anoxic conditions
in the muscles. Tissue enzymes continue to metabolize energy reserves, leading to
the degradation of high-energy phosphates and the production of compounds like
hypoxanthine, formaldehyde, ammonia, inorganic phosphate, and ribose phosphates.
Glycolysis ensues, resulting in the accumulation of lactic acid, reducing pH (from 7.2
to 5.5), causing tissue contraction, and inducing rigor mortis.

Protein Types and Degradation:

Seafood, including fish, crustaceans, and mollusks, contains crude proteins, which
constitute about 11–27% of the total composition. These proteins can be classified
into three main types: sarcoplasmic, myofibrillar, and stromal.

Sarcoplasmic Proteins:
These are soluble proteins found in the muscle sarcoplasm. They include
myoglobin, enzymes, and other albumins. Enzymatic degradation of myoglobin affects
pigmentation and quality postmortem. Sarcoplasmic enzymes contribute to the
deterioration of fish quality between death and bacterial spoilage. These enzymes
include hydrolases, oxidoreductases, and transferases. Sarcoplasmic proteins also
encompass heme pigments, parvalbumins, and antifreeze proteins.

Myofibrillar Proteins:
These proteins, such as myosin, actin, tropomyosin, and troponins C, I, and T,
constitute 40–60% of the total crude protein in fish muscles. These proteins undergo
changes during rigor mortis, resolution of rigor mortis, and long-term frozen storage.
These changes impact the integrity and texture of fish products, leading to a loss of
firmness and gelling ability. Cross-linking due to the presence of formaldehyde can
worsen the situation, resulting in tough, chewy, or fibrous cooked products.

Stromal Proteins:
 The residue remaining after extracting sarcoplasmic and myofibrillar proteins is
stromal protein, composed mainly of collagen and elastin from connective tissues. The
degradation of these proteins leads to textural changes in seafood, causing issues like
honeycombing in some species and mushiness in others. For example, honeycombing
in tuna can indicate mishandling of raw material, affecting the quality of canned
products.
Fish meat structure and characteristics are significantly influenced by the
degradation processes that occur after capture. Glycogen depletion, enzymatic
activity, changes in pH, and the degradation of different protein types contribute to the
development of rigor mortis, changes in texture, and alterations in functional properties
of fish meat. These biochemical changes impact the quality and sensory attributes of
seafood products throughout storage and processing.

Pigments in Seafood:
Heme Proteins (Hemoglobin and Myoglobin): Hemoglobin and myoglobin are
responsible for the red color in warm-blooded fish. Hemoglobin contributes less to
appearance compared to myoglobin as it is lost easily during handling and storage.
Myoglobin is retained within the intracellular structure of the muscle and is responsible
for the red color in the flesh. It can oxidize into metmyoglobin, which is brown-colored.
The presence of myoglobin in different amounts in light and dark muscle types affects
the color appearance of red-meat fish.

Hemocyanin: Hemocyanin, present in cold-blooded shellfish like crustaceans and

mollusks, contributes to their blue coloration. Hemocyanins are copper-containing
proteins that reverse-bind with oxygen. Their role in seafood quality is not well
understood, but a higher content of hemocyanin has been associated with the blue
discoloration of canned crabmeat.

Carotenoids: Carotenoids are responsible for the attractive yellow, orange, and red
colors in some fish and shellfish products. Seafoods like lobster, shrimp, salmon, and
red snapper exhibit these colors due to carotenoid pigments. Carotenoids are sensitive
to oxidation and can undergo color changes due to enzymatic activity.

Epithelial Discoloration: Squid's epidermal chromatophores, or ommochromes,

contribute to its coloration. Prerigor squid has dark red-brown appearance due to
dispersed pigment. Rigor mortis causes pigment cell contraction, resulting in a pale
color with dark flecks. Continued storage leads to structural deterioration of the
ommochrome membrane, bleeding of pigment, and quality downgrading. Proper
handling and processing can retain the desired color.
Hemoglobin and Myoglobin: The amount of hemoglobin and myoglobin affects the
color appearance of fish flesh. Hemoglobin is lost easily during handling and storage,
while myoglobin is retained intracellularly. The concentration of these pigments varies
between muscle types and species. The breakdown of hemoglobin can result in
subcutaneous yellowing of fish flesh, affecting appearance.

