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ISBN 978-0-19-837596-8
111111 II
9 780198 375968
P.ublished for
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AQA EXAMINATIONS
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About this book ............................................................................. v 5.2 Gradient ............................................................................. 59
5.3 The equation of a straight line ................................. 61
1 Expanding Brackets, Surds 5.4 Intersection ...................................................................... 66
and Indices Summary ....................................................................................... 67
1.1 Algebraic expressions ..................................................... 2 Review ............................................................................................ 68
1.2 Expansion of Two Brackets .......................................... 3 Assessment ................................................................................... 68
1.3 Square roots and other roots ...................................... 6
1.4 Surds ....................................................................................... 7 6 Differentiation
1.5 Indices ................................................................................. 10 6.1 Chords, tangents, normals and gradients .......... 70
Sum1nary ....................................................................................... 14 6.2 Differentiation ................................................................. 72
Review ............................................................................................ 14 6.3 Gradients of tangents and normals ....................... 75
Assessment ................................................................................... 15 6.4 Increasing and decreasing functions ................... 78
6.5 Stationary points ............................................................ 79
2 Quadratic Polynomials 6.6 Maximum and minimum points ............................ 80
and Equations Summary ....................................................................................... 85
2.1 Quadratic polynomials ............................................... 16 Review ............................................................................................ 86
2.2 Quadratic equations ..................................................... 19 Assessment ................................................................................... 87
2.3 Solution by completing the square ....................... 22
2.4 The formula for solving a quadratic equation 23 7 Integration
2.5 Properties of the roots of a 7.1 Indefinite integration ................................................... 90
quadratic equation ........................................................ 24 7.2 Using integration to find an area ............................ 92
2.6 Simultaneous equations ............................................. 27 7.3 The trapezium rule ........................................................ 97
Sum1nary ....................................................................................... 29 Summary ....................................................................................... 99
Review ............................................................................................ 29 Review ............................................................................................ 99
Assessment ................................................................................... 30 Assess1n ent ................................................................................ 100
3 Algebraic Division 8 Sequences and Series

3.1 Division of a polynomial by x- a ........................... 32 8 .1 Defining a sequence .................................................. 102
3.2 The remainder theorem and the 8.2 Series ................................................................................. 105
factor theorem ................................................................. 33 8.3 Arithmetic series .......................................................... 107
3.3 The factors of a 3 - IJ3 and a 3 + IJ3 .............................. 35 8.4 Geometric series .......................................................... 110
Summary ....................................................................................... 36 8.5 The binomial theorem .............................................. 115
Review ............................................................................................ 37 Summary .................................................................................... 120
Assessment ................................................................................... 37 Review .......................................................................................... 120
Assessment ................................................................................ 121
4 Functions and Graphs
4.1 Functions ........................................................................... 40
9 Coordinate Geometry
4.2 Graphical interpretation of equations ................. 43 and Circles .
4.3 Inequalities ....................................................................... 46 9.1 The equation of a circle ............................................ 124
4.4 Transformations of graphs ........................................ 48 9.2 Geometric properties of circles ............................ 127
Summary ....................................................................................... 52 9.3 Tangents to circles ...................................................... 128
Review ............................................................................................ 52 Su1nmary .................................................................................... 131
Assessment ................................................................................... 53 Review .......................................................................................... 131
Assessment ................................................................................ 132
5 .1 Lines joining two points ............................................. 56
10 Trigonometry 15 Bernoulli and Binomial
10.1 Trigonometric ratios of acute angles ................. 134 Distributions
10.2 The sine rule and cosine rule ................................. 137 15.1 The Bernoulli distribution ....................................... 266
10.3 The area of a triangle .................................................. 144 15.2 The binomial distribution ....................................... 269
Summary .................................................................................... 145 15.3 The cumulative binomial distribution
Review .......................................................................................... 145 function ............................................................................ 276
Assessment ................................................................................ 146 15.4 Mean, variance and standard deviation of a
binomial distribution ................................................ 283
11 Trigonometric Functions 15.5 Further applications .................................................. 287
and Equations Summary .................................................................................... 290
11.1 Angle units ...................................................................... 148 Review .......................................................................................... 291
11.2 The length of an arc .................................................... 150 Assessrnent ................................................................................ 293
11.3 The area of a sector ..................................................... 152
11.4 The trigonometric functions .................................. 154 16 Displacement, Speed, Velocity
11.5 Solving trigonometric equations ......................... 159 and Acceleration
Summary .................................................................................... 162 16.1 Displacement, speed, velocity and
Review .......................................................................................... 163 acceleration .................................................................... 296
Assessment ................................................................................ 163 16.2 Displacement-time and velocity-time graphs ... 300
Summary .................................................................................... 308
12 Exponentials and Logarithms Review .......................................................................................... 309
12.1 Exponential functions ............................................... 166 Assessment ................................................................................ 310
12.2 Logarithms ..................................................................... 168
12.3 The laws oflogarithms .............................................. 170 17 Motion in a Straight Line
12.4 Equations containing logarithms or x 17.1 Equations of motion with constant
as a power ....................................................................... 172 acceleration .................................................................... 312
Summary .................................................................................... 173 17.2 Free fall motion under gravity ............................... 317
Review .......................................................................................... 173 17.3 Motion in a straight line with variable
Assessment ................................................................................ 174 acceleration .................................................................... 321
Summary .................................................................................... 324
13 Probability Review .......................................................................................... 325
13.1 Introduction to probability ..................................... 176 Assessment ................................................................................ 326
13.2 Combined events ........................................................ 182
18 Forces and Newton's Laws
13.3 Conditional events ...................................................... 191
13.4 Tree diagrams ............................................................... 200 18.1 Types of force ................................................................ 328
13.5 Further applications .................................................. 209 18.2 Newton's first law of motion .................................. 331
18.3 Connected particles ................................................... 340
Summary .................................................................................... 212
18.4 Dynamic friction .......................................................... 343
Review .......................................................................................... 214
Assessment ................................................................................ 217 Summary .................................................................................... 346
Review .......................................................................................... 347
14 Discrete Random Variables Assessment ................................................................................ 347
14.1 Discrete variables ........................................................ 220
19 Momentum and Impulse
14.2 Discrete random variables ...................................... 229
19.1 Momentum and impulse ......................................... 350
14.3 E(X), the expectation of X ........................................ 235
19.2 Conservation of linear momentum .................... 355
14.4 The variance and standard deviation of X ....... 243
14.5 Sum or difference of two independent random Summary .................................................................................... 358
Review .......................................................................................... 358
variables ........................................................................... 249
Assessment ................................................................................ 359
14.6 Further applications .................................................. 255
Summary .................................................................................... 258 Glossary ....................................................................................... 362
kt essm
ent
Review .......................................................................................... 260
m •••••••••••••••••••••• m•m••••••••m•••m mm• 263
Answers ....................................................................................... 366
Index ............................................................................................. 386
This book has been specially created for the Oxford AQA International AS Level
Mathematics examination (9660).
It has been written by an experienced team of teachers, consultants and
examiners and is designed to help you obtain the best possible grade in your
maths qualification.
In each chapter the lessons are organised in a logical order to help you to
progress through each topic. At the start of each chapter you can see an
Introdu ction, to show you how you will use the knowledge in this chapter, a
Recap of what prior knowledge you will need to recall and a clear list of the
Objectives that you will fulfil by the end of the chapter.
The Note boxes give you help and support as you work through the examples
and exercises.
Clear, worked examples show you how to tackle each question a nd the steps
needed to reach the answer.
Key points are in bold and the chapter colour to make it clear that this
information is important.
Exercises allow you to apply the skills that you have learned, and give the
opportunity to practice your reasoning and problem solving abilities.
At the end of a chapter you will find a summary of what you have learned,
together with a review section that allows you to test your fluency in the basic
skills. Finally there is an Assessment section where you can practise exam-style
questions.
At the end of the book you will find a compreh ensive glossary of key phrases
a nd terms and a full set of answers to all of the exercises.
We wish you well with your studies and h ope that you enjoy this course and
achieve exam success.
J
Introduction Objectives
Working with algebraic expressions is needed in any mathematics course By the end of this chapter,
beyond GCSE. This chapter gives the facts and the practice necessary for you should know how to ...
you to develop these skills. ..,. Identify like and
unlike terms .
..,. Expand brackets .
..,. Explain the meaning
of a surd .
..,. Simplify an expression
containing surds.
..,. Work with numbers
in index form.
•• • • •• • •• •• •• • •• •• •• • • • ••• •• •• ••• •• •• •
1.1 Algebraic expressions
The terms in an algebraic expression are the parts separated by a plus or
minus sign.
Like terms contain the same letters to the same powers; like terms can be
added or subtracted.
For example, 2ab and 5ab are like terms and can be added,
so 2ab+ Sab= 7ab
Unlike terms contain different letters; they cannot be added or subtracted.
For example, ab and ac are unlike terms because they contain different letters.
Also r and .il cannot be added because they are to different powers.
Example 1
I Simplify 5x- 3(4- x)

Note
Remember that -3(4 - x)
means 'multiply every
term inside the bracket by
~~ 5x-3(4-x)=5x-12+3x minus 3. Remember that
~ =8x- 12 (-3) x (-x) = +3x.
Coefficients
We can identify a term in an expression by using the letter, or combination of
letters, involved.
For example 2.x2 is 'the term in .x2,
3xy is 'the term in X)l.
The number (including its sign) in front of the letters is called the coefficient.
For example in the term 2.x2, 2 is the coefficient of x2
in the term 3xy, 3 is the coefficient of xy.
If no number is written in front of a term, the coefficient is 1 or -1, depending
on the sign of the term.
For example, in the expression x3 + 5x2y- f + 2
the coefficient of xl is 1
the coefficient of x2y is 5
the coefficient off is - 1.
The term 2 has no variable. This is called a constant term.
Exercise 1
Simplify.
0 2.x2 - 4x+.x2 e 5a -4(a+3) 0 2y-y(x-y)
0 2
8pq -9p -3pq 0 4xy-y(x - y) 0 x'l-U+r-4x+5x+7
0 t2-4t+3-2f+5t+2 0 2
2(a -b)-a(a+b) ( ) 3-(x-4)
G Sx-2- (x+ 7) G 3x(x+ 2) +4(3x-5) CD a(b - c)- c(a - b) -(x- 4) means - 1(x- 4).
e 2ct(3 - t) + 5t(c- llt) ~ .x2(x+ 7) - 3xl+x(r - 7)
G) (3f+4y - 2) - (7f-20y + 8)
C Write down the coefficient of x in .x2 - 7x+ 4.
$ What is the coefficient of if in the expression t + 2xy2 - 7xy?
C) For the expression xl- 3x + 7, write down the coefficient of
a xl b .x2 e x
1.2 Expansion of Two Brackets

Expanding brackets means multiplying them out to remove the brackets.
To expand (2x + 4)(x- 3) each term in the first bracket is multiplied by each
term in the second bracket.
® =2.x2 - 6x+4x- 12
6:\
(2x+ 4)(x - 3)
v @
=2r-2x- 12
Expanding Brackets, Surds and Indices •

Exercise 2
Expand and simplify.
0 (x+ 2)(x+ 4) e (x +5)(x+3) 0 (a+6)(a +7)
0 (t+ 8)(t+ 7) e (s+ 6)(s +ll) 0 (2x+ l )(x+5)
0 (5y +3)(y+5) 0 (2a+3)(3a+4) 0 (7t+ 6)(5t+ 8)
G (lls+3)(9s+2) G (x - 3)(x-2) ~ (y-4)(y-l)
e (a-3)(a-8) e (b-B )(b- 9) e (p- 3)(p- 12)
~ (2y -3)(y-5) $ (x-4)(3x - l) 0 (2r-7)(3r- 2)
~ (4x -3)(5x- l) ~ (2a-b)(3a-2b) f) (x - 3)(x+ 2)
e (a -7)(a+8) e (y+ s)(y - 7) ~ (s-5)(s+6)
fl} (q - 5)(q + 13) e (2t -5)(t+4) $ (x+ 3)(4x- 1)
f! (2q + 3)(3q - 5) ~ (x+y)(x-2y) ~ (s+2t)(2s-3t)
Difference of two squares

The expansion of (x - 4)(x + 4) is a special case.
(x- 4)(x+ 4) = r - 4x+ 4x- 16
=r- 16
Any expansion of the form (x + b)(x - b)= r - b2 is known as the difference of
two squares.
Squares
(2x + 3)2 means (2x+ 3)(2x+ 3)
.. (2x+3)2 = (2x+3)(2x+3)
= (2x)2 + (2)(2x)(3) + (3)2
= 4r + 12x +9
In general, (ax+ b)2 = a 2r + (2)(ax)(b) + b2
= a 2r + 2abx + b2
and (ax - b)2 = a 2r - 2abx+ b2
Exercise 3
Expand and simplify.
0 (x - 2)(x+ 2) e (5+x)(5-x) 0 (x+3)(x-3)
Note
0 (2x- 1)(2x+ 1) e (x - B)(x+ 8) 0 (x-a)(x+a)
Questions 1 to 6 show
0 (x- l)(x+ 1) 0 (3b + 4)(3b-4) 0 (2y- 3)(2y + 3)
that the expansion of
G (ab+6)(ab - 6) G (5x+ 1)(5x-1) e (xy+4)(xy-4) (ax+ b)(ax- b) can be
Expand. written down directly, so
e (x+4)2 e (x+2)2 e (2x+ 1)2 (ax+ b)(ax - b) = a2r - 1J2.
Use this result to expand the
~ (3x + 5)2 (D (2x+ 7)2 0 (x- 1) 2
brackets in Questions 7 to 12.
~ (x -3)2 ~ (2x-1) 2 f) C4x-3)2
f) (5x- 2) 2 f) (3t-7)2 ~ (x + y)2
Gl (2q+9) 2
e (3q - 11)2 $ (2x- 5y)2
f! Expand and simplify (x - 2) (3x - 4). Write down the coefficients ofrand x.
2
• Expanding Brackets, Surds and Indices

Important expansions
These general results should be memorised.
(ax + b)2 =a 2r + 2abx+ b2
r- 2abx+ b
(ax- b)2 =a 2 2
(ax+ b)(ax- b)= a r- b2 2
The next exercise has different expansions including some given above.
Example 2
I Expand (4p + 5)(3 - 2p)
I (4p + 5)(3- 2p) = (5 + 4p)(3- 2p)

= 15- lOp+ 12p- 8p2
= 15+2p-8p2
Harder expansions
Expanding expressions such as (x - 2)(r - x + 5) should be done systematically.
First multiply each term of the second bracket by x, writing down the separate
results as they are found. Then multiply each term of the second bracket by - 2.
Do not collect like terms at this stage.
(x- 2)(r- x+ 5)
=i' -x2 + 5x- 2x2+ 2x-10
Now collect like terms
= _x3 - 3.x2 + 7X - 10
Example 3
I Expand (x+ 2)(2x - l)(x+ 4)

Note
First expand the last two
I
(x+2)(2x- l)(x+4) = (x+2)(2r + 7x- 4) brackets.
= 2i'+ 7r - 4x+ 4r + I4x- 8
= 2i'+llr+ IOx- 8
Exercise 4
Expand.
0 (2x-3)(4-x) e (x - 7)(x+ 7) 0 (6 - x)(l - 4x)
0 (7p + 2)(2p - 1) 0 (3p -J)2 0 (5t+ 2)(3t-l)
0 C4-p)2 0 (4t - 1)(3- 2t) 0 (x+2y)2
~ (4x-3)(4x+3) G) (3x+7) 2 e (R+3)(5-2R)
G) (a-3b) 2
e (2x -5)2 e (7a+2b)(7a-2b)
G (3a+5b)
a
2
Expanding Brackets, Surds and Indices

Expand and simplify
G) (x- 2)(.il +x+1) 4\) (3x-2)(.il - x -1) Note
G) (2x-1)(2.il-3x+5) ~ (x- 1)(il-x- 1)
The result from question 37 should
G (2x+3)(.il-6x-3) $ (x+ 1)(x+2)(x+ 3) be memorized:
$ (x+4)(x-1)(x+ 1) ~ (x-2)(x-3)(x+ 1) (a+ b)3 =a3 + 3a2 b+ 3ab2 + b3.
G) (x+ 1)(2x+ 1)(x+2) e (x+2)(x+ 1) 2
f3 (2x-1) (x + 2)
2
f) C3x -1)3
fl) (4x+ 3)(x+ 1)(x-4) ~ (x- 1)(2x-1)(2x + 1)
0 (2x+ 1)(x+ 2)(3x-1) e (x + 1)3
e (x - 2)(x+ 2)(x+ 1) ~ (x + 3)(2x+ 3)(x-1)
G) (3x- 2)(2x+5)(4x - 1) f) 2(x-7)(2x+ 3)(x- 5) Note
G (x+ y)3 6) (x+ y)4 For question 42 use the
G) cxz- 5) 3
~ (2 - 3XZ)3 general result of the
0 Find the coefficients of x3 and XZ in the expansion of (x- 4)(2x + 3)(3x- 1). expansion of (a+ b)3 and
replace a by 2x3 and b by -3.
(!) State the coefficient of;(' in the expansion of (2x3- 3)3•
1.3 Square roots and other roots

When a number is given as the product of two equal factors, that factor is called
the square root of the number, for example
4 =2 x 2 => 2 is the square root of 4.
This is written 2 = .f4.
- 2 is also a square root of 4, as 4 = -2 x -2 but J4 -:~; - 2. Note
The symbol .../ is used only for the positive square root. The symbol => means gives
So, although r =4 => x= ±2, the only value of J4 is 2. The negative square root or implies.
of 4 is written - ../4.
When both square roots are wanted, we write± J4.
Cube roots
When a number is given as the product of three equal factors, that factor is
called the cube root of the number.
For example 27 = 3 x 3 x 3 so 3 is the cube root of27.
This is written ifi7 =3.
Other roots
The notation used for square and cube roots can be extended to represent
fourth roots, fifth roots, and so on.
For example 16 = 2 x 2x 2 x 2 => :ifl6 = 2
and 243 = 3 X 3 X 3 X 3 X 3 => ifjA3 =3
In general, if a number, n, can be written as the product of p equal factors then
each factor is called the p'h root of nand is written f./Yi..

1.4 Surds
A number which is either an integer, or a fraction whose numerator and
denominator are both integers, is called a rational number.
The square roots of some numbers are rational. For example
J9 =3,$5 =5,~ =~
This is not true of all square roots. For example .Ji, J5 and Jll are not
rational numbers. Such square roots can be given to as m any decimal places as
are needed, for example
J3 = 1.73 correct to 2 d.p.
J3 = 1.73205 correct to 5 d.p.
but they can not be expressed exactly as a decimal. They are called irrational
a
numbers, and cannot be written as b where a and bare integers.
The only way to give an exact answer for an irrational number is to leave them
in the form .Ji,.J7 and so on.
In this form they are called surds. At this level of mathematics answers should
be given exactly unless an approximate answer is asked for; for example, give
your answer correct to 3 significant figures.
Simplifying surds
Consider JlS.
One of the factors of 18 is 9, and 9 has an exact square root,
so ../18 = ~(9x2) =J9 x.fi
But J9 =3, therefore 3..[2 is the simplest possible surd form for Jl8
Similarly {2 =~ 2 = ..[2 .
VZs 5X5 5
Multiplying surds
Consider (4 -J5)(3+.J2)
The multiplication is carried out in the same way and order as when multiplying
two linear brackets.
so ( 4-J5) (3+.Ji)= ( 4)(3)+(4)(.Ji)-(3)(JS)-( Jf,)(..{i)
= 12+4.J2 - 3J5 -(J5)(.Ji)
= 12+4.J2 - 3J5 -JW
Exa mple 4
I Expand and simpHfy (2+2J'i)(5 - J'i).
~ (2+2J'i)(5-J'i) = (2)(5)- (2)(.J7)+(5)(2.J7) -(2.J7)( .,fi)

= l0 - 2.J7 +10.J7 -14
~~ Collect like terms =B..fi-4

I
Example 5
Expand and simplify ( 4-.{3")( 4+.{3").
(4-./3)( 4+-/3)= 42 -(./3)2

= 16-3= 13
This example is special because the result is a rational number.
This is because the two given brackets are of the form (x- a)(x+ a) which when
expanded giver- a 2•
The product of any two brackets of the type (p - Jfi) (p + .Jii) is

2
P +( fii ) = P
2 2
- q, which is always rational.
Exercise 5
Express in terms of the simplest possible surd.
om e .J32 8 .J27
0 ~ 0 J20o Om
·~ 0 J288 O Fs
(:) ~ G JSOO 'i) $o
Expand and simplify where possible.
e ./3(2 - -/3) ~ J2(5+4J2)
e .J5(2+v'75) o J2c.J32 -!8)
4D (./3+ l)(J2-l) 4) (./3+2)(-/3+5)
G) C.J5- l)(.J5+1) $ (2J2-l)(J2-I)
G C.J5-3)(2.J5-4) $ (4+.[7)(4-../7)
e c.J6 -2) 2 ~ (2+3-/3)2
Multiply by a bracket which will make that product rational.
e (4 - /5) o c~+ 3)
G (2-/3-4) $ c.J6-.J5)
e (3-2./3) ~ (2.J5-J2)
Rationalising a denominator
A fraction whose denominator contains a surd is more awkward to deal with
than one where a surd occurs only in the numerator.
There is a technique for transferring the surd expression from the denominator
to the numerator; it is called rationalising the denominator (that is making the
denominator into a rational number).