Green Meat: Green meat in broadbill swordfish is caused by the combination of

hemoglobin with hydrogen sulfide generated from meat decomposition.

Hemocyanin and Copper Content: Hemocyanin, present in shellfish blood, might

influence seafood quality. Blue discoloration in crabmeat might be linked to high
hemocyanin content and copper levels.

Myoglobin and Oxidation: Myoglobin can oxidize to metmyoglobin, which is brown.

Discoloration during frozen storage of tuna is associated with metmyoglobin formation.

Carotenoid Oxidation: Carotenoids, responsible for the colors in certain seafood, can
be oxidized by enzymes, affecting color.

Melanosis (Melanin Formation): Blackspot or melanosis in shrimp during storage is

caused by phenol oxidase activity, impacting quality. Reducing or inhibiting agents can
help prevent this issue.

Biochemical Indices for Quality Assessment:

Lactic Acid Formation and pH: Lactic acid accumulates postmortem due to glycolytic
conversion of muscle glycogen. Lactic acid and pH changes are indicators of
freshness and can be measured to assess fish quality.

Nucleotide Catabolism: Nucleotide degradation leads to the accumulation of

hypoxanthine, an indicator of freshness. K-value, based on inosine and hypoxanthine
ratios, is used for quality evaluation.
Myofibrillar and Collagen Degradation: Textural changes in seafood are attributed
to myofibrillar and collagen protein degradation. Honeycombing in precooked tuna and
mushiness in prawns are associated with collagen degradation.

Dimethylamine (DMA) Formation: TMAO degradation results in DMA formation in

fish, contributing to off-flavors. This process is influenced by enzymes and conditions
like temperature.

Free Fatty Acid (FFA) Accumulation: Enzymatic hydrolysis leads to lipid

degradation and FFA accumulation in seafood. Monitoring FFAs provides insights into
lipid breakdown.

Tyrosine Accumulation: Accumulation of tyrosine due to autolysis is related to fish

quality. However, its use as a sole indicator might not be sufficient for assessing overall
quality.

The coloration of seafood is influenced by various pigments, and changes in

these pigments can impact the quality and appearance of fish during handling,
storage, and processing. Biochemical indices, such as lactic acid, nucleotide
degradation products, myofibrillar and collagen degradation, DMA formation, FFA
accumulation, and tyrosine content, offer insights into fish freshness and quality,
allowing for effective quality assessment and monitoring.

Biochemistry of Raw Meat and Poultry

Muscle Structure and Color Variations: Muscles are the primary component of
meat, and their structure greatly influences the quality of the resulting meat. The color
of meat varies within a range from white to red, and this color is associated with the
types of muscle fibers present. Different classifications of muscle fibers are based on
color and contraction speed. Red fibers, characterized by higher myoglobin content
and oxidative metabolism, are often linked to locomotion. White fibers have lower
myoglobin and exhibit glycolytic metabolism, making them suited for support tasks.
Intermediate fibers combine properties of both red and white fibers.
Muscle Fiber Arrangement and Contraction: Muscles are composed of fibers,
which are surrounded by connective tissue. Each fiber contains many myofibrils,
arranged in parallel. Myofibrils are responsible for muscle contraction and relaxation.
They consist of thick and thin filaments that overlap, creating alternating dark (A band)
and light (I band) regions. Z-lines mark the boundary of sarcomeres, the basic
repeating units of muscle contraction.

Myofibrillar Proteins: Myofibrils are made up of myofibrillar proteins, including

myosin, actin, tropomyosin, and troponins. These proteins are vital for muscle
contraction and provide structural integrity. Myosin and actin are abundant and form
the structural backbone. Tropomyosin and troponins are regulatory proteins that
control muscle contraction and relaxation. Other proteins, like titin and nebulin,
contribute to muscle integrity by connecting filaments.

Sarcoplasmic Proteins: Sarcoplasmic proteins, found in the sarcoplasm (a watery

substance within muscle fibers), include enzymes and myoglobin. Enzymes play a
significant role in postmortem meat processes. Myoglobin is responsible for the red
color of meat and is influenced by factors like fiber type, species, and age.

Connective Tissue Proteins: Collagen, reticulin, and elastin are key components of
connective tissue in muscles. Collagen, in various types, provides support to different
parts of muscle fibers. As animals age, cross-linkages in collagen fibers increase,
leading to tougher meat. Elastin is present in smaller amounts and is found in specific
tissues like capillaries and tendons.

Muscle Composition: Meat composition consists of water, protein, lipids (fats),

minerals, and carbohydrates. Lean muscle contains a high percentage of water and
protein, with variable amounts of fat. Different species and factors like fattening affect
these proportions.

Muscle Proteins and Changes During Processing: Proteins in meat serve

important roles in structure, function, and integrity. During meat conversion and
processing, proteins undergo changes that impact tenderness and other quality
aspects. These changes involve the generation of peptides and free amino acids
through proteolytic enzymatic reactions.

Lipids in Muscle and Adipose Tissue: Muscles contain various lipids, with
intramuscular, intermuscular, and adipose tissue compartments. Triacylglycerols are
a major component, influenced by factors like age and diet. Fatty acid composition
affects meat properties, with higher polyunsaturated fatty acids making fats softer and
prone to oxidation.

Phospholipids and Flavor Development: Phospholipids are found in cell

membranes and contribute to flavor development due to their high proportion of
polyunsaturated fatty acids. They have greater relevance in red oxidative muscles
compared to white glycolytic muscles.

Enzymes and Postmortem Changes: Muscle contains numerous enzymes with

relevance in meat processing. These enzymes, such as calpains, cathepsins, and
aminopeptidases, play roles in breaking down proteins and other compounds. They
contribute to changes in meat during aging and further processing.

Free Amino Acids and Dipeptides: Amino acids, the building blocks of proteins,
contribute to various physiological functions in muscles. During postmortem storage,
the action of enzymes leads to the generation of free amino acids. Dipeptides like
carnosine and anserine have multiple roles, including as buffers, antioxidants, and
enzyme modulators.

Conversion of muscle to meat

Proper Handling of Animals Before Slaughtering:

Proper handling of animals before slaughter is crucial for ensuring their welfare,
reducing stress, and maintaining meat quality. Stress and fear can lead to the release
of stress hormones like cortisol, which can affect meat attributes such as tenderness
and color. Adequate space, gentle handling, avoiding loud noises, and minimizing
transportation time are essential practices.

Stunning and Other Methods of Immobilizing Animals:

Stunning is a humane practice used to render animals unconscious before
slaughter. It prevents pain and distress during the process. Various methods are used,
including electrical stunning, captive bolt stunning, and gas stunning. These methods
induce a state of insensibility by affecting the brain, ensuring animals don't feel pain.
Slitting of Arteries or Veins:
After stunning, the animal's neck is typically cut to sever the major arteries or
veins. This initiates bleeding, a critical step to drain blood from the body. Effective
bleeding is necessary for producing meat with desirable attributes like color and flavor,
as residual blood can negatively impact these qualities.

Bleeding and Loss of Respiration Cycle:

Bleeding out the animal leads to a loss of the respiration cycle, where oxygen
no longer reaches muscle tissue. This prevents oxygen from reacting with myoglobin,
a protein responsible for meat color. Proper bleeding is essential for achieving the
desired bright red color of fresh meat and minimizing bacterial growth.

Scalding and Evisceration:

In some cases, carcasses are scalded in hot water to facilitate hair removal.
Following this, the carcass is eviscerated—internal organs like the liver, intestines, and
stomach are removed. Proper evisceration is essential for food safety and preventing
contamination of the meat.

Pre-Rigor, Rigor Maximum, and Postmortem:

After bleeding, the muscle goes through several phases. The pre-rigor phase
occurs right after slaughter when the muscles are still relatively flexible. Rigor mortis
is the stiffening of muscles due to the cross-linking of actin and myosin filaments. Rigor
development varies based on species, temperature, and muscle type. After rigor, the
postmortem phase involves enzymatic and biochemical changes that impact meat
quality.

Pre-Rigor Phase:
The pre-rigor phase is the initial period right after slaughter when the muscles
are still relatively flexible. During this phase, there are several biochemical changes
taking place:

ATP Depletion: Upon slaughter, the supply of oxygen to muscle cells is cut off, leading
to a reduction in aerobic respiration. The available adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is
rapidly depleted, as the conversion of glucose to ATP becomes less efficient without
oxygen. This reduction in ATP levels leads to a decrease in muscle contraction
capabilities.
Glycogen Breakdown: Glycogen stored in muscle tissues is broken down through
glycolysis. This process generates energy in the form of ATP and lactic acid. The
accumulation of lactic acid in the muscles contributes to the initial drop in pH.