Example 6
I Rationalise the denominator of }.

Note
The square root in the
denom inator can be removed
if we multiply it by another
2 2-/3 .J3. We must also multiply
J3 = ( -/3)(-/3) the numerator by .J3. so the
value of the fraction is not
Example 7 changed.
I- Rationalise the denominator and simplify
3J2 3J2(s+J2)
s- JZ = (s-J2)(s+J2)
3~ .
5- v2
Note
A product of the type
(a-.fb)(a+Jb) is wholly
_15J2+3(J2)(J2)
rational. In this question
- 25-(J2)(J2)
multiply numerator and
15J2+6 denominator by 5+J2.
= 23
Example 8
I- s· r fy 3J2+J3
lffipl 2J3+J2'
First rationalise the denominator

3J2 +J3 (3J2 +J3)( 2-/3- JZ) (3J2 +.J3)( 2-/3- h)
2.J3+J2 (2J3+J2)(2J3-J2) = 12-2
then expand the brackets
GJ6 - 6+6-../6 -
s,J6 J6
= 10 10
=-
2
Exercise 6
Rationalise the denominator and simplify where possible.
3 1
O JZ o ft 0~
0 3J2
0 -127
1 a .J5
V JIO
.J5
2
0 d-1 o 3Fz
: 5+J2 0 2-/3-3
Expanding Brackets, Surds and Indices a

c 2-SJS G
1
J7-J3
e 2J3-
4J3
3
$ 3- JS
J5+1
e 2J3-1
4- J3
e JS-
JS-1
2
~ J3~J2 • 3J5 0 J2+1

2J5+1 J2-1
~ 2.J7 ~ JS-1 1
. J7+2 3-JS 0 .JU-.fi
G 4-../3
3-../3
e 3.J2+2
1-3J2
~ 3J2~2J3
G) J3
J2(.J6-J3) C) J3(~+J7) G J3(J5-.fi)
.fi
G) 2J3+J2 ~ 2J5+.fi ~ 3J6+J3

3.J2 +J3 s.fi+JS 6J3+J6
1.5 Indices
Base and index
In an expression such as 34, the base is 3 and the 4 is the power or index (the
p lural is indices).
Working with indices involves using properties which apply to any base, so
these laws are given in terms of a general base a where a stands for any number.
Law l
Because a3 means a x a x a and a2 means a x a it follows that
a 3 x a2 =(a x ax a) x (ax a) = as
so a3 x a2 =a 3 + 2
Examples with different powers all show the general law that
Law 2
For division
f(x;t x f( x f( x axaxa
a7 + a4 = a3
f{Xf{ Xf{ Xf{
This is one example of the general law that
When this law is applied to some fractions, interesting cases arise.

Consider a 3 +as.
f(xf( x f( 1
But from Law 2 we have a 3 + a 5 =a 3 - 5 =a-2 •
Therefore a-2 means_!_.
a2
In gen eral
1
a -P= -
aP
so
a-Pmeans the reciprocal of aP
Now look at a4 + a4•

~= ;tx;txfi(xfi( =l
a 4 Ji(x;txfi(xji(
Therefore a0 = 1
so
any base to the power zero is equal to l.
Law3
(a2)3 = (a x a)J
=(ax a)x (ax a) x (ax a)
=aG
so (a2)3 = a2xJ
In general
(a1' )q =aPq
Law4
This law explains the meaning of a fractional index. From the first law
I I I I
a2 xa2= a 2+2 =a 1 =a
I I
so a =a 2 x a 2
But a=.Ja x.Ja
I
Therefore a 2 means .[a, which is the positive square root of a.
I I I I I I
Also a3 xa3 xa3 =a3+3+3=al =a
But ifi_x:(/axifa=a
I
Therefore a 3 m eans :(/a, which is the cube root of a.

In general
I
a li= ifi, that is the pth root of a.

For a more general fraction index, E.., the third law shows that
q
p I .!.
a "ii= (a P)"ii or (a q) P
=~(a)1' or ( ra.r

For example
3 I I
a4 = (a 3) 4 or(a4)3
=ifCiJ or(~) 3
3
so a 4 m eans either the fourth root of a3 or the cube of the fourth root of a.
All the laws can be applied to simplify a wide range of expressions containing
indices when the terms all h ave the sam e base.
Example 9
I
Simplify
I
2 3x27 b3
a -- c ~a b x-
4 5
- 43 a
2 3x2 7 23x27 2 3+7 210
a - - = - - = - -=-=24 Note
43 (22 )3 22X3 26
1 1
First express all the terms to
b (x 2 )1 xx-3=x 2X1x - =x 14 X-=x 11 base 2.
xa xa
I
~a 4 b5 x = (a i)(b % )(b ~)(a -1 ) = (ai- 1 )(b %+~)=a~b 2

3
c b
a
Example 10
I Evaluate
a
a
(64) -3
(64)
I
_.!.
3 =--
1
1
b ( 295J2
3
Note
(64)3 '
1 1 (~)'
2s
could have been
N
= ~=4 written as v(fs-) but
this Involves much bigger
numbers.
Example 11
I
State the value of p given that
a 125=5P b (~ r =1 c
~=(~r
a 125 = 53
Therefore p = 3.
b Any number to the power zero is 1, so p = 0.
c ~=(~J =(~r sop= - 2.

Exercise 7
Simplify.
24 1
0 22x 43
42x 2 -3 0
1 4 1 3
0 x3 X1x 3 p2 xp 4
X 3 p 4
3
0 (y 2)2 X y-3 0 (16)4+ 8 3
5 4
1 2
y sx y 3
1
y4
Evaluate.
~ (~l
1
cg (8rJ
0 -
(16)4
1
-1 G (Hl () (2:l
~ c~oJ
1
G co.64) - 2
e (-ir G) (121) 2
.!. 1
G 8 x3~2
2
(16f
State the value of p given that
ED 121 = llP 1
- = 7P
7
G 1=(~r
~ ~=(2:r
1
- =2P
32
1
ED 83 x4 3 =2P 3 2 X 4P= -
2
9
G) xPxx- 2 =x
G) (x Yx x-<~ = x-
2 1

Summary
Expansions
(ax+ b) 2 =a 2X: + 2abx+ b2
(ax- b) 2 = a 2X: -2abx+ b2
(ax+ b)(ax- b)= a 2X:- b2
(a+ b)3=a3+ 3a2b+ 3ab2 + bl.
Surds
The denominator of JE can be rationalized by multiplying numerator and
denominator by Jb.
The denominator of a c can be rationalized by multiplying numerator and
b+...;c
denominator by b-../C.
Indices
a" X a111 = a"+m
I
'ifQ, =a-;.
Review
0 Simplify a 2(3 - a)- (a - a3).
0 Expand and simplify (2x - 7)(x + 5).
0 Expand and simplify ( 4x - 3) 2•
0 Expand and simplify (2x - 3)(2x+ 3).
0 Expand and simplify (3 - 5x)(2x +1).
0 Expand and simplify (2x- 3y)(x + y)2 •
0 State the coefficient of a 2 b in the expansion of (3a- 2b) 3 •
0 Express Jl50 in terms of the simplest possible surd.
Q Expand ( 4-3J3r and simplify if possible.
For Questions 10, 11and 12 state the letter that gives the correct answer.
1'-\ 1- .fi
w ----r;; is equal to
1+...;2
a 1 b -1 c 3-2.fi d 2.fi- 3
I 3
p 2 X p4
G) I simplifies to
p 4
I I 3
a p2 b p 2 c p4 d p

I I
s 4 xsxs6
J5 =SP. The value of pis
1 11 11
a b c 1-
12 12 12
Assessment
Oa Given that ~ = 3' state the value of r.
27
b Given that .J3 = 3' state the value of r.
Oa The expression (x - 3)(x 2 -5x+6) can be written in the form
x 3 +px2 +qx-18. Show that p =-8 and find the value of q.
b The expression (x2 +6) 3 can be written in the form x 6 + px 4 +qx2 +216.
Find the values of p and q.
0 a Show that J72 = pJ2 giving the value of p.
b Show that .J8 ::S = n where n is an integer. State the value of n.
c Show that 2J2-1J2 can be expressed in the form p + q-vIn

2 where p and q
2- 2
are rational numbers. State the values of p and q.
I I
22 x 2
Oa Express 3
4
as 2'. State the value of r.
24
y
I
3 2
b Express ( ~: in the form ax!' giving the values of a and b.
0 a Expand (x-1) (2x+3).

2
b Find the coefficients ofr andxin the expansion of (x-2)(2x+3)(x +2).
() a Simplify ( 3J2r
II Show that ( 3J2 -2 r +( 3+J2r is an integer and find its value.

b r;:- 7J2
Express 4-./5 . th e 10rm
rn m c
m- vr::
n, wh ere m and n are mtegers.
.
2v5+v2
AQA MPC1 January 2012
G A rectangle has length (9+s.J3) em and area (15+7.J3) cm 2

•
Find the width of the rectangle, giving your answer in the form (m + n.fi) em,
where m and n are integers.
AQA MPC1 June 2014

Quadratic polynomials and equations appear in many topics in A Level By the end of this chapter,
Mathematics. This chapter gives the facts and practice needed to work you should know how to ...
with them. ~ Factorise quadratic
expressions.
~ Solve quadratic
equations.
Recap ~ Solve one linear
You need to remember how to... equation and one
~ Expand two brackets such as (2x- 3)(3x+ 6). quadratic equation
~ Simplify expressions containing surds. simultaneously.
~ Solve a linear equation, for example 2x- 5 = 10. ~ Find the nature of the
roots of a quadratic
equation.
••••••• •• •••••• •••• •••••••• ••••••••• ••
2.1 Quadratic polynomials
A polynomial is a collection of terms containing powers of x which are positive
integers. For example,
2r- 5x+ 1, r+8, 5x-7
The highest power in a quadratic polynomial is 2, so r + 8 is a quadratic
polynomial.
The general form of a quadratic polynomial is
a..il + bx + c
where a, b and care constants (that is fixed numbers) and a* 0.
When the highest power of xis 1, the polynomial is called a linear polynomial
Note
{also called a linear expression).
For example 5x- 7 is a linear expression. A quadratic polynomial is also
called a quadratic expression
Factorising quadratic polynomials or just a quadratic.
The product of two linear brackets is quadratic. In some cases we can reverse
this process. For example, given a quadratic such asr- 5x + 6, we can try to
find twO linear expressions in X whose product is r- 5X + 6.
Expressing a quadratic as the product of two linear brackets is called factorising

the quadratic.
To be able to do this we need to w1derstand the pattern between what is inside
the brackets and the resulting quadratic.
• Quadratic Polynomials and Equations

Look at these examples
(2x+ l)(x+ 5) = 2x2 + llx+ 5 (1)
(3x- 2)(x- 4) = 3x2 -14x+ 8 (2)
(x- 5)(4x+ 2) =4x2 -18x- 10 (3)
Notice that for the quadratic in each example
the coefficient of x2 is the product of the coefficients of x in the two brackets,
the constant is the product of the numbers in the two brackets,
the coefficient of xis found by adding the coefficients formed by
multiplying the x term in one bracket by the constant term in the other
bracket.
Also notice that there is a relationship between the signs.
Positive signs throughout the quadratic come from positive signs in both
brackets, as in [1).
A positive constant term and a negative coefficient of x in the quadratic come
from a negative sign in each bracket, as in [2].
A negative constant term in the quadratic comes from a negative sign in one
bracket and a positive sign in the other, as in [3].
Example 1
I Factodse x'- 5x+ 6.
The x term in each bracket is x as x2 can only be x x x. Note

The sign in each bracket is-, so x2- 5x + 6 = (x- )(x- ).
Mentally expanding the
The numerical terms in the brackets could be 6 and 1 or 2 and 3.
brackets checks that they are
Checking the middle term tells us that the numbers must be 2 and 3. correct.
x2 -5x+ 6 = (x- 2)(x- 3)
Example 2
I Factorise x' - 3x- I 0.
The x term in each bracket is x as x2 can only be x x x. The sign in one bracket is
Note
positive and the other is negative so x2- 3x -10 = (x- )(x + ).
Mentally expanding the
The numbers could be 10 and 1 or 5 and 2.
brackets checks that they are
Checking the middle term shows that they are 5 and 2.
correct.
r-3x -10=(x-5)(x+2)
Quadratic Polynomials and Equations •

Exercise 1
Facto rise.
O r +8x+ 15 0 r+ llx +28 0 r +7x+6
0 r +7x+ 12 0 r - 10x +9 0 r - 6x+9
0 r+8x+ 12 O r - 9x+ 8 0 r +5x - 14
e r+x- 12 G r-4x- s ~ r - 10x - 24
4D r+9x + 14 (D r - 2x+1 ~ r-9
~ r+ 5x-24 CD r+4x+4 G) r -1
G) r-3x- 18 ~ r+ 10x+25 EP r - 16
fl.) 4+5x+ r e 2r-3x+ 1 ~ 3r+4x+1
G 9r-6x+ 1 ~ 6r - x- 1 G 9+6x+x!-
e 4r-9 ~ x!- + 2ax+ a 2 O r f -2xy + 1
Harder factorising
When there is more than one possible combination of terms for the brackets,
recognising patterns can help to reduce the possibilities.
For example, when the coefficient of r is 1, if the coefficient of x in the
qu adratic is odd, then there must be an even number in one bracket and an odd
number in the other.
Example 3
I Facto rise 12- x - 6x'.
The x terms in the brackets could be 6x and x, or 3x and 2x, one positive and the
other negative.
The number terms could be 12 and 1 or 3 and 4 (not 6 and 2 because the
coefficient of x in the quadratic is odd).
Now try different combinations to find the correct one.
12 -x - 6r= (3 + 2x)(4- 3x)
Common factors
A common factor is a number or letter that is a factor of each term in an
expression.
When the terms in a quadratic equation have a common factor it should be
factorised first.
For example 4r+8x+4 = 4(x!-+ 2x+ 1)
The quadratic inside the bracket now has smaller coefficients and can be
factorised more easily
4r+ Bx+ 4 = 4(x+ 1)(x+ 1)
= 4(x+1)2
Not all quadratics factorise.
Look at 3r- x+ 5.

The options we can try are (3x- 5)(x- 1) [1]
and (3x-l)(x-5) [2]
From [1 ], (3.x- 5)(x-1) = 3r- 8x+ 5.
From [2], (3x- 1)(x- 5) = 3r -16x+ 5.
As neither of the these pairs of brackets expand to give 3r- x + 5, this shows
that 3r - x + 5 has no factors of the form ax+ b where a and b are integers.
Example 4
I
Factorise2x'-8x+ 16.
1
2r-8x+16=2(r-4x+8)
The possible brackets are (x - 1)(x- 8) and (x- 2)(x- 4). Neither pair expands
to r - 4x+ 8, so there are no further factors.
Exercise 2
Facto rise.
0 6r+x- 12 0 4r -llx+6 0 4r+3x- 1
0 3r-17x+10 e 4r - 12x+9 0 3-5x-2r
0 2s.x2- 16 () 3-2x -r 0 5r -6l x+ 12
«!) 9r+30x+25 G 3 +2x - r G 12+7x - 12r
( ) 1- r (0 9r + 12x+4 CD r+ 2xy+i
G l - 4r $ 4r-4xy+y 2
CD s-4r
G) 36+ 12x+r $ 40r - 17x-12 G 7r - 5x- 150
e 36-25r G) xz - y ~ 8l r-36xy+ 4y
e 49-84x+36r ~ 25r-4y $ 36r+60xy+25y
G) 4r- 4xy -3y2 fD 6r+ uxy+4y ~ 49p2q2 - 28pq + 4
Factorise where possible.
G r+x +1 $ 2r+4x+2 G r+3x+2
~ 3r+ 12x- 15 G) r +4 f) r- 4x - 6
ED r+3x+ 1 G) 2r-8x+8 G) 3r-3x-6
$ 2r-6x+8 0 3r-6x-24 G r-4x- 12
(D r+ l ~ 4r -loo CD 5r - 25
(D 7r+x+ 4 G lOr - 39x- 36 CD r+xy+y
2.2 Quadratic equations
When a quadratic expression has a particular value this is a quadratic equation,
for example 2r - 5x + 1 = 0
Using a, band c to stand for any numbers, any quadratic equation can
be written in the general form axZ + bx + c =0 where a ¢ 0.

Solution by factorising
The quadratic expression on the left-hand side of the equation r - 3x + 2 = 0
facto rises.
So r - 3x + 2 = (x- 2)(x- l)
Therefore the equation becomes
(x-2)(x - l) = 0 [1 ]
If the product of two quantities is zero then one, or both, of those

quantities must be zero.
Applying this fact to equation [1] gives
x - 2 =0 or x - 1 =0
so x= 2or x =1
This is the solution of the given equation.
The values 2 and 1 are called the roots of the equation.
This method of solution can be used for any quadratic equation in which the
quadratic expression factorises.
Example 5
Find the roots of the equation

x2+6x- 7=0
x2+ 6x- 7 =0
~ (x - l)(x+ 7) =0
~ x- 1=0 m x +7 =0
~ x= 1 or x =- 7
The roots of the equation are 1 and - 7.
Rearranging the equation

The terms in a quadratic equation are not always in the order ail+ bx + c = 0.
When they are in a different order they should be rearranged.
For example r -x= 4 becomes r - x - 4 = 0
3r - 1= 2x becomes 3r - 2x- 1 = 0
x(x - 1) = 2 becomesr - x= 2 ~ r-x - 2= 0
Collect the terms on the side where the r term is positive, for example
2- r = 5x becomes 0 = x2 + 5x - 2
so r + Sx - 2 = 0

Example 6
I Solve the equation 4x- x' =3,
4x - .i=3
~ O=r-4x+3
~ r-4x+3 =0 ~ (x - 3)(x- 1)=0
~ x-3= 0 or x- 1 = 0
~ x=3orx= 1
Losing a solution
Quadratic equations sometimes have a common factor containing the
unknown quantity. Do not divide by the common factor because this
loses part of the solution. The example below shows this.
Correct solution Faulty solution
r-5x=O r-5x= O
x(x-5)=0 x - 5 = 0 (Dividing by x. )
x= Oor x- 5=0 x =5
~ x=Oorx =5 The solution x = 0 has been lost.
Dividing an equation by a numerical common factor is correct and sen sible,
but dividing by a common factor containing the unknown quantity means
losin g a solution.
Exercise 3
Solve the equations.
0 r+5x+6=0 E) r+x-6=0 e .t-x-6=0
0 r+6x +B =O 0 .i-4x+ 3=0 0 r+2x - 3 = 0
0 2r +3x +l=O 0 4r-9x+2=0 0 r+4x - 5=0
0 r+x -72 = 0
Find the roots of these equations.
G .r-2x-3=o 4) .t-5x+4=o ~ .i-6x+5=0
e r +3x-10=0 4) .t-sx- 14 = 0 G .i-9x+ 14 =0
Solve each equation, maldng sure that you give all the roots.
Q r+ 10-7x = O C 15- r -2x= O G) r - 3x=4
$ l2 - 7x + x2= 0 fD 2x-1+3r = O fl} x(x+7)+6=0
f) 2r-4x= O 0 x(4x+5) =-1 G) 2-x=3r
e 6r + 3x =0 $ r + 6x = 0 ED .i =lOx
~ x(4x+1)=3x ~ 20+x(l - x) =O t) x(3x-2)=8
E) x2-x(2x-1)+2 =0 G) x(x+ 1) =2x ~ 4+r=2(x+2)
t ) xCx-2)=3 t) 1- r=x(1+ x)

2.3 Solution by completing the square
When there are no obvious factors, another method involves adding a constant
to the x2 term and the x term, to make a perfect square. This technique is called
completing the square.
For example, adding l to X: - 2x gives x;2- 2x + l
X:- 2x + l = (x - 1)2 which is a perfect square.
Adding the number 1 was not a guess, it was found by using the fact that
x2+ 2ax+a2 = (x+ a)2
You saw this relationship in Chapter l.l.
This shows that the number to be added is always (half the coefficient of x) 2•
So x2 + 6x needs 32 to be added to make a perfect square,
giving X:+6x+9=(x+3) 2
To complete the square when the coefficient of x2 is not 1, first take out the
coefficient of x;2 as a factor.
l
For example 2X:+ x = 2(X: + - x)
2 2
Then add ( ~ x ~) inside the bracket, giving
2( x2 +~x+ 1~) = 2( x+±J

Be careful when the coefficient of x;2 is n egative.
For example -X:+ 4x= - (X:- 4x)
Then -(X: - 4x + 4) =- (x - 2)2
:=) -X:+ 4x- 4 = -(x- 2)2
I
Example 7
Solve the equation x' - 4x- 2 =0. Give thesolution in surd form.
No factors can be found so isolate the two terms with x in them.

x;2 - 4x- 2 =0 => x;2- 4x =2
Now complete the square on the left-hand side and add the same number to
the right-hand side.
~x(-4) } to both sides, giving x;2- 4x+ 4 = 2 + 4

2
Add {
:=) (x - 2)2 = 6
:=) J6
x-2 = ±
:=) x=2+ J6 or x=2 - J6

Example 8
~ Find in surd form the roots ofthe equation 2X' - 3x- 3 =0.
2x2-3x-3=0
2( x2 -~x ) =3 ~
3
x 2 - - x= -
2
3
2
2 3
x --x+-=-+-
2
9
16
3 9
2 16
~
( x-~J =~!
.. x-~=±Jf!
4 16
=±_!_53
4
~
3
x= -±-53
1
4 4
The roots of the equations are ..!:..(3+53) and ..!:..(3-53).

4 4
Exercise 4
Add a number to each expression so that the result is a perfect square.
0 x2-4x f.) x2+ 2x
0 x2-6x 0 r+lOx
0 2XZ-4x 0 x2 +5x
0 3r - 48x 0 r+ 18x
0 2x2-40x C XZ+x
G 3XZ-2x e 2x2+3x
Solve the equations by completing the square, giving the solutions in surd form.
G) x2+8x= 1 e x2-2x-2=0
e r+x- 1 = o G 2r+2x= 1
4D x2+3x+ l =O () 2x2-x-2=0
G) x2 + 4x = 2 ~ 3x2 + x- 1 = 0
e 2x2+4x=7 $ x2- x =3
G) 4x2 + x- 1 = 0 ~ 2x2 - 3x - 4 = 0
2.4 The formula for solving a quadratic

equation
When completing the square is applied to a general quadratic equation, a
formula is derived which can be used to solve any quadratic equation.
The general quadratic equation is
ar+bx+c=O

Using the method of completing the square for this equation gives
ar+bx=-c
Note
You need to learn this
formula.
Example 9
I- Find, by using the formula, the roots of the equation 2r -7x-1 = 0 giving them
correct to 3 decimal places.
2r-7x-1 =O
Comparing with ar+ bx+ c= 0 gives a= 2, b=-7, c =-1
-b ±.Jb2 -4ac 7±~49-4(2)(-1)
Using the formula gives X=
2a 4
7±J57
Therefore, in surd form, x=
4
The roots are 3.637 and - 0.137 correct to 3 decimal places.
Exercise 5
Solve the equations by using the formula. Give the solutions in surd form.
0 r+4x+2=0 e 2r - x -2=0 e r+5x+ 1 =0
0 2r-x - 4=0 e r+1 = 4x 0 2r - x = 5
0 1 + x- 3r = o 0 3r = 1 - x
Find, correct to 3 decimal places, the roots of these equations.
( ) 5r+9x+2=0 ~ 2r-7x+4=0 G 4r-7x - 1 = O
e 3x=5 - 4r e 4r+3x=5 e 1 =5x - 5r
e 8x-r=1 ~ r - 3x = l
2.5 Properties of the roots of a quadratic

equation
Some facts about the roots of a quadratic equation can be found by looking at
the formula used for solving a quadratic equation. First write it in the form
2
x=-_!?_± .Jb -4ac
2a 2a
_...!!._+ ~b
2
The separate roots are 4 ac and_...!!.__ ~b 2 - 4 ac
-
2a 2a 2a 2a
When the roots are added, the terms containing the square root disappear
giving
b
sum of roots =- -
a
This fact is useful as a check on the accuracy of roots that have been
calculated.
The discriminant and the nature of the roots

In the formula there are two terms. The first, _...!!__ , can always be found for any
2a
values of a and b.
. .Jb 2 - 4ac
There are three different types of value of the second term .
2a
0 When b2- 4ac is positive, its square root can be found and, whether it is a
whole number, a fraction or a surd, it is a type of number we know- it is
called a real number.
The two square roots, ±~b 2 -4ac , have different values giving two different
real values of x.
So the equation has two different real roots.
vA If b2 - 4ac IS . square root a lso .IS zero an d x=- - b - -~b2--4ac

. zero th en Its --
. 2a 2a
gives
b b
x = - - + 0 and x = - - - 0
2a 2a
so there is just one value of x that satisfies the equation.
For example, using the formula to solver- 2x + l =0
2
gives x=- (- ) ±0, sox= lor x= l.
2
Solution by factorising shows that there are two equal roots,
(x-l)(x-1) = 0 ~x= 1 or x= 1
This type of equation has equal roots (also called a repeated root).
0 If b2 - 4ac is negative its square root cannot be found because there is

no real number whose square is negative. Therefore the equation h as
no real roots.
These facts show that the roots of a quadratic equation can be
either real and different
or real and equal
or not real
and that it is the value of bl- 4acwhich determines the nature of the roots.

b2 - 4ac Is called the discriminant
Condition Nature ofRoots

b2- 4ac > 0 Real and different
b2- 4ac =0 Real and equal
b 2 - 4ac < 0 Not real
Sometimes it matters only that the roots are real, in which case the first
two conditions are combined to give
If b 2 - 4ac ~ 0, the roots are real.
Example 10
I Determine the nature of the roots of the equation x'- 6x + 1 =o.
x2-6x+ 1 =0
I a = 1,b =-6, c= 1
b2- 4ac = (-6)2 - 4(1)(1) = 32
b2 - 4ac > 0 so the roots are real and different.
Example 11
~ If the roots of the equation 2x' - px + 8 = 0 a<e equal, find the value of p.
2x2-px+8=0
a= 2, b =- p, c =8
The roots are equal so b2 - 4ac = 0,
therefore (-p)2 - 4(2)(8) = 0
=> p2 - 64 = 0 => p2 = 64 so p = ±8
Example 12
~ Prove thatthe equation ( k- 2)x' + 2x- k = 0 has real roots for any value of k.
(k- 2).x2 + 2x- k = 0

a= k - 2, b =2, c =- k
b2 - 4ac =4 - 4(k - 2)(- k)=4+4k2 - 8k
= 4k2- 8k+ 4 = 4(~ -2k+ l) =4(k - l)2
(k -l) 2 cannot be n egative whatever the value of k, so b2 - 4ac cannot be negative.
Therefo re the roots are real for any value of k.

Exercise 6
Without solving the equation, write down the sum of its roots.
0 XZ- 4x -7= 0 f) 3XZ+5x+ 1 =0 0 2+x-XZ=O
0 x2+3x+ l = O e 3XZ-4x-2=0 0 7+2x-5XZ= O
Without solving the equation, find the nature of its roots.
0 XZ-6x+4= 0 0 3XZ+4x+2=0
() 2XZ-5x+3=0 ~ XZ -6x+9=0
CD 4XZ- 12x-9= 0 e 4x2 +12x+9=0
49 XZ+4x-8=0 e XZ+ax+a 2 =0
~ XZ- ax -a2 =0 G XZ+2ax+a 2 =0
CDIf the roots of 3XZ + kx+ 12 = 0 are equal, find k.
CD IfXZ - 3x + a = 0 has equal roots, find a.
CD The roots of XZ + px + (p- 1) = 0 are equal. Find p.
~ Prove that the roots of the equation kXZ + (2k + 4)x + 8 = 0 are real for all
values of k.
G Show that the equation aXZ+ (a+ b)x+ b= 0 has real roots for all values
of a and b.
f!} Find the relationship between p and q if the roots of the equation
pXZ + qx + 1 = 0 are equal.
2.6 Simultaneous equations

When only one unknown quantity has to be found, only one equation is needed
for a solution.
When two unknown quantities have to be found, two equations are needed. The
two equations can be used to eliminate one of the unknowns. This gives one
equation containing just one w1known which can be found. The other
unknown can then also be found.
The values found then satisfy both equations, so the equations are satisfied
simultaneously.
For example, to solve the equations y + x = 3 [1]
and y+2x=5 [2]
we can eliminate y by subtracting [1] from [2] so
[2] - [1] => x= 2, then from [1], y+ 2 = 3 soy= 1
or we can use [1] to find yin terms of x and then substitute this expression in [2]
[1] => y= 3 -x so [2] becomes 3 -x+ 2x= 5 =>x= 2 and again from [1], y= 1
Solution of one linear and one quadratic equation

A way to eliminate an unknown quantity from two equations is by substitution.
From the linear equation, one unknown can be expressed in terms of the other.
This can then be substituted in the quadratic equation.
Quadratic Polynomials and Equations

Example 13
I
Solve the equations
x-y=2
2r-3f= 15
x-y=2 [1]
2r-3f=15 [2]
Equation [1] is linear so use it for the substitution
x=y+2
Substitutingy+ 2 for x in [2] gives
2(y+2)2 -3f= 15
=> 2(y2 + 4y+ 4)- 3f = 15
=> 2f+8y+8 -3f= 15
Collecting terms on the side where f is positive gives
O=f-8y+7
=> O=(y-7)(y-1), so y=7ory =1
Now use x = y + 2 to find corresponding values of x.
Note
Therefore x = 9 andy= 7 or x=3 andy= 1. The values of x and y must
be given In corresponding
pairs. It Is Incorrect to write
Exercise 7
the answer as y = 7 or y = 1
Solve the following pairs of equations. and x = 9 or x = 3 because
O r+f= 5 0 f-r=s y= 7 with x= 3
y - x=1 x+y =2 y = 1 with x=9
O 3r - f =3 0 y=4r are not solutions.
2x-y= 1 y+2x=2
O t+xy=3
2x+y= 1
e yr-xy=
=3- x
14
f) xy=2 0 2x - y=2
x+ y -3= 0 r-y=s
C) y - x=4 ~ x+f= 10
f - 5r=2o x-2y=2
G 4x+y = 1 $ 3xy - x=O
4r+y=o x+3y= 2
CD r +4f=2
2y+x + 2 = 0
e x+3y = 0
2x+3xy = 1
0 3x-4y = 1 () r +4f=2
6xy = 1 x+2y=2

~ xy=9 0 4x+y=2
x -2y =3 4x+f=8
G) 1+ 3xy= O ~ .x-2 - xy= O
x +6y= l x+y= l
G xy+t=z
2x+y=3
e xy+x=-3
2x+5y=8
Summary
Methods for solving quadratic equations
0 Collect the terms in the order ax2 + bx+ c = 0, then factorise the left-hand
side if possible.
e Arrange in the form ax2 + bx =- c, then complete the square on the left-
hand side, adding (%) to both sides.
2
-b±.Jb 2 - 4ac
0 Use the formula x = - -- --
2a
Roots that are not rational should be given in surd form unless an
approximate form (such as correct to 3 significant figures) is asked for.
Properties of roots
The nature of the roots depends on the value of the discriminant, that is, on the
value of b2- 4ac.
b2- 4ac > 0 ~ real different roots
b2 - 4ac = 0 ~ real equal roots
b2 - 4ac ~ 0 ~ real roots
b2- 4ac < 0 ~ no real roots
Review
0 Factorise 3r- 9x + 6.
0 Factorise 4r - 36.
0 Solve the equation x2- 5x- 6 =0.
0 Solve the equation x2- 6x- 5 =0.
0 Solve the equation 2r + 3x = l.
0 Solve the equation 5 - 3x2 = 4x.
In Questions 7 and 8 solve the pair of equations simultaneously. (Choose your
substitution carefully to keep the amount of squaring to a minimum.)
0 2x2-y=7
x +y=9
0 2x=y-l
x2-3y+ 11 = 0

() Use the formula to solve the equation 3.i2 -l7x+ 10 = 0.
a Are the roots of the equation rational or irrational?
b What does your answer to part a show about the left-hand side
of the equation?
~ Determine the nature of the roots of the equations
a i2+3x+7= 0
b 3XZ-x-5=0
c a.il + 2ax + a= 0
d 2+9x-XZ=O
G Find the values of p for which the equation p.il + 4x + (p - 3) =0 has
equal roots.
Assessment
0 a The equation x 2 - (p -2)x+(p-2) =0 has equal roots. Show that
p satisfies the equation p 2 -Bp+ 12 =0.
b Solvetheequation p 2 -8p+12=0.
c Hence find the two possible forms of the equation
x 2 - (p- 2)x+ (p- 2)=0.
0 a
2
Express x 2 - 3x- 6 in the form ( x- a ) + b stating the values of a and b.
b Hence solve the equation x 2 -3x-6 =0 giving your answer in surd form.
0 a Express r
2
- 5x + 7 in the form ( x- a ) + b stating the values of a and b.
b Hence show that the equation r - 5x + 7 = 0 has no real roots.
0 Solve the equations x 2 - 2y = 2
2x+y=5
C) a Find the value of the discriminant of the expression 2x2 - 5x+ 2.
b Hence show that the equation 2x2 - 5x+ 2 = 0 has real and distinct
roots.
G The quadratic equation (2k - 7)x 2
- (k - 2)x+(k - 3)=0 has real roots.
Show that 7k2 - 48k+ 80 ~ 0
AQA MPCl June 2013 (part question)
Gi Express r - 6x+ 11 in the form (x- p) 2
+ q.
il Use the result from part (i) to show that the equation XZ- 6x + 11 = 0
h as no real solutions.
AQA MPC1 January 2013 (part question)

Factorising quadratic polynomials can be done by sight with practice. By the end of this chapter,
Facto rising polynomials where x;3 is the highest power cannot usually be you should know how to ...
done by sight. This chapter gives methods for dividing a polynomial by a ..,. Divide a cubic
linear expression and for deciding if a linear expression is a factor of that polynomial by x - a
polynomial. where a is a number.
..,. Use the remainder
theorem.
..,. Use the factor
Recap theorem.
You need to remember how to...
..,. Factorise a quadratic expression.
..,. Expand expressions such as (x- 5)(.x2 + 3x - 2) .
..,. Do long division, such as 251 + 36, without using a calculator.
..,. Solve a quadratic equation and a linear equation simultaneously.
..,. Determine whether a quadratic equation has real and different roots,
equal roots or no real roots.
• ••••• •• • ••• •••• ••• ••••• • ••••• ••••••••

3.1 Division of a polynomial by x- a
A fraction where both the numerator and the denominator are polynomials, is
proper if the highest power of x in the numerator is less than the highest power Note
of x in the denominator, for example x+ 1
x 2 +x+2 x2 + 3x - 7 is called the
When the fraction is an improper fraction we can divide the numerator by the dividend and x + 2 is called
denominator using long division. the divisor.
The example shows how to divide x+2 into x2+ 3x-7.
X+1
x+2) x 2 +3x-7 Start by dividing x into x 2; it goes x times.
Multiply x + 2 by x and then subtract this from x2 + 3x.
x-7 Bring down the - 7, divide x into xand repeat the process.
X+2
-9 No more division by x can be done, so stop here.
x+ 1 is called the quotient and the remainder is -9.
Compare with dividing 32 by 5: 32 + 5 = 6 with remainder 2.
.. 32 as a miXe
W ntmg- . d num b er giVes
. 6 +-.
2
5 5
9
where x + 1 is a linear polynomial and - - is a proper fraction.
x+2
You may have to do long division where the dividend has a 'missing' term,
for example 2x'l- x + 5 has no term in r. In this case put in a term O
r (or at least
leave a space where that term should be). Doing this makes sure that the terms
always line up.
Example 1
I Divide 2x'- x + 5 by x+ 3, giving the quotient and the <emainder.
2x2 -6x+17
x+3) 2x 3 +0x2 -x+S x into 2x 3 goes 2x 2 times.
2x 3 + 6x 2 Multiply 2x 2 by x + 3 and subtract.
-6x 2 -x
-6x2 -18x x into - 6x 2 goes - 6x times.
17x+5
17x+51
-46
The quotient is 2r- 6x+ 17 and the remainder is -46.

2x3 -x+5 _ _2 46
so - 2 _,\,-- 6x+ 17 - - - .
x+3 x+3
Exercise 1
Carry out each of the following divisions, giving the quotient and the remainder.
0 (2r+Sx-3)+(x+2) G (r-x+4)+(x+1)
0 (4x'l+x - 1)+(2x-1) 0 (2x'l- r+2)+(x-2)
3.2 The remainder theorem and the

factor theorem
The remainder theorem
x'l-7r + 6x- 2 divided by x- 2 gives a quotient and a remainder.
The relationship between these quantities can be written as
x'l-7r + 6x- 2 = (quotient)(x- 2) +remainder
Substituting 2 for x eliminates the term containing the quotient, giving just the
remainder,
so 23 -7(22) + 6(2)- 2 =remainder= -10
This is an example ofthe general case, that is when a polynomial is divided by
(x - a) then
polynomial = (quotient)(x - a ) + remainder
=>remainder = the value of the polynomial when a Is substituted for x
This result is called the remainder theorem.
Algebraic Division I
Exercise 2
For the divisions in Questions 1 to 8, find just the remainder.
0 x:1-2x+ 4, x-1 f) x:1+3XZ-6x+2,x+2
0 2x:1- XZ + 2, x- 3 0 x" - 3x:1 + 5x, 2x- 1
0 9.XS- 5XZ, 3x + 1 ( ) x;l - 2XZ + 6, x- a
0 XZ+ax+b,x+c 0 x"-2x+1,ax-1
0 XZ- 7 x + a has a remainder 1 when divided by x + 1. Find a.
The factor theorem

It is not easy to see the factors of x;l- 3XZ + 7x - 10.
But if (x - a) is a factor, then r-
3XZ + 7x- 10 can be written as
(x - a) x (a quadratic) as there is no remainder,
that is x;l- 3XZ + 7x - 10 = (x- a) x (a quadratic) [11
Substituting a for x in [11we get
a3 - 3a2 + 7a- 10 = (0) x (a quadratic)
so a 3 -3a2 +7a- 10=0
The same argument can be applied to any polynomial in x and it means that
if (x - a ) is a factor of a polynomial in x, the result is zero when a is

Note
substituted for x in the polynomial.
In a cubic polynomial. the
Conversely, if the result is not zero, x- a is not a factor.
highest power of x is 3.
1his result is called the factor theorem.
The factor theorem can help to find factors of cubic p olynomials.
Look at x;l - 3XZ + 7x - 10 again.
The coefficient of r is 1 and the factors of 10 are 1, 2, 5 and 10. Therefore one or
more of(x± 1), (x± 2) and (x± 5) may be a factor. We can try each of these in
turn using the factor theorem.
Try (x-1): substitute 1 for x in x;l - 3XZ + 7x-10
~ (1)3 - 3(1)2 + 7(1) - 10 =- 5:1-0
so (x- 1) is not a factor.
Try (x+ 1): substitute - 1 for x in r - 3XZ + 7x-10
~ (- 1) 3
- 3(-1)2 + 7(-1) - 10 = -21 :1- 0
so (x+ 1) is not a factor.
Try (x- 2): substitute 2 for x in x;1 - 3XZ + 7x- 10
~ (2)3 - 3(2)2 + 7(2) - 10 = 0
so (x - 2) is a factor.
Therefore x;1- 3r + 7x- 10 = (x- 2)(ar + bx+ c)
The values of a, band c can be found either by using long division to divide
r - 3XZ + 7x- 10 by (x- 2) or by inspection knowing h ow the terms in the
expansion of the brackets are formed.
Note
r comes from the product of
Checking the pairs of products that give 7x (or - 3r) finds the value of b: x and a.r, so a= 1,
~ -1 0 comes from the product
XJ- 3x2 + 7x - 10 = (x- 2) (r+ bx+ 5) of -2 and c, so c = 5.
~
showing that 7x = 5x- 2bxso b =-1.
Therefore xf3- 3r + 7x - 10 = (x- 2)(r - x + 5).