Loss of ATP-Dependent Processes: ATP is essential for various cellular processes,

including the active transport of calcium ions into the sarcoplasmic reticulum. As ATP
levels decrease, calcium ions are released, initiating the contraction of muscle fibers.

Rigor Mortis Phase (Rigor Maximum):

Rigor mortis is the stiffening of muscles that occurs due to the cross-linking of
actin and myosin filaments. It typically starts a few hours after slaughter and reaches
its maximum effect within 12 to 24 hours. During this phase:

Actin-Myosin Cross-Linking: Actin and myosin, the two main proteins responsible
for muscle contraction, form cross-bridges due to the depletion of ATP. These cross-
bridges lock the muscle fibers in a contracted state, leading to the stiffness
characteristic of rigor mortis.

pH Decrease: The glycolytic breakdown of glycogen to lactic acid continues, causing

a further drop in pH. The pH level reaches its lowest point during rigor mortis,
contributing to the development of meat's texture and water-holding capacity.

Postmortem Phase:
After rigor mortis, the postmortem phase involves enzymatic and biochemical
changes that impact meat quality:

pH Recovery: Over time, enzymes naturally present in muscle tissues break down
lactic acid. This leads to a gradual increase in pH, a process known as pH recovery or
"resolution of rigor." As pH increases, the muscle fibers start to relax, and the meat
becomes less stiff.

Proteolysis: Proteolysis, the breakdown of proteins into smaller peptides and amino
acids, begins to occur. Calpain and cathepsin enzymes play a significant role in this
process. Proteolysis contributes to the tenderization of meat during aging.
Water-Binding Capacity: As pH increases and muscle fibers relax, the water-binding
capacity of the meat improves. This is essential for maintaining juiciness and
tenderness in cooked meat.

Flavor Development: Enzymatic processes, such as lipolysis and proteolysis,

contribute to the development of flavors in meat. Amino acids and peptides produced
during these processes contribute to the overall taste of the meat.

Autoxidation: Lipids in the meat can undergo autoxidation, resulting in the

development of off-flavors and rancidity. Proper packaging and storage conditions can
help prevent excessive lipid oxidation.

Aging: Aging, either wet or dry, takes place during the postmortem phase. Enzymatic
and biochemical changes that occur during aging contribute to increased tenderness,
flavor, and overall meat quality.

Aging Process:
Aging is a controlled process that enhances meat quality. It involves storing
meat at specific temperatures for a certain duration. During this time, enzymes break
down proteins, contributing to improved tenderness and flavor. Wet aging occurs when
meat is vacuum-sealed, while dry aging involves hanging meat in a controlled
environment to allow moisture to evaporate, concentrating flavors.

Primal Cutting:
After aging, the carcass is divided into larger sections called primal cuts. These
cuts are based on anatomical regions and include portions like the loin, rib, and leg.
Primal cuts are the starting point for further processing into retail cuts, such as steaks
and roasts, which consumers purchase.

Throughout these stages, maintaining proper hygiene, adhering to food safety

regulations, and ensuring animal welfare are of paramount importance. The
conversion of muscle to meat is a multi-step process that requires careful attention to
detail at each stage to produce meat that is safe, flavorful, and meets consumer
expectations. Proper handling, stunning, bleeding, and post-slaughter processing
techniques are essential for both ethical and responsible meat production.
Supplementary Reading:
Danforth, A. A. (2014). Butchering poultry, rabbit, lamb, goat, and pork: The
comprehensive photographic guide to humane slaughtering and butchering. In C.
Madigan (Ed.), Art direction and book design (pp. 79-158, 323-433). Storey Publishing.
CABI. (2020). The slaughter of farmed animals: Practical ways of enhancing animal
welfare (pp.116-77, 271-347). Edited by Temple Grandin and Michael Cockram. CABI.
Hasheider, P. (2017). The complete book of butchering, smoking, curing, and sausage
making: How to harvest your livestock & wild game (1st ed.) (pp.56-127,164-252)..
Quarto Publishing Group USA Inc.