There are no more factors because r - X+ 5 does not factorise.
Equating coefficients is another method that can be used to find the
values of a, band c:
as xf3- 3r + 7x-10 = (x - 2)(ar + bx+ c), expanding the right-hand side gives
x;3- 3r+ 7x-10 = ar+ (b- 2a)r + (c - 2b)x- 2c= 0
Because the left-hand side is another way of expressing the right-hand side,
we can equate the coefficients of x;3 ~ a = 1
and equating the constants gives - 10 =- 2c so c = 5
for r,- 3= (b- 2a) so b=-1 .
Therefore r - 3r + 7x - l0 = (x - 2)(r - x+ 5).
3.3 The factors of a 3 - b 3 and a 3 + b3

a3 - JJ3 = 0 when a = b, so a - b is a factor of a3 - b3 therefore
[1]
a3 + JJ3 = 0 when a= - b, so a+ b is a factor of a3 + b3 therefore
[2]
These two facts can be used to facto rise similar forms, for example r - 8 = x;3 - 23,
so replacing a by xand b by 2 in [1] givesr- 8 = (x- 2)(r+2x+ 4).
I
Example 2
Find the value of a for which 2x- 1 is a factor of 4x' - zr + ax- 4.
From the factor theorem, the value of the expression is zero when x = ..!:_
2
(the value of x for which 2x - 1 = 0).
As 2x - 1 is a factor of 4:il- 2r +ax- 4,
1 1 1
so ---+-a- 4=0 therefore a=B.
2 2 2
Algebraic Division
Example 3
I
The equation 4.x2 + px + q = 0 has equal roots. When 4.x2 + px + q is divided by
x + 1 the remainder is 1.
Find the values of p and q.
4(-1)2+p(- 1) +q= 1 4-p+ q = 1 p = q+3 [1)

2
If 4.x2 + px + q = 0 has an equal root then 'b - 4ac'= 0
2
so p - 16q = O [2)
Solving equations [1] and [2] simultaneously gives
(q+3)2 - 16q=O :=} q2 - 10q + 9 = 0 :=} (q -9)(q - l) = O
therefore q = 9 and p = 12 or q= 1 and p =4.
Exercise 3
0 State whether X- 1 is a factor of r - 7X+ 6.
e Is X+ 1 a factor of r - 2.x2 + 1?
0 Find whether x- 3 or 2x+ 1 or both are factors of 4r -7x+ 9.
0 Showthatx- 3 is a factor ofr -7x - 6.
0 Factorise fully
a r+2x2-x- 2 b r-.x2-x-2 c 2r-.x2+2x- 1
0 x- 4 is a factor ofr- ax+ 16. Find a.
0 Find one factor of 2r + x2 + 9x- 5. Hence express 2r + x2 + 9x- 5 in the
form (ax+ b)(px2 + qx+ r) giving the values of a, b, p, q and r.
0 (x+ 1) and (x+ 2) are both factors of2x3 +bx2- 5x+ c. Find the values of band c.
0 r - 4x2- 25 has a factor (x - a). Find the value of a.
C When 5r - px2 + x- q is divided by x- 2, the remainder is 3.
(x- 1) is a factorof5r - px2 +x - q. Findp and q.
G Show that the polynomial r - x2- X- 2 has only one linear factor.
C!) Show that x3- 2.x2 - 9x+ 4 = (x - 4)(a.x2 + bx+ c) and find the values of
a, band c.
Summary
The remainder theorem
The remainder theorem states that when a polynomial in x is divided by x- a,
the remainder equals the value of the polynomial when a is substituted for x.
The factor theorem

The factor theorem states that if (x - a) is a factor of a polynomial in x, the result
is zero when a is substituted for x in the polynomial.
~~ Algebraic Division
Review
0 Divide 2.x2 + 3x + 4 by x- 2, giving the quotient and the remainder.
0 Divide 3XI- 2.x2 - x- 3 by x + 1 giving the quotient and the remainder.
0 Divide 3.x2- 5x+ 1 by x+ 3.
3x2 -5x+1
Hence express as a linear expression plus a proper fraction.
x+3
0 Divide XI- 4.x2 + 5 by x- 1, giving the quotient and the remainder.
H ence express
xJ - 4x2+5 as a quad ratlc
. . I f .
expressiOn p us a proper ractwn.
x-1
0 If x;2- 7x + a has a remainder 1 when divided by x + I, find a.
0 Is x - 1 a factor of x3- 2.x2 + 1? Explain your answer.
0 Show that x- 3 is a factor of XI- 5.x2 + 7x - 3. Hence factorise XI- 5.x2 + 7x- 3.
0 Factorise 2XI- .x2 - 2x + 1.
0 Find the value of k given that x- 2 is a factor of XI - x;2 + kx+ 8.
Assessment
0 Divide XI- 4.x2 + 5 - 1 by x- 1.
x 3 +4x 2 +5x-1 d
Hence show that a.x2 + bx + c +--and state the values
x -1 x- 1
of a, b, c and d.
0 a Show that (x+ 1) is a factor of XI+ .x2 - x- 1.

b Hence facto rise XI+ .x2- x- 1 completely.
0 a Use the remainder theorem to find the remainder when x 3 - 3x2 + x-3
is divided by x- 1.
b Use the factor theorem to show that x- 3 is a factor of x 3 - 3x2 + x- 3.
c Express x 3 -3x2 + x- 3 in the form (x- 3)(ax 2 +bx+c).
0 a Both (x-1) and (x + 2) are factors of x 3 +ax2 +bx-6. Find the values of
a and b.
b Express x 3 + ax 2 + bx - 6 as the product of three linear factors.
0 a The expression x 2 -ax+6 has a remainder of2 when divided by (x -1).

Find the value of a.
b Use the value of a found in part a to solve the equation x 2 -ax+6 = 0.
Algebraic Division
C) 'The polynomial p(x) is given by
p(x) =il+ 7r+ 7x-15
a i Use the Factor Theorem to show that x + 3 is a factor of p(x).
II Express p(x) as the product of three linear factors.
b Use the Remainder Theorem to find the remainder when p(x) is divided
byx-2.
c Verify thatp(-l) < p(O).
0 The polynomial p(x) is given by p(x) = r (x- 3) + 20.

i Find the remainder when p(x) is divided by x- 4.
ii Use the Factor 1heorem to show that x + 2 is a factor of p(x).
iii Express p(x) in the form (x+ 2)(r + bx+ c), where band care integers.
iv Hence show that the equation p(x) = 0 has exactly one real root
and state its value.
• Algebraic Division
This chapter introduces the basic idea of a function and looks at how By the end of this chapter,
I graphs of functions can be used to interpret the solutions of equations and you should know how to ...
L inequalities. .,.. Define linear,
quadratic and
cubic functions and
recognise the shapes
Recap of their graphs.
You need to remember how to ... .,.. Apply
.,.. Plot points on a graph. transformations to
.,.. Solve quadratic equations . graphs and know
.,.. Factorise quadratic and cubic polynomials. the effect that
.,.. Use the discriminant to determine the nature of the roots of a transformations have
quadratic equation. on the equations of
curves .
.,.. Use the shapes
•• • •• ••••••• ••••• •• • • ••••• •• • ••••• •• • • of graphs to help
4.1 Functions solve equations and
When any number is substituted for X in the expression r- 2X, there is a inequalities.
single answer.
For example when X= 3, r - 2x = 3.
r- 2x is an example of a function.
A function is any expression involving one variable which, when a
number is substituted for the variable, giv~s a single answer.
The notation 'f' is used to mean function. The notation f(x) m eans a
'function of X.
f(3) means the value of the function when 3 is substituted for x.
Using the example above, f(x) = r- 2x and f(3) = 32 - 2(3) = 3.
Linear functions
The general form of the linear function is f(x) = ax+ b
Note
where xis a variable and a and bare constants and a¢ 0.
C(x) A constant is a letter that
The graph of a linear function is a straight line.
represents one number. A
Two points are needed to draw a sketch of variable is a letter that can
its graph. take many different values.
For example, to sketch the graph of f(x) = 2x - 3,
two points are given by
x = 0, f(x) =- 3 and x= 1, f(x) =- 1.
• Functions and Graphs

Quadratic functions
1he general form of the quadratic function Is f(x) =a.\..2 + bx + c
where xIs a variable, a, band care constants and a¢ 0.
When the graphs of quadratic functions are drawn for different values of
a, band c, the basic shape of the curve is a~ways the same. This shape is
called a parabola.
Every parabola has a line of symmetry which goes through the point where the
curve has a least value or a greatest value. This point is called the vertex.
The vertex of a parabola can be below the x-axis, above the x-axis or touching
the x-axis.
If the coefficient of r is positive, that is a> 0,
then f(x) has a least value an d the parabola looks like this. - - - - - - - - - -
If the coefficient of r is negative, that is a< 0,

then f(x) h as a greatest value and the curve is this way up. -~:--:-------
The value of x at the vertex is found by 'completing the square' on the
left hand side of f(x) =aX'-+ bx +c.
2~ J
4 2
This gives f(x)= [ a::b ]+a[ x+
The first bracket is constant. The second bracket is squared, its value is zero
b
whenx =-- and greater than zero for all other values ofx. Therefore
2a
b
when a is positive, f{x) =ar+ bx+ c has a least value when x = - -
2a
b
when a is negative, f{x) = a.il + bx+ c has a greatest value when x =- -
2a
Example 1
Find the greatest or least value of the function given by f(x) = 2r - 7x - 4

and sketch the graph of C(x).
f(x) =2r - 7x-4 ==> a=2,b= - 7andc= - 4.

As a > 0, f(x) has a least value and this occurs when x = _..!!.._ = '!....
2a 4
f(x)
r(~)=2(~) -7(~)-4 =- ~
2
1
Thereforethe leastvalueoff{x)is
This gives one point on the graph off(x) and the curve is symmetrical about this
value ofx.
X
To locate the curve more accurately we need another point so use f(O) as it is
easy to find.
f(O) = -4
'Sketch' a graph means that an accurate drawing is not needed. The axes do not
need to be scaled, but the shape of the graph needs to be clear and points that
show how the graph is placed on the axes need to be shown.
Functions and Graphs II
I
Example 2
~x) ~
f(x)
Draw a sketch ofthe graph of (1 - 2x)( x+ 3).
The coefficient of~ is negative, so f(x) has a greatest value.

The curve cuts the x-axis when f(x) = 0.
When f(x) = 0, (l- 2x)(x+ 3) = 0
l
~ x=- orx=-3
2 -3 X
and this is where the curve cuts the x-axis.
The average of these values is -~.so the curve is symmetrical about x=-~.
4 4
This gives enough information to draw a quick sketch, but this method works
only when the quadratic function factorises.
Cubic functions
The general form of a cubic function is
f(x ) =ax" + b.r+ ex+ d
where a, b, c and d, are constants and a¢ 0.
Investigating the curve y = ax3 + b~ +ex+ d for different values of a, b, c and d
shows that the shape of the curve is
whena > O and
Sometimes there are no turning points and the curve looks like this
or
The graph of f(x) = x" looks like this.

f(x)
The graph of a cubic function always crosses the x-axis. The graph may
cross the x-axis at three distinct points, it may cross the x-axis once
and touch it once or cross the x-axis just once.

I
Example 3
f(x)
Sketch the graph of f{x) = (x- 2 )(x- 1)(x+ 3).
Looking at the form of f(x) shows that if the brackets are expanded, the
coefficient of A-,J is 1.
The graph cuts the x-axis where f(x) = 0.
X
1his is where (x -2)(x -1)(x+3)=0 => x=2, x= 1 andx=-3.
TI1e graph cuts the vertical axis where x = 0 => f(x) = 6.
This gives enough information to sketch the graph.
Exercise 1
0 Find the greatest or least value of f(x) where f(x) is
a r - 3x +5 b 2.x2- 4x + 5 c 3 - 2x- x2
0 Sketch the graph of each of the following quadratic functions, showing the
greatest or least value and the coordinates of the vertex.
a r - 2x + 5 b x2 + 4x - 8 c 2.x2 - 6x + 3
d 4-7x-x2 e 2-5x-3.x2
0 Write down the equation of the line of symmetry and draw a quick sketch of
each of the following functions.
a (x- l)(x -3) b (x +2)(x - 4) c (2x-1)(x -3)
d (1+x)(2-x) e .x-2-9 r 3r
Find the values of x where the graph of y = f(x) cuts the x-axis and sketch the
curve when
0 f(x) =x(x-1)(x+ 1) 0 f(x) = (x-1)(x+ 1)(x - 2)
0 f(x) = (.x-2 - 1)(2 -x) 0 f(x) =x(x+ 1)(4 -x)
4.2 Graphical interpretation of equations

Graphical interpretation of quadratic equations
TI1e graph of a function f(x) is a curve or line. The equation y = f(x) is called the
equation of the curve or line.
When f(x) = a.x-2 + bx + c, the equation y = ax2 + bx + c gives a parabola.
The curve cuts the x-axis wheny= 0; these are the solutions of the quadratic
equation a.x-2 + bx+ c = 0.
Whenar+ bx+ c=O has two When ar + bx+ c= 0 has equal When ax2 + bx+ c= 0 has no
distinct roots, the curve cuts the roots, the curve touches the real roots, the curve is all above
x-axis at two different values of x. x-axis at one value of x. (or below) the x-axis.
Functions and Graphs •
Graphical interpretation of cubic equations
When y = axl + br +ex+ d, the curve is a cubic curve.
The curve cuts the x-ax.is when y = 0; these are the solutions of the cubic
equation ax1 + br +ex + d = 0.
The shape of the curve shows that it always cuts the x-axis at least once.
Therefore ax1 + br + ex+ d = 0 always has at least one real root.
X X X
axl+ br+ ex+ d=O has axl+ br+ex+d= 0 has ail+br+ex+d= Ohas ar+ br+ ex+ d =Ohas
three distinct roots. The a pair of equal roots. The three equal roots. The only one real root. The
curve cuts the x-ax.is at curve cuts the x-ax.is once curve touches the x-ax.is curve cuts the x-ax.is once.
three different values of x. and touches the x-axis at and crosses it at the same
one value of x. value of x.
Intersection
Solving the simultaneous equations y = r andy = 2x + 3 gives the values of X y
andy that satisfy both equations.
The points where the curve y = r and the line y = 2x + 3 intersect
have values of x andy that satisfy both equations.
Therefore the values of x andy at the points of intersection are x2 = 2x+ 3
the solutions of the simultaneous equations.
X
In general, the points of intersection of the curves y= f(x) andy= g(x)
are found by solving the equations y= f(x) andy= g(x) simultaneously.
When there are no real solutions, the curves do not intersect.
When there is a repeated root, the curves wlll touch (they may also
Intersect at another point).
Example 4
The curve c has equation y = r - 3x + 9.
a Express r -3x+ 9 in the form (x- a)2 + b.
b Show that C does not cross the x-ax.is.
c The line L has equation y = 4x+ 3.
Show that the values of x where C and L intersect are the solutions of the
equ ation r -7x + 6 = 0.
d Sketch the graphs of C and L.

(x-23) 9
2
a r-3x + 9= +9-4
= ( x-~J + 2:
b The coefficient of r is 1 so the curve has a least value.
2
y= ( x--3 ) +-
27 has a least value of-
27 whtch
. IS. postttve.
..
2 4 4
Therefore C does not cross the x-axis.
(Alternatively, the discriminant of r - 3x+ 9 = 0 is 9- 4(9) = -27.
-27 is n egative, therefore x2 - 3x + 9 = 0 has no real roots so C does not cross
the x-axis.)
c The curve C and the line L intersect where x2- 3x + 9 = 4x + 3
y
~r -7x+6 = 0.
Therefore the values of x wh ere C and L intersect are the solutions of the
equation x2 -7x+ 6 = 0.
27
d 1he curve y = r - 3x + 9 has a least value of 4 and crosses they-axis
where x= 0 wheny= 9.
The line y= 4x+ 3 crosses the x-axis where y = 0 when x= -~ X
4
and crosses they-axis where x = 0 when y = 3.
Exercise 2
0 a Show th at the equation r -7x + 13 = 0 has no real roots.
b The curve C has equationy =r -7x+ 13 and the line L has equation
y=7 - 2x.
Show that the value of x at the points where C and L intersect satisfy
the equation r - 9x + 6 = 0.
0 a Express 5 - 4x- r in the form p- (q + x)2•
b Hence give the values of x andy at the vertex of the parabola
y=5 - 4x-r.
c Sketch the curve y = 5 - 4x- r.
0 a Factorise il- 1.
b Sketch the curve y = il - 1.
0 a Factorise il- 3x- 2.
b Sketch the curve y = il - 3x - 2.
0 Show that the curve C with equation y = 2r - 3x + 1 and the line y = x- 3 do
not intersect.
() a The equation of a curve Cis given byy= (2- x)(r-x+ 11).
Sketch the curve.
b The equation of a line Lis given by y = 2- x.
State the number of points of intersection of C and L.

0 The equation of a curve C is given by y =X:- 4x - 3. The equation of a line
Lis given by y= 2x-12.
a Show that L touches C and find the the values of x andy at the point of
contact.
b Draw a sketch showing the curve C and the line L.
0 The equation of a curve C is given by y = 3- 2x- X:. The equation of a line
Lis given byy=px+2.
Show that the values of x at the points of intersection of C and L are given
by the equation x;2 + x(p + 2)- 3 = 0.
0 The equation of a curve C is given by y= X:+ 12x+ 20. The equation of a line
Lis given byy = px - 5.
a Find the equation that gives the values of x at the points of intersection
ofC and L.
b Find the values of p for which L touches C.
4.3 Inequalities
An inequality compares two unequal quantities.
For example, comparing the two real numbers 3 and 8 shows that 8 > 3.
lhe inequality remains true, that is the inequality sign is unchanged, when the
same term is added or subtracted on both sides, for example
8+2 > 3+2 ~ 10 >5
and 8 - 1 > 3 - 1 ~ 7>2
The inequality sign is unchanged also when both sides are multiplied or divided
by a positive quantity, for example
8 X4 >3X 4 ~ 32> 12
and 8 + 2 > 3 + 2 ~ 4 > 1.!.
2
When both sides are multiplied or divided by a negative quantity the inequality
is no longer true.
For example, multiplying 8 > 3 by - 1, the 8 becomes - 8 and the 3 becomes - 3.
The correct inequality is now - 8 < -3.
Whena>h
a+ k> b + k for all values of k
ak > bk for positive values of k
ak < bk for uegative values of k.
Solving linear inequalities

When an inequality contains an unknown quantity, the rules give n above can
be used to 'solve' it.
The solution of an equation is a value, or values, of the variable. The solution of
an inequality is a range, or ranges, of values of the variable.

I
Example 5
Find the set of values of x that satisfy the inequality x- 5 < 2x+ 1.
x-5<2x+l => x<2x+6 adding 5 to each side
I => - x < 6
=> x > -6
So x- 5 < 2x + 1 when x > -6.
Solving quadratic inequalities

subtracting 2x from each side
multiplying both sides by - 1
A quadratic inequality involves a quadratic function, for example X:- 3 > 2x.
The solution is a range or ranges of values of the variable.
When the terms in the inequality can be collected and factorised, a graphical
solution can be found.
I
Example 6
Find the mnge(s) of values of x that satisfy the inequality x! - 3 > 2x.
f(x)
X:-3>2x => x2- 2x -3 > 0
=> (x-3)(x+1)>0
A sketch the graph of f(x) sh ows that f(x) > 0 where the graph is above the x-axis.
The values of x corresponding to these portions of the graph satisfy f(x) > 0.
Therefore the ra nges of values of x which satisfy X: - 3 > 2x are x < - 1 and x > 3.
In this example there are two separate ranges. X
But the solution of the inequality (x - 3)(x+ 1) < 0 is the part of the graph below
the x-axis between x :::: - 1 and x:::: 3.
This is written as one range: - 1 < x < 3.
Example 7
l- lhe curve C has equation y :::: aX:+ 7x - 2. Find the range of values of a for which
C cuts the x-axis in two distinct places.
y:::: aX:+ 7 x - 2 cuts the x-axis when aX: + 7x - 2 :::: 0 has two distinct roots,
This is when 'fil- 4ac '> 0 => 49 + 8a> 0
8a > - 49
49 1
a > - - or -6-
8 8

Exercise 3
Solve the following inequalities.
0 x-4<3-x 0 x+3<3x-5 0 x<4x+9
0 7-3x<13 C) x>5x+2 () 2x-1<x-4
0 1-7x>x+3 0 2(3x-5)>6 0 3(3-2x)<2(3+x)
~ (x-2)(x-1) > 0 Q (x+3)(x- 5) ~ 0 ~ (x- 2)(x+4) < 0
CD C2x-1)(x+1)~0 (D ~-4x>3 4' 4r<1
() (2-x)(x+4)~0 ~ 5~>3x+2 () (3-2x)(x+5)::>0
G) (x-1) >9 2
~ (x+1)(x+2)::>4 f) (1-x)(4-x)>x+ll
fJ) Find the range of values of k for which the equation 3~ -7x+ k = 0 has two
distinct real roots.
fj> Find the range of values of b for which the equation 2r + bx + 2 =0 has no
real roots.
~ Find the range of values of k for which the equation k.x2- 2kx + 2 =0 has
two distinct real roots.
e The line y =ax+ 1 and the curve y = ar - 49x + 5 intersect at two distinct
points. Find the range of values of a.
4.4 Transformations of graphs

A graph is transformed when it is moved (a translation) or reflected in the
x-mds or they-axis (a reflection) or it is stretched parallel to the x-axis or the
y-axis (a one-way stretch).
y
Translations
The graph of the function f(x) = 2x is
the curve y = 2x.
0 Look at the function g where g(x) = f(x) + 2.

Comparing f(x) = 2xwith g(x) = 2x+ 2 shows that, for a particular
Y.
value of x, the value of g(x) is 2 units greater than the corresponding
value of f(x).
Therefore, for equal values of x, points on the curve y = g(x) are
two units above points on the curve y = f(x).
Therefore the curve y =2x + 2 is a translation of the curve y = 2x by
two units in the positive direction of they-axis.
In general, for any function f, the curve y= f(x) +a is the
translation ofthe curve y= f(x) by a units parallel to the y-ax.is. X
When a> 0 the translation is up they-axis. When a< 0 the

translation is down they-axis.

0 Look at the function g where g(x) = 2x· 2•
y= 2x-2
Comparing f(x) =2xwith g(x) = 2x- 2 shows that the values of
f(x) and g(x) are the same when the value of x in g(x) is 2 units
greater than the value of x in f(x), so f(a) = g(a + 2).
Therefore, for equal values ofy, points on the curve y= 2x- 2 are
2 units to the right of points on the curve y = 2X, so the curve
y = 2X- 2 is a translation of the curve y = 2X by 2 units in the
-5 -4 -3 - 2 - 1 0 I 2 3 4 5 6 X
positive direction of the x-axis.
Also, comparing f(x) = 2xwith h(x) = 2X+ 5, shows that the values off(x) and
h(x) are the same when the value of x in h(x) is five units less than the value
of xin f(x).
Therefore for equal values of y, points on the curve y = 2x• 5 are 5 units to the
left of points on the curve y = 2X.
In general, the curve y= f(x + a) is a translation of the

curve y= f(x) by a units parallel to the .t-axis.
If a> 0, the translation is in the negative direction of the .t-axis and
if a< 0, the translation is in the positive direction of the .t-axis.
e These two translations can be combined to give a single y

translation.
For example the curve y = zx•5
+ 2 is a translation of the curve
y = 2x by 5 units in the negative direction of the x-axis and 2 units up the
y-axis.
This translation can be described by the vector [ -~ ] where the top

-10 -8 -6 -4 2 4 X
number gives the translation parallel to the x-axis and the bottom number
gives the translation parallel to they-axis.
In general the curve y= f(x- a)+ b is a translation
of the curve y = f(x) by the vector [ : }
y
Reflections
0 Look at the function g(x) = -f(x) =- 2x. y=2x
For a given value of x, g(x) is equal to -f(x).

Therefore for equal values of x, points on the curve y = -2x are the reflection
in the x-axis of points on the curve y = 2x, so the curve y = -f(x) is the X
reflection in the x-axis of the curve y = f(x).
In general, the curve y= - f(x) is the reflection

of the curvey= f(x) in thex-axis.
Functions and Graphs 0

0 Look at the function g(x) = f( -x) = 2-x. y
Comparing f(x) = 2xwith g(x) = z-xshows that f(x) and g(x) are equal
when the values given toxin g(x) and f(x) are equal but opposite in sign,
therefore g(a) = f( - a).
Therefore points with the same y-coordinates on the curves y = zxand
y = 2-x, are symmetrical about x = 0, so the curve y = 2xis the reflection of X
the curve y= z-xin they-axis.

In general, the curve y= f(-x) is the reflection
ofthe curve y= f(.t) In they-axis.
One-way stretches y
Comparing points with the same x-coordinate on the

curves y= C(x) andy = 3f(x), where f(x) = (x-1) 2 shows that
they-coordinate of the point on y = 3(x- 1) 2 is 3 times they-coordinate
of the point on y = (x - 1)2 •
Therefore the curve y= 3(x-1)2 is y= (x-1)2 stretched by a scale
factor 3 parallel to they-axis. -4
In general, the curve y= af(x) is a one-way stretch ofthe

curve y= f(.t) by a scale factor a parallel to they-axis.
Comparing points with the same y-coordinate on the curves
y = f(x) andy= f(3x) where f(x) = (x-1) 2 shows that the x-coordinate of the
point on y = (3x- 1) 2 is..!. the x-coordinate of the point ony = (x-1) 2•
3
Therefore the curve y = (3x- 1)2 is the curve y = (x- 1)2 stretched by a scale
factor..!. parallel to the x-axis.
3
In general, the curve y= f(ax) is a one-way stretch of the curve
y= f(x) by a factor_.!_ parallel to the x-axis.
a -4
Example 8 y
The function f is given by f(x) = xl. The diagram shows a sketch of the
I
-
curve y=r.
On the same set of axes sketch the curves y = g(x) andy= h(x) where
g(x) =r + 1, h(x) =(x+ 1)3.
f(x) = r ~ g(x) = f(x) + 1 so the curve y

y = g(x) is a translation of the curve y = r
one unit in the direction of the positive
y-axis.
f(x) = r ~ h(x) = f(x + 1) so the curve
y = h(x) is a translation of the
curve y = r one unit in the direction of the
negative x-axis.

Example 9
~
II- The curve y = r is translated by the vector [ _
Write down an expression for g(x).
] to the curve y = g(x).
The curvey= f(x - a)+ b is a translation of the curvey= f(x) by the vector [:].
~ Therefore g(x) = (x- 3)3- l.
Exercise 4
0 On the same set of axes sketch the graphs off(x) = r, f(x) = (x+ 1)2 ,
f(x) =-X'- and f(x) = 2 + r.
0 The equation of a line Lis y = 2x- l.
a The line Lis transformed to the line y= x-..!.. Describe the
2
transformation.
b The line Lis transformed to the line y = 6x- 3. Describe the
transform ation.
0 The curve with equation y = 3x+z -5 is reflected in they-axis to give the
curve y =g(x). Write down an expression for g(x).
0 The curve with equation y = 3x+2 -5 is stretch ed by a scale factor 2 in the
direction of the y-axls to give the curve y = g(x). Write down an expression
forg(x). [ ]
0 The curve with equation y = .J2x - 1 is translated by the vector ~ to give
the curve y = g(x). Write down an expression for g(x).
1
() The curve with equation y = - is transformed to give the curve with
X
equationy= g(x). Describe the transformation when g(x) is given by
1 2 1 1
a - b - c -- d -+2
2x x x+2 x
f) 2
The curve with equation y=.J4-x is stretched by a scale factor 2 in the
direction of the x -axls to give the curve with equation y =g(x).
Write down a n expression for g(x).
0 2
The curve with equation y = - - is reflected in the y -axls to give the curve
. h equat10n
w1t . y = g(x) . 1-x
Write down a n expression for g(x).

0 The curve with e quation y = ~3
is transformed to the curve with
8x - 1
1
e quation y = ~. Describe the transformation .
"x 3
-1
~ The curve y = ~ is translated by the vector [ - ~] to give the curve with

equation y = g(x).

Summary
Functions
The general form of a linear function is f(x) =ax+ b, a :F. 0.
The general form of the quadratic function is f(x) = aJil + bx + c, a :F. 0.
b
When a is positive, f(x) = aJil+ bx+ chas a least value when x=- - .
2a
When a is n egative, f(x) = ar + bx + C has a greatest value when X= _ _!!_,
2a
The general form of a cubic function is f(x) = ax1 + bJil +ex+ d, a :F. 0.
Intersection
The points of intersection of the curves y = f(x) andy= g(x) are found by solving
the equations y = f(x) andy= g(x) simultaneously.
If there are no real solutions then the curves do not intersect.
If there is a repeated root, the curves will touch (they may also intersect at
another point).
Inequalities
When a> b a+ k> b+ k for all values of k
ak > bk for positive values of k
ak < bk for negative values of k.
Transformations
The curvey= f(x- a)+ b is a translation of the curvey= f(x) by the vector [: ].
The curve y = - f(x) is the reflection of the curve y = f(x) in the x-axis.
The curve y = f(-x) is the reflection of the curve y = f(x) in they-axis.
The curve y = af(x) is a one-way stretch of the curve y = f(x) by a scale factor
a parallel to they-axis.
The curve y= f(ax) is a one-way stretch of the curve y= f(x) by a factor.!_
parallel to the x-axis. a
Review
0 Find the greatest or least value of each of the following functions and state
the value of x at which they occur.
a f(x)=r-3x+5 b f(x) =2r -7x+ l c f(x) = (x- l )(x +5)
Factorise x;l + 1. b Sketch the curve y = x;l + 1.
Show that the values of x where the line y = x + 7 intersects the curve
y = 2Jil + Bx + 3 satisfy the equation 2Jil + 7x - 4 = 0.
b Hence find the values of x andy at the points of intersection of the curve
y= 2r + Bx+ 3 and the line y= x + 7.

0 The curve cl has equationy=x2+ 1 and the curve c2has equation y=xl +x.
a Write down the equation satisfied by X at the point where cl and c2
intersect.
b Solve this equation and hence show that the curves intersect at only
one point.
e The curve c has equation y = x;2 +X+ 1. The line L has equation y = 3x.
Explain why L touches C but does not intersect C.
0 Solve the inequalities
a 2x+1 < 4-x b x-5 > 1-3x
c (x-3)(x+ 2) > 0 d (2x-3)(3x+2)<0
e X:.-3< 10 f (x-3)2 > 2
f) The graph of the function f(x) = _.!.__

x2
is transformed to the graph of the
function g(x).
Describe the transformation when
2 1 1 1
a g(x)=- b g(x)=- c g(x)= - -3 d g(x)= - -
x2 2
2x x2 x2
0 The curve with equationy=~ is transformed to the curve with equation
1-x
y=g(x).
Give an expression for g(x) when the transformation is

a a reflection in they-axis
b a one way stretch parallel to the x-axis by a scale factor of 3
c a translation by the vector [ -~ J

Assessment
0 The function f(x) is given by f(x) = x 2 +7 x+2.
a Express f(x) in the form a+(x+b)2 •
b Write down the equation of the line of symmetry of the curve Cwith
equation y =x 2 +7x+2.
c Write down the coordinates of the vertex of the curve C.
d The curve C is transformed by the vector [

3~5 ] to the curve C • Sketch
1
the curve cl.

e The curve cl has equation y = x;2 -1 and the curve c2 has equation
y=xl+2x- l.
a Show that equation satisfied by X at the point where cl and c2 intersect
is x 3 -x 2 +2x=O.
b Solve this equation and hence find the coordinates of the point where
cl and c2intersect.
c Describe the transformation that maps the curve C1 to the curve with
equation y= X:..

0 The curve Chas equationy= x 2 +4x-2. ThelineL has equationy=k{2x-1).
a Show that the x-coordinates of any points of intersection of C and L
satisfy the equation x 2 +( 4-2k)x+(k-2)=0.
b For each value of k, the line L touches the curve Cat one point. Show
that k 2 -5k+6 =0.
c For each value of k, find the coordinates of the point where the line
L touches the curve C.
0 The CUrve C1 has equation Y = X 3 - X,
3
a Factorise x - x completely.
b Explain why C1 intersects the x-axis at three distinct points.
c The curve c2 has equationy=x3 +(k-2)x 2 +k.
Show that the x-coordinates of the points of intersection of C1 and C2
satisfy the equation (k -2)x 2 +x+ k= 0.
d The curves C1 and C2 intersect in two distinct points. Show that 4k 2 - Bk -1 < o.
e Solve the inequality 4k 2 + 4k + 1> 0.
0 The curve C has equation y = ../2x2 -1
a The curve Cis stretched parallel to they-axis with scale factor 2 to give
the curve with equation y = g(x).
b The curve C is reflected in thex-axis to give the curve with equationy=h(x).
Write down an expression for h(x).
() a Express r + 3x + 2 in the form (x + p) 2 + q, where p and q are rational
numbers.
b A curve has equation y = r + 3x + 2.
Use the result from part a to write down the coordinates of the
vertex of the curve.
ii State the equation of the line of symmetry of the curve.
c The curve with equation y = r + 3x + 2 is translated by the vector [ ~]

Find the equation of the resulting curve in the form y = r + bx +c.
AQA MPC1 June 2015
0 a l Express 2r + 6x + 5 in the form 2(x + p) 2 + q, where p and q are
rational numbers.
ii Hence write down the minimum value of2r + 6x+ 5.
b The point A has coordinates (-3, 5) and the point B has coordinates
(x,3x+9).
l ShowthatAB 2 = 5(2r+6x+5)
ii Use your result from part all to find the minimum value of the
length AB as x varies, giving your answer in the form !..Jn,, where n
2
is an integer.
AQA MPC1 June 2013

Coordinate geometry is the name given to the graphical an alysis of By the end of this chapter,
geometric properties. you should know how to .. .
Graphical methods are useful for investigating the geometric properties .,. Find and use
of many curves and surfaces. Straight lines and plane figures bounded by formulae to give the
straight lines are studied in this chapter. distance between
two points a nd the
midpoint and the
gradient of the line
Recap between two points.
You need to remember how to... .,. Use formulae to find
.,. Use Pythagoras' Theorem.
the equation of a
.,. Simplify surds.
straight line .
.,. Use properties of triangles and circles.
.,. Use properties of similar triangles.
•••••••••••• ••••••••••••••••••••••••••
5.1 Lines joining two points
Cartesian coordinates
Cartesian coordinates use a fixed point 0, called the origin, and a pair of
perpendicular lines through 0 to locate a point on a plane. One line is drawn
h orizontally and is called the x-axis. The other line is drawn vertically and is
called they-axis. These lines are called Cartesian axes.
Three types of points are used in coordinate geometry:
0 Fixed points whose coordinates are known, e.g. the point (1, 2).
0 Fixed points whose coordinates are not known numerically. These points
are referred to as (x1, y), (x2, y2), • •• etc. or (a, b), etc.
0 Points which are not fixed. These are general points and we refer to them as
(x, y), (X, Y), etc.
The letters A, B, .. . are used for fixed points and the letters P, Q, ... for
general points.
The axes usually use identical scales to avoid distorting the shape of figures.
y 8(3, 4)
The distance between two points
The distance between points A and B can be found by using Pythagoras'
theorem:
AB2 =AN 2 + BN2 2
0 X
3
• Coordinate Geometry
For A(1, 2) and B(3, 4), the length of the line is given by
AB2 = (3 - 1)2+ (4 - 2)2
=8
Therefore AB = J8 = 2J2.
In the same way the distance between any two points A(x1, y 1) and
B(x2, y 2) can be found.
From the diagram, AB2 = AW + BN 2
= (x2- x.)2 + (y2- Y. )2
~ AB=~(x2 - xy +(y2 - y 1 ) 2
so
the distance between A(x1, y.) and B(x2 , y2 ) is given by
AB = ~(x2 - xy +(y2 - Y. )2 X
This formula is true when some, or all, of the coordinates are negative.
Example 1
I Find the distance between A(-2, 2) and B(3, -I).
AB = ~(X2 - xY +(Y YY 2 -
A(- 2, 2) y
="'(3-{-2})2 +(-1-2)2
="'52+ ( - 3)2
=5
From the diagram, BN = 3 + 2 = 5 and AN = 2 + 1 = 3
~ AB2= 5 2+32=34 ~ AB=5
This confirms that the formula used above also works when some of the
coordinates are negative.
The midpoint of the line joining two given points

Look at the line joining the points A(1, 1) and B(S, 3).
As M is the midpoint of AB, then S is the midpoint of CD.
y
B(5,3)
. . (1+5)
The x-coordmate ofM ts halfway between 1 and 5, s o - - = 3.
2
1 3
They-coordinate ofM is halfway between 1 and 3, so ( + ) = 2.
2
Therefore M is the point (3, 2).
Coordinate Geometry G
In general, if A(x1, y.) and 8(x2, y) are two points, then the coordinates of M, y
the midpoint of AB, can be found in the same way.
The x-coordinate ofM is halfway between x 1 and x 2
. 1s
so 1t . -1 (x + x ) •
1 2
2
They-coordinate of M is half way between y 1 and y2
. 1 (y + y ) •
. lS-
so lt 1 2
2
The coordinates of the midpoint of the line joining A(x1, y 1) and B(x2 , y 2 )
are (~ex, +x ~(y, + Y

2 ), 2 )}
Example 2
I Find the coordinates of the midpoint of the line joining A(-3, -2) and B(I, 3).
The coordinates ofM are [~(x, +x2 ),~(y, + Y 2 )]

y B( l , 3)
= [~(-3+1),~(-2+3) ]=(-1,~)
Alternatively, from the diagram, M is h alf-way from A to 8 horizontally 5
and vertically, I X
I
1 1 1 I
therefore at M x = -3+-(4) = - 1 and y = -2+-(5)=- I
2 2 2 I
I
A(-3, -2) ~=====t=~