ACTIVITY 1. Illustrate the following and discuss

Instruction: In an empty box illustrate the following structure of muscle during pre-
rigor, rigor maximum and rigor resolution. And explain the biochemical process behind
of these processes.

Illustration: Pre-rigor
Discussion:

Illustration: Rigor Maximum

Discussion:

Illustration: Rigor Resolution

Discussion:
ACTIVITY 2. Slaughtering Procedure and food safety controls

Instruction: Create a process and procedure from farm to market based

on proper handling and slaughtering of animals. Chicken, Pig, Cow and
Fish. Also include the food safety considerations in the process. Look the
example below.
Example:
Slaughtering of chicken
Process Procedure and food safety considerations
Harvesting of live Check the condition of the chicken, apply physical
chicken inspection to check the physical condition of the
livestock before harvesting, discard the unhealthy
and provide a treatment to be able to use for the
next batches.

Place the livestock in a cool and comfortable place

to allowed them to rest before slaughtering or
transportation.
Receiving in food The loading bay and area must be clean and
processing sanitized before receiving livestock.

Upon receiving the personnel should follow the

personal hygiene procedure and protocols.

Unload the livestock gently and placed them in a

inverted cones to restrain the birds.
PRIMAL CUTS
Chicken

Best Usage

Breast: Chicken breasts are versatile and lean cuts. They can be used in various
ways, such as:

• Grilled chicken breast: Seasoned with herbs and spices, then grilled for a
healthy and flavorful main dish.
• Chicken sandwiches: Sliced or shredded chicken breast makes a great filling
for sandwiches and wraps.
• Chicken stir-fry: Cut into strips and stir-fried with vegetables in a savory sauce.
• Chicken Parmesan: Breaded and fried chicken breast topped with marinara
sauce and cheese.
Thigh: Chicken thighs are a bit more flavorful and moister than breasts. They work
well in dishes like:

• Chicken curry: Boneless chicken thighs are perfect for making rich and spicy
curries.
• Baked chicken thighs: Seasoned with herbs and roasted in the oven for a
crispy skin and tender meat.
 • Chicken adobo: A Filipino dish that simmers chicken thighs in a soy-vinegar
sauce.
• Chicken tacos: Shred cooked chicken thighs for flavorful taco fillings.
Drumstick: Chicken drumsticks are a favorite for many due to their easy handling and
juicy meat. They can be used in:

• Fried chicken drumsticks: Classic comfort food, battered and deep-fried.

• BBQ chicken drumsticks: Grilled or roasted with barbecue sauce for a smoky
flavor.
• Chicken lollipops: A fun appetizer where the meat is pushed down to create
a "lollipop" shape, then breaded and fried.
• Chicken and rice casserole: Drumsticks add flavor to baked rice dishes.
Wings: Chicken wings have become popular for their small, flavorful portions. Some
uses include:

• Buffalo wings: Deep-fried and coated in a spicy buffalo sauce, often served
with celery and blue cheese dressing.
• Teriyaki wings: Baked or grilled and glazed with sweet teriyaki sauce.
• Honey mustard wings: Baked wings tossed in a tangy honey mustard sauce.
• Korean fried chicken: Double-fried wings with a sticky, sweet, and spicy glaze.
• Back: The back of the chicken is often used for making chicken stock or broth.
It's perfect for:
Chicken stock: Simmer the back along with vegetables and herbs to make a flavorful
base for soups and sauces.

• Chicken broth: Use the stock as a base for homemade chicken soups or as a
cooking liquid for rice and grains.
Neck and Giblets: The neck and giblets (heart, liver, gizzard) are often included with
whole chickens. They can be used in:

• Gravy: Giblets are commonly used to make rich and flavorful chicken gravy.
• Stuffing: Chopped giblets can be added to stuffing for extra flavor.
• Soup: Chicken neck and giblets can be used to make a hearty chicken soup or
stew.
ACTIVITY 3. Primal Cuts and Usage
Instruction: Create a Best usage of primal cuts based on the following
given picture with a twist! Usage cuisine must be a Filipino Native
dishes example: Beef Skin used in Beef skin Stew (Balbakua)
Beef

Best Usage
 Pork

Best Usage