1
This confirms that the fo rmu la works when some of the coordinates
are negative. 4
Exercise 1
0 Find the distance between the points
a A(I, 2) and 8(4, 6) b C(3, 1) and D(2, 0) c E (4, 2) and F(2, 5)
0 Find the coordinates of the midpoints of the lines joining the points
in Question 1.
0 Find
the length
li the coordinates of the midpoint of the line joining
a A( - 1, - 4), 8(2, 6) b C(O, 0), D(-1, -2) c E(- 1, - 4), F(- 3, - 2)
0 Find the distan ce from the origin to the point (7, 4).
0 Find the length of the line joining the p oint (-3, 2) to the origin.
0 Find the coordinates of the midpoint of the line from the point ( 4, -8)
to the origin.
f) Show, by using Pythagoras' Theorem, that the lines joining A(I, 6),
8(- 1, 4) and C{2, 1) form a right-angled triangle.
0 The points A, Band C have coordinates (7, 3), (-4, 1) and (-3, - 2)
respectively.
a Show that triangle ABC is isosceles.
b Find the midpoint ofBC.
0 The vertices of a triangle are A(O, 2), B(l, 5) and C(- 1, 4). Find
a the perimeter of the triangle
b the coordinates ofD where Dis the midpoint ofBC
c the length of AD.
~ Show that the lines OA and OB are perpendicular where A and B are the
points (4, 3) and (3, -4) respectively.
fD The point M is the midpoint of the line joining A to B. The coordinates
of A and Mare (5, 7) and (0, 2) respectively. Find the coordinates of B.
5.2 Gradient
The gradient of a straight line is defined as the Increase in y divided by
the Increase In x between one point and another point on the line.
y
The diagram shows the line passing through A(1, 2) and B(4, 3).
From A to B, the increase in y is 1,
the increase in xis 3.
Therefore the gradient of AB is .!..
3 0 X
The gradient of a line can be found from any two points on the line.
increase in y -2 l y
Moving from A to B -----'-=-=--
increase in x 4 2
increase in y __2___ .!,
Alternatively, moving from B to A
increase in x -4 2
This shows that it does not matter in which order the two points are used,
provided that they are used in the same order when calculating the increases in
xand iny.
1hese two examples show that the gradient of a line can be positive or negative.
y
A positive gradient shows that the line makes an

acute angle with the positive sense of the x-axis.
X
A negative gradient shows that the line makes an

obtuse angle with the positive sense of the x-axis.
Coordinate Geometry •
In general, the gradient of the line passing through A(x1, y 1) and B(x2 , y 2 ) is Y.
the increase in y Y2 - Y1
-------=- = - --
the increase in x X2 - X
1
The gradient of a straight line is the increase in y divided by the increase

in x from one point on the line to another, so
gradient measures the increase in y per unit increase in x,

that is the rate of increase ofywlth respect tox.
Parallel lines
If 11 and 12 are parallel lines, they are inclined at the same angle to the positive
direction of the x-axis,
so
parallel lines have equal gradients. X
Perpendicular lines
The lines AB and CD are perpendicular with gradients m 1 and
m2 respectively.
The line AB makes an angle Owith the x-axis so the line CD also makes
an angle Owith they-axis.
Y. c
D
Therefore triangles PQR and PST are similar.
The gradient of AB is ST = m,
PS
- PQ PQ
and the gradient of CD is - = ffl2 =} - = -m2 •
0 R QR
ST QR
But PS = PQ (triangles PQR and PST are similar)
X
l
therefore m1 = - - or m1m2 =-1. D
m2
The product of the gradients of perpendicular lines is -1,
therefore when one line has gradient m, any perpendicular line
1
has gradient - - .
m
Example 3
Y.
Find, by comparing gradients, find whether or
A(f, I)
not the following three points are collinear X
(meaning they lie on the same straight line). X B (l,f)
A(~,l}s(l,~}qz, -1) 0
X C (2, - 1)
X
1
1--
The gradient of AB is ~ = -%·
- - 1 Note
3
1 The diagram is not necessary
-1- -
The gradient ofBC is _ _ 2 =-~. but it gives a check that the
2-1 2 answer is reasonable.
As the gradients of AB and BC are the same, A B and Care collinear.
Exercise 2
0 Find the gradient of the line through each pair of points.
a (0, 0), (1, 3) b (1, 4), (3, 7) c (5, 4), (2, 3)
d (- 1, 4), (3, 7) e (-1, -3), (-2, 1) f (- 1, -6), (0, 0)
g (-2, 5), (1,-2) h (3, -2), (-1, 4) (h, k), (0, 0)
0 Find whether the given points are collinear.
a (0, - 1), (1, 1), (2, 3) b (0, 2), (2, 5), (3, 7)
C (- 1, 4), (2, 1), (- 2, 5) d (0, -3), (1, - 4), ( -~ 1 -%)

0 Find whether AB and CD are parallel, perpendicular or n either.
a A(O, - 1), B(l, 1), b A(l, 1), B(3, 2),
C(l, 5), D(- 1, l) C(-1, 1), D(O, -1)
c A(3, 3), B(-3, 1), d A(2, -5), B(O, 1),
C(-1, - 1), D(l, - 7) C(-2, 2), D(3, -7)
e A(2, 6), B(- 1, - 9),
C(2, 11), D(O, 1)
5.3 The equation of a straight line

The Cartesian axes give a way of defining the position of any point in a plane.
Y.
This plane is called the xy-plane. 3
P(2, y)
In general x and y are independent variables. This means that they can each 2
take any value independently of the value of the other unless som e restriction is
Q(2, y)
placed on them. X
-2 - 1 0 3 4
When the value of x is restricted to 2 but tl1e value of y is not restricted, the - 1
H(2, y)
condition gives a set of points which form a straight line parallel to they-axis -2
and passing through P, Q and R as shown .

In the xy-plane, the equation x = 2 defines the line shown in the d iagram ; x = 2
y
is called the equation of this line or simply the line x= 2.
A straight line can be defined in many ways; for example, a line p asses through
the origin and h as a gradient of.!_.
2
The point P(x, y) is on this line if and only if the gradient of OP is .!_.
2
In terms of x and y, the gradient ofOP is l., so the statement above can be
X
written in the fo rm
P(x, y) is on the line <=:} l. =.!_ ~ 2y = x.
X 2
The symbol <=> m eans 'if and only if' or 'implies and is implied bY,
Coordinate Geometry Gl
Therefore the coordinates of points on the line satisfy the relationship 2y = x,
and the coordinates of points that are not on the line do not satisfy this
relationship.
2y =xis called the equation of the line.
The equation of a line (straight or curved) is a relationship between the x and
y-coordinates of all points on the line.
This relationship is not satisfied by any other point on the plane.
I
Example 4
Find the equation of the line through the points A( I, - 2) and B(-2, 4).
P(x, y) is on the line if and only if the gradient of PAis equal to the gradient of
AB (or PB).
y - (-2) y+2
The gradient of PAis = - -.
x-1 x-1
-2-4
1he gradient of AB is - - - = -2.
1-(-2)
Therefore the coordinates ofP satisfy the equation y+ 2 =-2
x-1 X
giving y + 2x = 0.
The general form of the equation of a line

Look at the more general case of a line whose gradient is m and which cuts the
y-axis at a directed distance c from the origin.
cis called the intercept on they-axis.
P(x, y) is on this line if and only if the gradient of AP is m.
Therefore the coordinates of P satisfy the equation y- c = m.
x- 0
Therefore y = mx + c.
This is the general form for the equation of a straight line.
An equation of the form y= mx+ c represents a straight line
with gradient m and intercept con they-axis.
Because the value of m and/or c may be a fraction, this equation can be Note
rearranged and expressed as ax + by+ c = 0, therefore
In this form c is not the
ax+ by+ c= 0 where a, band care constants, intercept.
is the equation of a straight line.
Example 5
I
a Write down the gradient of the line 3x - 4y + 2 = 0.
b Find the equation of the line through the origin which is perpendicular to
the given line.
a Rearranging 3x-4y+ 2 = 0 to the general form gives y=~x+..!..
4 2
Comparing withy= mx+ ewe can 'read' the gradient (m) and the intercept
on they-axis.
The gradient of the line is~ .
4
b The gradient of a perpendicular line is _ _!_, that is _i. It passes through the
· · so th e mtercept
· · 0. m 3
ongm on the y-ax.Js
· IS
e
Theretore . . . 4
Its equation Isy=--x+O => 3 y+4x= 0.
3
I
Example 6
~
Sketch the line x- 2y + 3 0.
This line can be located accurately in the xy-plane when we know two points on
the line. We will use the intercepts on the axes as these can be found easily
3
x=O => y=- andy=O => x=-3.
2
[The diagram is a sketch, not an accurate plot, but it shows reasonably
accurately the position of the line in the plane.]
Exercise 3
0 Write down the equation of the line that passes through the origin and has
gradient
a 2 b -1 c ..!. d _..!_ e 0
3 4
E) Write down the equation of the line passing through the given point with
the given gradient.
1 2
a (0, 1), - b (01 0)I -- c (-1, - 4),4
2 3
Draw a sketch showing a ll these lines on the same set of axes.
0 Write down the equation of the line passing through the points
a (0, 1), (2, 1) b (1, 4), (3, 0) c (- 1, 3), (-4, -3)
0 Write down the equation of the line that p asses through the origin and is
perpendicular to
a y=2x+3 b 3x+2y-4 = 0 c x-2y+3=0
0 Write down the equation of the line that passes through (2, 1) and is
perpendicular to
a 3x+y-2=0 b 2x-4y-1 = 0
0 Write down the equation of the line that passes through (3, -2) and is
parallel to
a 5x- y + 3 = 0 b x + 7y - 5 = 0
0 A(1, 5) and B(4, 9) are two adjacent vertices of a square. Find the equation
of the line on which the side BC of the square lies. How long are the sides of
this square?
Finding the equation of a straight line
Straight lines are important in graphical analysis. This section gives two ways in
which the equation of a straight line can be found. Each gives a formula that can
be used to write down the equation of a particular line.
The equation of a line with gradient m and passing

through the point ( x 1, y1)
The point P (x, y ) is a point on the line if and only if the gradient of AP ism
y-y
therefore - -1 = m
x-x1
[1]
In some cases it is often easier to work from a diagram than to apply a formula.
The equation of the line passing through ( x 1, y1)

and ( x 2, y 2 )
In the equation y = mx + c, m is the gradient of AB,
~ m=y2-yl
x2-xl
So the equation of the line through A and B is
y- y
I
=[y2-y·]cx-x
X - X I
) [2]
2 I
Example 7
Find the equation of the line with gradient -~ that passes through (2, - 1).
3
Using [1] with m = -~, x1 = 2 and y 1 = -1 gives

3
1
y - (-1)= --(x-2)
3
~ x + 3y+1=0
Alternatively, the equation of this line can be found from the general form ofthe
equation of a straight line, y = mx +c.
. d 1 . 1
U smgy=mx+can m =-- g1ves y=--x+ c.
3 3
The point (2, -1) lies on this line so its coordinates satisfy the equation,
1 1
~ -1=--(2)+c ~ c=--
3 3
1 1
Therefore y=- - x--
3 3
~ x+3y+ 1 = 0
I
Example 8
Find the equation ofthe line through the points (I, -2) and (3, 5).
Using formula [2] with x1 = 1, y 1 = -2, x2 = 3 and y2 = 5 gives
I y-(-2)= 5 -(-2) (x-1)
==> 7x-2y-ll=O
Example 9
3-1
I
-
Find the equation of the line through (1, -2) which is perpendicular to the line
3x -7y+ 2 = 0 and passes through (1, 2).
Expressing 3x-7y+ 2 = 0 in general form gives y= ~x+~.

7 7
Hence 3x-7y+ 2 = 0 has gradient ~.
7
So the perpendicular line has a gradient of _7_ and it passes through (1, 2). X
3
Usingy- y 1 = m(x - x1)

-7
==> y - 2=-(x-1) ==> 7x+ 3y-13= 0
3
Example 9 shows that the line perpendicular to 3x- 7y + 2 = 0 passing through
(1, 2) has equation 7x+ 3y -13 = 0
The coefficients of x andy have been transposed and the sign between the x and
y terms has changed. This is a particular example of the general fact that
given a line with equation ax+ by+ c= 0 then the equation of any
perpendicular line is bx- ay+ k= 0.
This property of perpendicular lines can be used to shorten the working of
problems, for example to find the equation of the line passing through (2, -6)
which is perpendicular to the line 5x - y + 3 = 0, then the required line has an
equation of the form x + 5y + k = 0. Use the fact that the coordinates (2, -6)
satisfy this equation to find the value of k.
Exercise 4
0 Find the equation of the line with the given gradient that passes through
the given point.
1
a 3,(4,9) b -5, (2,-4) c -, (4, 0)
4
-~ -~)
d 0,(-1,5) e -~, (i, 4 ) f s'
(22
5' 2
e Find the equation of the line passing through the points
a (0, 1), (2, 4) b (-1, 2), (1,5) c (3,-1), (3, 2)
Coordinate Geometry Cl
0 State which of the following pairs of lines are perpendicular.
a x- 2y+4 = 0and2x +y=3 b x+ 3y = 6 and 3x+ y+2 = 0
c x +3y- 2= 0andy =3x +2 d y + 2x + 1= 0 and x = 2y - 4
0 Find the equation of the line through the point (5, 2) that is perpendicular
to the line x - y + 2 = 0.
0 Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the line joining
a (0, 0), (2, 4) b (3, -1), (- 5, 2) c (5, - 1), (0, 7)
0 Find the equation of the line through the origin which is parallel to the line
4x +2y-5 = 0.
f) The line 4x - 5y + 20 = 0 cuts the x-axis at A and the y-axis at B.
Find the equation of the line through 0 and the midpoint of the line AB.
0 Find the equation of the line through 0 that is perpendicular to the line AB
defined in Question 7.
( ) Find the equation of the perpendicular line from (5, 3) to the line 2x-y+4 = 0.
t1:) The points A(l, 4) and B(5, 7) are two adjacent vertices of a parallelogram
ABCD. The point C(7, 10) is another vertex of the parallelogram . Find the
equation of the side CD.
5.4 Intersection
The point where two lines (or curves) cut is called a point of intersection.
If A is the point of intersection of the lines
y - 3x+ 1 = 0 [1]
and y+x - 2=0 [2] X
then the coordinates of A satisfy both of these equations. Therefore A can be

found by solving [1] and [2] simultaneously:
3 5
[2] -[1] => 4x-3= 0 => x= - and y=-
4 4
Therefore ( ~, ~) is the point of intersection.
Exercise 5
0 Show that the triangle whose vertices are (1, 1), (3, 2) and (2, - 1) is
isosceles.
e Find the area of the triangular region enclosed by the X andy axes and the
line 2x - y - 1 = 0.
0 Find the coord inates of the vertices of the triangular region enclosed by the
linesy= 0, y= x + 5 and x+ 2y - 6 = 0.
0 Write down the equation of the perpendicula r bisector of the line joining
the points (2, -3) and ( -~, 3~}
0 Find the equation of the line through A(5, 2) wh ich is perpendicular to
the line y = 3x- 5. Hence find the coordinates of the point where the
two lines meet.
( ) Find expressions in a and b for the coordinates of the point where the
perpendicular from the point (a, b) to the line x+ 2y- 4 = 0 meets the line
X+2y-4= 0.
0 The coordinates of a point Pare (t+ 1, 2t- 1). Sketch the positions of P
when t = -1, 0, 1 and 2. Show that these points are collinear and write down
the equation of the line on which they lie.
0 Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the line joining the
points (a, b) and (2a, - 3b).
C) The equations of two sides of a square arey= 3x-1 and x + 3y - 6 = 0.
The point (0, - 1) is one vertex of the square. Find the coordinates of the
other vertices.
~ The lines y = 2x, 2x + y - 12 = 0 andy= 2 enclose a triangular region of the
xy-plane. Find the coordinates of the vertices of this region.
Summary
Lines joining two points
The distance between points A(x 1, y 1) and B(x2, y) is given by
AB = ~(x2 -xy +(y2- yl)z
The coordinates of the midpoint of the line joining A(x1, y) and B(x2 , y 2 ) are
(~(x1 +x2), ~(yl +Yz))
Gradient
The gradient of the line through A(x1, y 1) and B(x 2, y2) is
the increase in y Y2 - Y1
the increase in x X2 - X 1
Parallel lines have equal gradients.
The product of the gradients of perpendicular lines is - 1.
The equation of a straight line

The equation y = m x + c gives a straight line with gradient m andy-intercept c.
The equation of a straight line can also be expressed as ax+ by+ c = 0 where a, b
an d care constants, but in this form cis not they-intercept.
used to find the equation of a straight line.

[
2
xz- x,
l
The formulay- y 1 = m(x - x ) or the formula y- y 1 = -y - -y- ' (x - x 1 ) can be
Given a line with equation ax+ by+ c = 0, the equation of any perpendicular
line is bx - ay+ k = 0
Coordinate Geometry CD
Review
In Questions 1 to 4 state the letter that gives the correct answer.
0 The distance between the points (3, -4) and (-7, 2) is
a 2.J3 b 16 c 2$4 d 2.J5 e 6
0 The midpoint of the line joining (- 1, -3) to (3, -5) is
a (1, 1) b (0, 0) c (2, - 8) d (1, -4) e (1,-1)
0 The gradient of the line joining (1, 4) and (-2, 5) is
1 1
a - b -- c 3 d -3 e 1.3
3 3
0 The gradient of the line perpendicular to the line joining (-1, 5) and
(2, -3) is
1 2
a 3 b -2-
2
c d 2 e 2-
8 3 2 3
0 a Find the gradient of the straight line 2x+ 3y = 5.
b Find the equation of the line through (-2, 1) that is perpendicular to
2x+3y=-9.
c Find the coordinates of the point where these two lines intersect.
G The vertices of triangle ABC areA(-3, 1), B (10, -8) and C (1, 4).
a Find the equation of the line passing through A and B.
b Show that CA and CB are perpendicular.
0 The straight line through the point P (2, 1) and Q ( 4, p) has gradient -~.
12
Find the value of p.
Assessment
0 The line L has equation 2x+ 3y - 4 = 0.
a Find the gradient of L.
The point Chas coordinates (3, - 1).
b Find the equation of a line through C parallel to L.
c Find the equation of the line through C perpendicular to L.
0 The vertices of triangle ABC are A (-3, 1), B (10, -8) and C (1, 4)
respectively.
a Find the equation of the line passing through A and B.
b Find the gradients of the lines CA and CB. Hen ce show that CA a nd CB
are perpendicular.
c The point Dis the midpoint of AB. Write down the coordinates of D.
0 The line 3x + y + 2 = 0 crosses the x-axis at the point A and crosses they-axis
at the point B.
a Write down the coordinates of the point A and B.
b Find the area of the triangle OAB where 0 is the origin.
c Find the equation of the line through 0 and the midpoint of AB.
0 The coordinates of the point A are (1, 12) and the coordinates of the point B
are (-2, p).
The equation of the line through A and B is y = 3x + 9.
a Find the value of p.
b Find the gradient of AB.
c Find the coordinates of the midpoint of AB.
d Find the equation of the line through the point (1, 1) that is
perpendicular to AB.
0 The line L1 has equation y = 5x- 2. The point A with coordinates (3, p) lies
on the line L1•
The line L2 has equation 2x- 3y+ 1 = 0.
b The lines L1 a nd L 2 intersect at the point C. Find the coordinates of the
point C.
c Find the length of the line AC.
( ) The line AB has equation 7x + 3y = 13.
a Find the gradient of AB.
b The point C has coordinates (-1, 3).
i Find an equation of the line which passes through the point C and
which is parallel to AB.
ii Th~ point ( 1~, - 1) is the mid-point of AC. Find the coordinates of the
pomt A.
c The line AB intersects the line with equation 3x + 2y = 12 at the point B.
Find the coordinates of B.
AQA MPC1 June 2011
f) The point A h as coordinates (- 1, 2) and the point B h as coordinates (3, -5).
a i Find the gradient of AB.
ii Hence find an equation of the line AB, giving your answer in the form
px + qy =r, where p, q and rare integers.
b The midpoint of AB is M.
Find the coordinates of M.
ii Find an equation of the line which passes through M and which is
perpendicular to AB.
c The point C h as coordinates (k, 2k + 3). Given that the distan ce from
A to C is .Jl3, find the two possible values of the constant k.
AQA MPC1 June 2014
As a car accelerates, the speed of the car changes as time changes. By the end of this chapter,
Differentiation is a way of measuring how one quantity changes as another you should ...
quantity changes. This chapter also shows other situations that may ..,. Understand and be
involve finding conditions that will minimize or maximize a quantity. able to use the rule
for differentiating
simple functions .
..,. Understan d the idea
Recap of stationary points.
You need to remember how to... ..,. Be able to use
..,. Work with surds and indices. methods for
..,. Solve quadratic equations. distinguishing
..,. Find the equation of a straight line. between different
..,. Use the formulae for the volume of a cuboid and the volume of a cylinder. types of stationary
..,. Use Pythagoras' Theorem. points.
Applications
When a rocket is launched its speed increases rapidly. The rate at which
the speed increases can be found when the distance of the rocket from the
launch pad is expressed as a function of the time since launch.
A rectangular box is made from a sheet of cardboard with a fixed length
and width. The volume of such a box can be optimized when the volume is
expressed as a function of one of its dimensions.
•• • •• • ••• • •••••••••••••• •• ••••••••• •••

6.1 Chords, tangents, normals and
gradients
The points A and B are any two points on a curve.
The line joining A and B is called a chord.

The line that touches the curve at A is called the tangent at A.
• Differentiation
The word touch has an exact m eaning. A line that meets a curve at a point a nd Point of contact
carries on without crossing to the other side of the curve at that point, touches
the curve at the point of contact.
The line perpendicular to the tangent at A is called the normal at A.
Gradient defines the direction of a line (lines can be straight or curved).
A
However when we reach A the direction we are
pointing in is along the tangent AT, so
T the gradient of the curve at A is the same as the

B gradient of the tangent to the curve at A.
The point B is a point o n the curve, fairly close to A, so the gradient of the chord
AB gives an approximate value for the gradient of the tangent at A.
As B gets nearer to A, the chord AB gets closer to the tangent at A so the
approximation becomes more accurate.
Therefore,
asB~A
the gradient of chord AB ~the gradient of the tangent at A
or
limit (gradient of chord AB) =gradient of tangent at A

os B ~ A
Y. This example shows how to find the gradient at the

point A(1, 1) on the curve with equation y= x2.
Note
Using the points B1, B2 ••• that are getting closer to the
point A{1, 1) and taking the x-coordinates of these The symbol ~ means 'tends
points as 1.2, 1.1, 1.05, 1.01, 1.001, then calculatin g the to' or 'approaches'.
gradient of the chord joining A to each position of B
0 1 1.2 x gives this table.
X 1.2 1.1 1.05 1.01 1.001

Gradient of chord AB 2.2 2. 1 2.05 2.01 2.001
The numbers in the last row of the table show that, as B gets nearer to A, the
gradient of the chord gets nearer to 2, so
limit{gradient of chord AB) = 2

asB-+A
This m ethod is too long to use every time the gradient at a point on the curve is
needed, so a gen eral m e thod is required. To find the gradient at any point on
the curve y = x2 a general point A(x, y) is used and a variable small change in the
value of x between A and B.
Differentiation
The symbol, o, is used to mean a small change.
o
When is a prefix to any letter representing a variable quantity, it means a small
increase in that quantity.
For example ox means a small increase in x
oy means a small increase in y
ot means a small increase in t.
(ois only a prefix. It has no independent value and cannot be treated as a factor.)
Using any point A(x, y) on the curve y =rand a point B on y =r where the
x-coordinate of B is x + ox,
gives they-coordinate of Bas (x + ox)2 = r + 2xox+ (ox) 2•
. of chord AB 1.s gtven
The grad tent . by _increase
___ y from
in..:....__ _A_
to_B
increase in x from A to B
(x+ox)2 -x2
(x+ox)-x
2xox+(ox)2
ox
=2x+ ox 0
AsB~A, ox~O
therefore the gradient of the curve at A= lirnit(gradient of chord AB)

8 --+A
=limit (2x +ox)

asox--+ 0
=2x
This result can now be used to find the gradient at any particular point on the
curve with equation y = r.
For example at the point where x = 3, the gradient is 2(3) = 6 and at the point
(4, 16), the gradient is 2( 4) =8.
6.2 Differentiation
The process of finding a general expression for the gradient of a curve at any
point is called differentiation.
The general expression for the gradient of a curve y = f(x) is also a function so it
is called the gradient function.
For the curve y = r, the gradient function is 2x.
The gradient function is derived from the given function, it is also called the
derived function or the derivative.
The example above shows that the derivative is found from
(the increase iny) + (the increase in x) so it also gives the rate at which the value
of y changes with respect to x.
The method used above, in which the limit of the gradient of a chord is used to
find the derived function, is called differentiating from first principles. It is the
method by which the gradient of each new type of function is found.
• Differentiation
Notation
We now need a short way to write 'the derivative of r is 2X. Note
One notation uses the equation of the curve. d has no independent
For example when y = r, the derived function is written as dy = 2x (spoken as meaning and must never be
dx thought of or used as a factor.
'dybydx').
The complete symbol~ m eans 'the derivative with respect to x of:
dx
So, : m eans 'the derivative with respect to x of y'
and~ (r - x) means 'th e derivative with respect to x of (x 2 - x):

dx
Another notation uses the function of x.
For example when f(x) = r the derived function is written as f' (x) = 2x
where f' means 'the gradient function' or 'the derived function:
Differentiating x"
The table shows the results of differentiating some equations from first
principles.
y xz xs x4 x -•
dy
2x 3x 2 4x 3 -x - 2 ( 1 )
or - ~
dx
From this table it appears that to differentiate a power of x, multiply by that
power and then reduce the power by 1,
so wheny = x",then dy = nx"-1
dx
The rule works for all numerical powers of x, including those that are fractiona l
or negative.
d
For example - ( x 7 ) = 7 x 6
dx
d d ~ 3 .!.
and -(x-2 )= - zx-3 - (xz) =- x 2
dx dx 2
Example 1
~~ Differentiate with respect to x
i :x~:x') d 1
a Use - (x") =nx"-1 wheren=--
dx ' 3
dy 1 _.!_ _) 1 -~ 1
- =- - x =--x = - --
dx 3
3
3
J
3A
.rr::3'\ ~ 3
b {,t(x 3 ) can be written x 4 , so n = -
4
d ~ 3 ~ - 1 3 _.!_ 3
dx =(x4) = 4 x 4 =4x 4 or 4ifX
Differentiation
Exercise 1
Differentiate with respect to x.
0 XS e x -3 0 XJ
4
0 _!_
X
Q xlo 0 -1
x2
O N 0· x-2
I
V 7 G x3 1!\
A 1
w
x-4
I I
~X eR ~ _..!.7__
X
G) x1
I
o ~(x2 )3
Differentiating constants and multiples of x

Any line with equation y =c is a horizontal straight line whose gradient is zero.
Therefore y =c dy = 0. ~
dx
Any line with equation y = kx has gradient k,
y =kx ~ dy =k
dx
Wheny is a constant multiple of a function of x, soy= af(x) then dy = af'(x ).
dx
For example when y=3x5 , dy = 3 x 5x 4 = 15x 4
dx
and when y=4x-2, dy =4 x-zx-3 =-sx-3

dx
In general, if a is a constant
d
- ax" = an.t:" - 1
dx
A function of x which contains the sum or difference of a number of separate
terms can be differentiated term by term, ap plying the basic rule to each term.
4 1
For example, if y = x +- - 6x
X
dy d d d 1
then - = - (x 4 ) + - (x-1 ) - - (6x) = 4x 3 - - - 6
dx dx dx dx x2
Exercise 2
Differentiate each of the following functions with respect to x.
0 r-r+ 5x- 6 e 3x +7-i 2
X
0 1
.JX+ -
.JX
0 zx4-4r
3 3
e r -2r -8x
-3 -X -2I +X --2I
Q x4 - X4+x 0 3r- 4r + 9x- 10 X2
c .JX+.JX3 ~ _..!.__ _ _..!.__

W x2 xJ
1
.JX --;
2
I I 4 x3
~ X 4 -x s - +-
x3 4
Q 3.[X- 3x X- zx- 1
- 3x-3
~ .JX + x2
Qil x2 .JX
Differentiating products and fractions
The rules given above can be used to the differentiate expressions containing
products or quotients only when they can be multiplied out or divided into
separate terms.
• Differentiation
I
Example 2
Find: wheny"(x-3)(x' +7x-1).
I
y=(x-3)(r+7x-l)=Xl+4r-22x+3
==> dy =3x2 +8x - 22

dx
Example 3
. d dt h 6z 2 +z-4
Fm - w en t= .
dz 2z
6z 2 +z-4 6z 2 z 4
t=---- - + -- -
2z 2z 2z 2z
1 2
=3z +-- -
2 z
dt
==> dz =3+0 - 2( -z-2 )
2
=3 +-
z2
Exercise 3
Differentiate each of the following equations with respect to the variable
concerned.
0 y=(x+ 1)2 0 z=x-2 (2-x)
0 y=(3x-4)(x+5) 0 y=(4-z)2
es rl+3t2
2t 2
( ) s= t 2+t
2t
z3 -z
0 y=(~)cx 2 +1) 0 y= JZ
0 y=2x(3r -4) G s=(t+2)(t-2)

~
w
s t 3 -2t 2 +7t
t2
e y= JX+7
x2
6.3 Gradients of tangents and normals

When the equation of a curve is known, and the gradient function can be found,
the gradient, m, at a given point A on that curve can be calculated. This is also
the gradient of the tangent to the curve at A.
The normal at A is perpendicular to the tangent at A, therefore its gradient
. 1
IS - -.
m
Differentiation fl
Example 4
~ The equation of a curve is s = 6- 3t- 4f! - t;3.

~ Find the gradient of the tangent and of the normal to the curve at the point (-2, 4).
s=6-3t-4f!-t;l => ds = 0-3 - 8t - 3t 2

dt
At the point (-2, 4), ds = - 3- 8(-2)-3( -2)2 = 1.
dt
Therefore the gradient ofthe tangent at (-2, 4) is 1 and the gradient of the
normal is - ~ = -1 .
1
Example 5
I- Find the coordinates of the points on the curve y = 2xl- 3x2- 8x + 7 where the
gradient is 4.
y=2xl-3x2-8x +7 => dy =6x2 -6x-8

dx
When the gradient is 4, : =4

therefore6x2-6x-8= 4 => 6x2 -6x -12 =0 => x2 - x -2 =0.
Therefore (x- 2)(x+ 1) = 0 => x= 2 or x= -1.
When x= 2,y= 16 - 12-16 +7 =-5.
whenx = - 1,y =-2- 3 + 8+ 7 = 10.
Therefore the gradient is 4 at the points (2, -5) and (- 1, 10).
Exercise 4
In Questions 1 to 12, find the gradient of the tangent and the gradient of the
normal at the point given on the curve.
0 y= x2+ 4wherex= 1 e y=~ wherex=-3
X
0 y =.JZ wherez= 4 0 s=2fwhere t= - 1
0 v =2- .!_u where u= 1 0 y=(x+3)(x-4)wherex=3

0 y = z3 - z where z = 2 0 s= t +3f!wheret=-2
0 z=x -~ wherex = 1
2
X
~ y =JX+ Jx wherex =9
x2 - 4
G s=.Ji(l+.Ji) wheret = 4 1!\
~ y = -- wherex = -2
X
In Questions 13 to 20, find the coordinates of the point(s) on the curve where
the gradient has the value given.
e y = 3-~;~ ~ z=x2-xl; - 1
e f - 12t+ 9; 15
s= G v=u+.!..;
u
o
~ s=(t+3)(t-5); 0 ~ y = ~)
2 x 4
G) y = (2x- 5)(x+ 1); -3 ~ y = z3-3z; 0
Equations of tangents and normals
The tangent is a line touching a curve at a given point A on the c urve so the
gradient of the tangent can be found at that point. Therefore the equation of the
tangent can be found using y - y 1 = m(x - xJ
The equation of a normal can be found in the same way.
Example 6
I- Find the equation of the n ormal to the curve y = i at the point where x = l.
y =-
4
X
dy
::::}
4
- = - -2
dx x
X
When x= 1,y = 4 and dy =-4.

dx
The gradient of the tangent at (1, 4) is - 4, therefore the gradient of the normal
. 1 1
at ( 1, 4) IS - - = - .
-4 4
The equation of the normal is given by y- y1 = m(x- x)
1
giving y - 4 =-(x-1) ::::} 4y=x +l5.
4
Example 7
I Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y =X:- 6x + 5 at each of the points
where the curve crosses the x-axis. Find also the coordinates of the point where
these tangen ts meet.
The curve crosses the x-axis where y = 0,
that is where X: - 6x + 5 = 0 ::::} (x - 5)(x- 1) = 0
::::} x=5 and x= 1
Therefore the cu rve crosses the x-axis at (5, 0) and (1, 0)
y= r - 6x+5 ::::} dy = 2x - 6
dx
-2
At (5, 0), the gradient of the ta ngent is given by dy = 10- 6 = 4
dx
therefore the equation of this t angent is y- 0 = 4(x- 5) ::::} y = 4x - 20.
At (1, 0) the gradient of the tangent is given by ~ = 2 - 6 = - 4.

Therefore the equation of the tangent is y- 0 = - 4(x - 1) ::::} y+ 4x = 4.
The two tangents meet at the p oint P so at P,
y+ 4x = 4 and y -4x = -20
Solving these equations simultaneously gives 2y = - 16::::} y = - 8.
Usingy = - 8 in y + 4x= 4 gives - 8 + 4x = 4 ::::} x = 3.
Therefore the ta ngents m eet at (3, - 8).
Differentiation fl
Exercise 5
In Questions 1 to 6 find, at the given point on the curve
a the equation of the tangent b the equation of the normal.
0 y =r- 4wherex= 1 0 y=r+ 4x-2 wherex= O
0 y = .; where X= - 1 0 y = r + 5 where X= 0
0 y =r-5x +7wherex=2 ( ) y= (x-2)(r -1)wherex=-2
f) Find the equation of the normal to the curve y = r + 4x- 3 at the point
where the curve cuts the y-axis.
0 Find the e quation of the tangent to the curve y = r - 3x - 4 at the point
where this curve cuts the line x= 5.
Q Find the e quation of the tangent to the curve y = (2x - 3)(x - 1) at each of
the points where this curve cuts the x-axis. Find the point of intersection of
these tangents.
C Find the e quation of the normal to the curve y = r - 6x + 5 at each of the
points where the curve cuts the x-axis.
CD Find the e quation of the tangent to the curve y = 3r + 5x - 1 at each of the
points of intersection of the curve and the line y = x- 1.
e.l Find the equations of the tangent to the curve y = r + 5x - 3 at the points
where the line y = x + 2 crosses the curve.
G) Find the coordinates of the point on the curve y = 2r where the gradient
is 8. Hence find the equation of the tangent toy = 2r whose gradient is 8.
~ Find the coordinates of the point on the curve y = 3r - 1 where the gradient is 3.
e Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = 4x2 + 3x whose gradient is -1 .
~ Find the equation of the normal to the curve y = 2r - 2x + 1 whose gradient
is .!..
2
$ Find the value of k for which y = 2x + k is a ta ngent to the curve y = 2r- 3.
() Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = (x - 5)(2x + l) that is
parallel to the x-axis.
e Find the coordinates of the point{s) on the cu rve y = r - 5x + 3 where the
gradient of the normal is i·
$ A curve has the equation y = xl - px + q. The tangent to this cu rve at the
point (2, - 8) is parallel to the x-axis. Find the values of p and q.
Find also the coordinates of the other point where the tangent is parallel to
the x-axis.
6.4 Increasing and decreasing functions

The derived function, f '(x), expresses the rate at which the function f(x)
increases with respect to x.
At a particula r point,
when f ' (x) is positive, f(x) is increasing as x increases, but if f ' (x) is
negative then f(x) is decreasing as x increases.
• Differentiation
Example 8
I
Show that the function given by f(x) = 2x- X: is
a an increasing function for values of x less than 1
b a decreasing function for values of x greater than 1.
f(x)
f(x) = 2x- X: ~ f'(x) = 2 - 2x. 2
a f(x) is increasing when f'(x) > 0,

that is when 2 - 2x > 0 ~ 1 > x so x < 1. -2
b f(x) is decreasing when f'(x) < 0,
that is when 2 - 2x < 0 ~ l < x so x > l.
Note: A sketch of f(x) confirms this.
6.5 Stationary points

There may be points where f'(x) is zero, that is where f(x) is momentarily neither
increasing nor decreasing with respect to x.
The value off(x) at such a point is called a stationary value
therefore f'(x) = 0 ~ y has a stationary value.
The diagram shows a general curve with equation y = f(x).
At the points A and B, f(x), and therefore y, is neither increasing
nor decreasing with respect to x.
So the values of y at A and B are stationary values,
dy . X
therefore dx = 0 ~ y has a statwnary value.
The point on a curve where y has a stationary value is called a
stationary point. At any stationary point, the gradient of the tangent to the
curve is zero, so the tangent is parallel to the x-axis.
To sum up
y, or f(x) has a stationary value
at a stationary point
j~,or f' (x), is zero
the tangent is parallel to the x - axis.
Example 9
~ Find the stationary values of the function x' - 4x' + 7.

f(x) =x1- 4r+7 ~ f'(x) = 3r-8x
At stationary points, f'(x) = 0 so 3r - 8x = 0
8
~ x(3x- 8) = 0 ~x= Oand x=- .
3 8
Therefore there a re stationary points where x= 0 and x=3·
Whenx = O, f(x) = 0 - 0+7=7.
8
When x=-, f(x) = -
3 3
(8) - 4 (8)-3 +7= -2-.
3 2
1273
Therefore the stationary points of x3- 4r - 5 are (0, 7) and (~, - 2~).
3 27
Differentiation
Exercise 6
0 Show that f(x) =r is an increasing function for x> 0.
0 Show that f(x) = .x;3 is an increasing function of x for all values of x.
In Questions 3 to 8 find the value(s) of x at which the following functions have

stationary values.
0 r +7 0 2r-3x-2 0 r-4r +6
() 4.x:3-3x-9 0 r-2r+ u 0 x3-3x-5
In Questions 9 to 14 find the value(s) of x forwhichy has a stationary value.
0 y =r- Bx+1 ~ y =x +~
X
4) y=2x1 + r - 8x+1
e y=9x3-25x G) y=2.x:3+9r-24x+7 ~ y=3x1 - 12x+ 19
In Questions 15 to 20 find the coordinates of the stationary points on the curves.
e 2
y= x +
9
2x
~ y=.x:3-2r+x-7 ~ y=(x -3)(x+2)
1
G) y=JX+ JX ~ y=x+~
X
6.6 Maximum and minimum points

Close to a stationary point, a curve can have any one of the shapes
shown in the diagram.
Moving through A from left to right shows that the curve is rising, then
turns at A and begins to fall, so the gradient changes from positive, to
zero at A, and then becomes negative.
At A there is a turning point. B
The value of y at A is called a maximum value and A is called a maximum point.

Moving through B from left to right the curve is falling, then turns at Band
begins to rise, so the gradient changes from n egative, to zero at B, and then Note
becomes positive.
A maximum value of y is not
At B there is a turning point. always the greatest value
The value of y at B is called a minimum value and B is called a minimum point. ofy on the curve. The terms
maximum and minimum
The tangent is always horizontal a t a turning point.
apply only to the behaviour of
At C the curve does not turn. The gradient goes from positive, to zero at C and the curve close to a stationary
then becomes positive again, therefore the gradient does not ch ange sign at C. point; the point can be called
C is not a turning point but, because there is a change in the sense in which the a local maximum or a local
curve is turning (from clockwise to anti-clockwise), Cis called a point of inflection. minimum.
Investigating the nature of stationary points

This section shows two ways of distinguishing between the different types of
stationary point.
Method I
For a maximum point, A
dy at A 1 is +ve, dy at A 2 is -ve
dx dx
For a minimum point, B
dy at 8 1 is -ve, dy at B2is +ve
dx dx
For a point of inflection, C
dy at c. is +ve, dy at c 2is +ve
dx dx
These conclusions are summarised in the table:
Passing through a Passing through a Passing through a
Sign of dy maximum point minimum point point of inflection
dx + 0- -0+ :does not
change sign
Gradient I- \ \- I 1-1
Method2
This method looks at how dy changes with respect to x going through a
. . dx
statwnary pomt.
.hdy,
The rate at wh 1c dx mcreas~~ w1'th respect to x can b .
e wntten d(dy)b
dx dx ut
this notation is shortened to
d 2y
J (spoken as 'd 2 y by dx squared').
dy A
dx 2 is the second derivative of y with respect to x. If dx is increasing as
d2y
x increases then -d 2 is +ve.
X d
Looking at the behaviour of~ at each stationary point shows:
" the maXImum

10r . . A; at A dy
pomt dx .Is +ve an d at .A"2 dy
dx .IS- ve so,
1
passing through A, dy goes from + to-, so dy decreases

dx dx
d2y . .
=> at A , - IS negative
d.x2
for the minimum point B; at B1 dy is -ve and at B2 dy is +ve so,
dx dx
passing though B, dy goes from- to+, so dy increases B
dx dx
d2y. ..
=>at B, -IS positive.
d.x2
This table sums up method 2:
Maximum Minimum
d2
Signof ~ negative (or zero) positive (or zero)
2
Th'ISme tho d.IS eas: to use b ut ddxy can b e zero at a turnmg . and.It can aIso
. pomt
2
be zero at other pomts.
2
Therefore this method fails when d y =0 at stationary point so the first method
d.x2
must be used.
Differentiation
Example 10
I- Find the stationary points on the curve y = 4.il + 3r - 6x- 1 and determine the
nature of each one.
y = 4.il + 3r - 6x- 1
::::} dy =12x2 +6x-6
dx
At stationary points, dy =0 so 12r + 6x - 6 =0

dx
::::} 6(2x- l)(x +l)=O
Therefore there are stationary points where x= .!. and x= -1.

2
1 3
When x=-, y=-2- and whenx=-1,y=4
2 4
so the stationary points are ( ~, -2~) and (- 1, 4).
2
Differentiating dy with respect to x gives d y2 = 24x + 6.
dx dx
2
1
When x=-, d y = 12 + 6 which is positive
2 dx2
1- 2'43) ts. a mm1

::::} (2', . .mum pomt.
.
2
When x = -1, d Y = -24 + 6 which is negative
dx2
::::} (- 1, 4) is a maximum point.
Exercise 7
In Questions 1 to 15 find the stationary points on the following curves and
distinguish between them.
0 y = 2x-r e y=3x-x1 0 y = ~+x
X 1
0 y=r(x-5) O y=r A y =x+ -
V 2x2
0 y = 2r-X' 0 y = X' 0 y=(2x+1)(x-3)
e y=x!'-5x
1!\
~ y =x2+-
16
x2
e x+~
X
e 3 -x+r G) x2(3r - 2x - 3)
(l) Show that the curve with equation y = x!' + x1 + 4x- 3 has no stationary
points.
(Hint: replacer by w in the derivative.)
Applications
The example below shows how a variable (in this case the volume of a box) can
be optimised.
• Differentiation
Example 11
I
An open box is made from a square sheet of cardboard, with sides half a metre
long. Squares are cut from each corner. The sides are then folded up to make
the box. Find the maximum volume of the box.
The volume of the box depends on the unknown length of the side of the square
cut from each corner so use x metres for this length. The side of the cardboard
. 1
sh eet ls-m,so th'1smeans thatO<x<-. 1
2 4
Using metres throughout,
the base of the box is a square of side (
and the height of the box is x,
i- 2x) I
I
I
I
I
I X
therefore the volume, C, of the box is given by I
I
I
2 :..--- (..!.- 2x)~
1
C =x ( --2x ) =-x-2x
1 2 1
+4x 3 for O<x<- I
2
I
I I
2 4 4
X
==> dC = .!._ - 4x + 12x2
dx 4 ----+---+
At a stationary value of C, ~ =0
1
therefore12x2 -4x +- =0 ==> 48r-16x+1=0
4
1 1
=>(4x-1)(12x-1)=0 ==> x=- or x=-
4 12
Therefore there are stationary values of C when x = .!._ and when x = _.!.__.
4 12
It is not possible to make a box if x = .!._ so only check that x = _.!.__ gives a
4 12
maximum volume.
d 2C
--=-4+24x wh'1ch.1snegat1vew
. h enx=-
1.
dx 2 12
2
1 ( 1 1) 1
Therefore C has a maxi~um value of 12 2-6 = 108 so the maximum
capacity of the box is -mJ.
108
Example 12
I- The function ax?-+ bx + c has a gradient function 4x + 2 and a stationary value

of 1. Find the value of a, band c.
f(x) = ax2 + bx + c ==> f'(x) = 2ax + b

Given f'(x) = 4x + 2 ==> 2ax + b is identical to 4x + 2.
Therefore a= 2 and b = 2.
The stationary value off(x) occurs when f'(x) = 0 that is when
1
4x + 2 =0 ==> x=- -
2 2
Sothestationaryvalueoff(x)is 2( -i) -i)+c=-i+c.

+2(
The stationary valu e off(x) is given as 1 therefore _ _!_+c =1 ==> c=~.

2 2 Differentiation
Example 13
A cylinder has a radius r metres and a height h metres. The sum of the radius
I and height is 2 m.
Find an expression for the volume, V cubic metres, of the cylinder in terms of
r only. Hence find the maximum volume.
v = nrh and r + h = 2
Therefore V = nr(2- r) = 1t(2r- r)
.
For maxtmum vo Iume,-dV
= 0,
dr
so 1t(4r- 3r2 ) = 0 => nr(4- 3r) = 0.
Therefore there are stationary values of Vwhen r= 0 and r=i.
3
2
When r= 0, V = 0 so no cylinder exists. Therefore check the sign of d V2
4 dr
only for r =-. h
3
--=n 4- 6 r ) wh'1c h.1s negat1vew
d 2V ( . h en r=-.
4
dr 2 3
r=1and is n(1) 2-1}
2
Therefore the maximum value of V occurs when (
32
Therefore the maximum volume is n m3 •
27
Exercise 8
0 A farmer wants to use an 80 m length of fencing to make three sides of a
rectangle against an existing straight fence, which forms the longer side of
the rectangle. The shorter side of the rectangle is x m long.
a Find the length of the longer side of the rectangle in terms of x.
b Show that the area of the enclosure is given by A = 2x(40 - x)
c Hence find the maximum area that he can enclose and give its
dimensions.
0 An open rectangular cardboard box is to be made with a square base and a
volume of 4m3 •
a The length of the base is x m. Find an expression for the height of the
box in terms of x.
b Show that the area of cardboard used to make the box is given by
A=x2+ 16 .
X
c Hence find the dimensions of the box which contains the minimwn
area of cardboard.
0 The diagram shows a cylinder cut from a solid sphere of radius 3m.
a Given that the cylinder has a h eight of 2h m, find its radius in terms of h.
b Hence show that the volume, V cubic metres, of the cylinder is given by
v = 27th(9- h 2
)
c Find the maximum volume of the cylinder ash varies.
• Differentiation
0 A rectangle has a perimeter of 20 em.
a The length of the rectangle is em. Find an expression for the width of the
rectangle in terms of x.
b Find an expression for the area of the rectangle and h ence find the
lengths of the sides when the area is as large a possible.
0 A rectangle whose length and width vary has a constant area of 35 cm2•
Find the lengths of the sides when the perimeter is a minimum.
() The curvey= ar
+ bx+ c crosses they-axis at the point (0, 3) and has a
stationary point at (1, 2). Find the values of a, band c.
Summary
Chords1 tangents 1 normals and gradients
The tangent to a curve at a point A touches the curve at A.
The normal to a curve at a point A is perpendicular to the tangent at A.
The gradient of a curve at a point A on the curve is the gradient of the tangent to
the curve at A.
Differentiation
When y = x', : = nx"-1 for all values of n.
dy
Wheny = k, - = 0.
dx
Wheny =ax', dy =anx"-1 •
dx
Wheny = f(x) + g(x), dy = f' (x) + g'(x).

dx
Stationary points
y, or f(x) has a stationary value
At a stationary point : , or f ' (x), is zero

{
the tangent is parallel to the x-axls.
The turning point on a curve may be a maximum or a minimum point.

To distinguish between turning points use either
a t a maximum p oint the gradient changes from positive to zero to n egative
at a minimum point the gradient ch anges fro m negative to zero to positive
or
. . d2y . . ( )
at a max.Jmum p omt - IS negative or zero
dx2
2
at a minimum point d y is positive (or zero)
dx2
When ~ is zero use the first method.

Differentiation G
Review
0 Find the derivative of
I I
a x-3 -x-1 +7 b xz-x z c
e Differentiate with respect to X
~ ~ I 1 1 1 1
a y=x2-x3+x 3 b y=JX--+-3 c - 3 - - 1
x x X4 X4
0 Find the gradient of the curve y = 2r - 3r + 5x- 1 at the point
a (0,-1) b (1, 3) c (- 1, - 11)
0 Find the gradient of the given curve at the given point.
a y =r +x-9; x=2 b y=r-4x;x=5
0 The equation of a curve isy= (x- 3)(x+4). Find the gradient of the curve
a at the point where the curve crosses they-axis
b at each of the points where the curve crosses the x-axis.
( ) Find the coordinates of the point(s) on the curvey= 3r-x+ 8 at which the
gradient is
a 8 b 0
0 Find the equation of the normal to the curve y = 1 -rat the point where
the curve crosses the positive x-axis.
Find also the coordinates of the point where the normal meets the curve
again.
0 Find the equations of the tangents to the curve y =r - 6r + 12x + 2 that
h ave a gradient of 3.
( ) Find the equation of the normal to the curve y = r - 6 which has a gradient
1
of --.
2
~ Find the coordinates of the turning points on the curve y = r - 12x and
determine their n ature.
G Find the stationary values of the function x +..!...
e The perimeter of a rectangle is 10m.
X
a The length of the rectangle is x m. Find an expression in terms of x for

the width of the rectangle.
b Hence show that the area A m 2 of the rectangle is given by A = x(5- x).
c Show that the area of the rectangle is greatest when it is square.
G) The shape of a door is a rectangle with a semicircle on the top edge of the
rectangle.
The diameter of the semicircle is equal to the width of the rectangle.
The perimeter of the door is 7 m, and the radius of the semicircle is r m.
a Express the height of the rectangle in terms of r.
b Show that the area of the door has a maximwn value when the radius
. 7
IS- -.
4+n
• Differentiation
Assessment
0 The point (x, y) is on a curve forwhichx> 0 a nd the gradient of the curve is
. b dy 4
g1ven y-=--3x 2
+5.
dx x
a Show that dy = 0 when x = 2.

dx
d2y
b Find the value of dx2 wh en x = 2.
The point P(2, 3) lies on the curve.

c State whether Pis a maximum or a minimum point. Give a reason for
your answer.
0 The equation of a curve is y = x 4 - 2x3 + 3x -7.
a Find ~. b Find ~.
c The point P is on the curve and the x coordinate of Pis 1. Find the
equation of the tangent to the curve at the point P.
0 The equation of a curve is y= _!_+A for X> 0. The point P(1, 2) is on the
x2
curve.
a Find the value of dy at the point P.
dx
b Show that the equation of the normal to the curve at the point P is
2x-3y+4=0.
0 An open tank is made with a square base and vertical sides and holds
32 cubic metres of water.
The side of the square base is x m long and the length of the vertical
sides isy m.
xm
a Show that ry = 32. Hence find the length of the vertical sides in terms of X.
b Sh ow that the area A m 2 of the sh eet metal used to make the tank is
.
giVen byx 2 -128
-.
X
c Find the dimensions of the tank when the area of sheet metal used to
make it has a minimum value.
0 Triangle ABC has a right angle at C. The shape of the triangle can vary but
the sides BC a nd CA have a fixed total length of 10 em.
a Given that AC = x em, find an expression the length of BC.
b Show that the area, A cm2 of the triangle is given by A= .!.x(10- x).
2
c Hence find the maximum area of the triangle.
Differentiation
C) The curve with equation y = x;S - 3r + x + 5 is sketched below. The point 0 is
at the origin and the curve passes through the points A(- 1, 0) and B(1, 4).
a Given that y = x;S - 3r + x + 5, find:

dy
1 dxi
d2y
ii
dx2
b Find an equation of the tangent to the curve at the point A(- 1, 0).
c Verify that the point B, where x = 1, is a minimum point of the curve.
0 A bird flies from a tree. At time t seconds, the bird's height, y metres, above
the horizontal ground is given by
1
Y= -t
4
- t 2 +5 os;ts;4
8 '
a Find dy.
dt
b 1 Find the rate of change of height of the bird in m etres per second
when t = 1.
ii Determine, with a reason, whether the bird's h eight above the
horizontal ground is increasing or decreasing w hen t =1.
d 2y
c 1 Find the value of - when t = 2.
dt 2
li Given that y has a stationary value when t = 2, state whether this is a
m aximum value or a minimum value.
• Differentiation
When xf is differentiated with respect to x the derivative is 2x. By the end of this chapter,
Reversing this, when the derivative of an unknown function is 2x then the you should know how to ...
~ Explain the meaning
unknown function could be X:.
of an indefinite and a
This process of finding a function from its derivative, which reverses the
definite integral and
operation of differentiating, is called integration.
how to find them.
~ Find areas bow1ded
by straight lines and
Recap a curve by using
You need to remember how to... integration.
~ Find an approximate
value of a definite
integral using the
trapezium rule.
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
7.1 Indefinite integration
The derivative of xf is 2x, but it is also the derivative of X:+ 3, xf - 9, and the
derivative of X: + any constant.
Therefore the result of integrating 2x is not a unique function but is of the form
xf + c where c is any constant
c is called the constant of integration.
This is written J2x dx = X:+ c
where J. .dx means 'the Integral of .•. with respect to X.

Integrating any function reverses the process of differentiating so, for any
function f(x), we have
J! r(x) dx = f(x) +c
For example, because differentiating i' with respect to x gives 3X:

then J3x 2 dx = x 3 +c
and it follows that Jx dx 2

= ~ x3 + c
It is not necessary to write ..!. c in the second form, as c represents any constant
3
in either expression.
1
In general, the derivative of x•+' is (n + l).x'' so f x" dx = - -x"+' +c.
n+l
• Integration
Therefore
to integrate a power of x, increase that power by I and divide

by the new power.
This rule can be used to integrate any power of x except - 1 because -1 + 1 = 0
and dividing by 0 is meaningless.
Because integrating a function of x involves adding an unknown constant, it is
called indefinite integration.
Integrating a sum or difference of functions

A function can be differentiated term by term. Therefore, because integration
reverses differentiation, integration also can be done term by term.
To integrate products or quotients of functions, first express them as sums or
differences of functions.
2x .JXdx= J2x2dx - Jx 2dx
Forexample
f2x.JX dx= J.JX-
-1 1 .!. -.!.
Example 1
Find the integral of l+x 7 +.!_-.JX with respect to x.

x2
J( l+x + :
7
2
- .JX )dx= (l+ x 7 +x-2 -x~)dx
J
= J1dx + Jx 7
J
dx+ x-2dx- Jx~ dx
1 8 l -l 1 !
= x+ - x +- x - - x 2 +c
8 -1 t
1 1 2 ~
= x+-x8 ----x2+c
8 X 3
Finding the constant of integration

The value of the constant of integration can be found when more information
about a curve is known, for example a point on the curve.
Example 2
I
-
The gradient of a curve is given by dy = 2x+ 4 and (1, 3) is a point on the curve.
Find the equation of the curve. dx
~ y=x 2+4x+c
I
dy =2x+4
dx
(1, 3) is a point on the curve, therefore 3 =1 + 4 + c ~ c = -2.
Soy=r+4x-2.
Integration ..
Exercise 1
Integrate with respect to x
0
1
xs 0 {1x 0 ,rl
1
( ) x -2
I
Oxl 0 {/x
() 1+r
X2
G 2x- JX G l+J...
x2 e x(1 +x)
e (2 - 3x)(l + 5x) G) 1Ji e 1-2x

x3
CD (l -x)2 G) x(l + x)(l -x)

~ The gradient of a curve is given by dy = 3x 2
- 2x. The p oint (0, 1) is on the
dx
curve. Find the equation of the curve.
G The point (4, 1) is on a curve. The gradient of the curve is given by dy =$.
Find the equation·ofthe curve. dx
fl) The gradient of a curve is given by dy = x~ . The point (9, 2) is on the
3
dx -vx
curve. Find the equation of the curve.
~ At the p oint (1, 5) the gradient of a curve is 4. Given that dx2
2
d y =6x-2, find
W
the equation of the curve.
7.2 Using integration to find an area

The area shown in the diagram is bounded by the curve y = f(x), the x-axis and
the linesx= a and x = b.
There are several ways in which this area can be estimated, for example by
counting squares on graph paper. A better method is to divide the area into thin
vertical strips and treat each strip, or element, as being approximately rectangular.
Y. y
0 :x=a
(- .--
,c:::.. """"' ;::,~ ,L .--r-r-._ .--
v
0 X 0 X
The sum of the areas of the rectangular strips gives an approximate value for the Y.
required area. The approxim ation gets better as the strips get thinner.
Every strip h as one end on the x-axis, one en d on the curve a nd two vertical
sides, so all the strips have the same type of boundaries.
Look at a typical element bounded on the left by the ordinate through a gen eral
p oint P(x, y). (An ordinate is the length of a line from a point x= a on the x-axis
to a curve and parallel to they-axis, that is the ordinate is they-coordinate of 0 x=a --~>x- x= b x
the point on a curve where x =a.)
• Integration
The width of the element represents a small increase in the
value of X and SO can be called 8x.
Also, if A represents the part of the area up to the ordinate through P, then the
area of the element represents a small increase in the value of A and so can be
calledM.
A typical strip is approximately a rectangle of h eight y and width ox.
Therefore, for any element 8A y 8x <:$ [1]
The approximate area can now be found by adding the areas of all the strips
from x = a to x = b.
The notation for this is LOA where L m eans 'the sum of:
x=b
x=a
x~b
so, total area "" 'L oA

x=a
x=b
=> total area "" ~>ox

x=a
As ox gets smaller the accuracy of the results increases w1til, in the limiting
case,
x~b
total area= lim""' y 8x

lir-+0£.
The equation oA "'yox can also be written in the form oA "" y.

ox
This form too becomes more accurate as ox gets smaller, giving lim oA = y.
&t-+0 ox
But li m -
M .ISdA- dA
so -=y
&<->00X dx dx
Hence J
A= ydx.
The boundary values of x defining the total area are x =a and x = band we
indicate this by writing
total area= J: y dx
The total area can therefore be found in two ways, either as the limit of a sum or
by integration,
xmb b
therefore lim~ y8x = f ydx
ox-+0£. {I
X • ll
y
and this shows that Integration Is a process of summation.
Definite integration
This section shows how to calculate the value of expressions like faby dx.
For example, using the method above find the area bounded by the x-axis, the
J
lines x =a and x = b and the curve y = 3XZ gives A = 3x2 d x , so A = x1 + c.
From this area function we can find the value of A corresponding to a particular
X
a
value ofx.
Integration
Hence using x =a gives A a= a 3 + c
and using x = b gives Ab = b3 + c.
Then the area between x =a and x = b is given by Ab- A a where
Ab - A 0 = (hl+ c)- (a3 + c) = b3- a 3
Ab- A a is called the definite integral from a to b of 3r and is denoted by
S: 3x dx, so S: 3x dx =(x
2 3
)x=b - (x 3)x=a
The right hand side of this equation is usually written in the form [ x 3 where a J:
and b are called the boundary values or limits of integration; b is the upper limit
and a is the lower limit.
J: y dx is called the definite integral from a to b of y with respect to x.
Whenever a d efinite integral is calculated, the constant of integra tion

disappears.
(A definite integral can be found in this way only if the function to be integrated
1
is defined for every value of x from a to b, for example _!_dx
1 2
Jx
cannot be found
-1
directly as - is undefined when x = 0.)
x2
Example 3
I- Evaluate
41 J4
J _!_dx.
4
1x
J -x dx = x - dx
1 2
1
2
4 1 3
= [ -x- 1] = {-4-1}- {- 1-1}= --+1 = -
1 4 4
Exercise 2
Evaluate each ofthe following definite integrals.
0 fo2x 3dx 0 f JX5dx 0 f( x 2+ 4)dx
0 f JX dx 0 f( x 2+2x-1)dx 0 f( x 3 -3x)dx
0 f y - x)2dx () r 3x+ 1dx

1 JX
0 2
r1(2 +3x) dx
Finding area by definite integration

The area bounded by a curvey= f~x), the lines x=a, x= b, and the x-axis, can be
fu
found from the definite integral f(x) d x . It helps to draw a diagram showing a
typical elem ent.
• Integration
Example 4
th~
I- Find
y=1-r.
area in the first quadrant bounded by the x andy axes and the curve
The area starts at they-axis where x = 0 and ends where the curve crosses the
x-axis.
y= l-x2
Area= lim"X=l
~H0£..J Jo
r
yox= 1(1-x2 )dx= [ x-~3 ]I = ( 1--
3
1 ) -(0-0)= -2
3 3
x=O 0
. -2 of a square umt.
Th e area Is .
3
The meaning of a negative result y
Look at the area bounded by y = 4x1, the x-axis and the lines
a x= 1 andx=2 b x=-2 andx= -1.
This curve has rotational symmetry about the origin so the two shaded
areas are equal. )(
x =2
J y dx
2
a A = lim" y ox=
lh--to£..J 1
x=l
= 1 2
4x 3 dx
=[x 4 =16-1=15e 0 X
x=- 1 _
1
b B =lim" yox=J ydx
lit--t0£..J -2
x =-2
=J- -2
1
4x 3 dx 0 X
=[ x 4
[~ =1 -16= -15
This integral has a negative value because, from - 2

to -1, the value ofywhich gives the length of the
strip, is negative.
Area cannot be negative; the minus sign means that area A is below the x-axis.
The actual area is 15 square units.
Be careful with problems involving a curve that crosses the x-axis between the
boundary values.
y
Example 5
The diagram shows the curve y = x(x- 1)(x- 2) and the x-axis.
a Find the area marked A on the diagram.
b Find the area marked B on the diagram.
Integration •
a Area A = J: ydx= J:(x 3 -3x2 +2x)dx
=[~ -xl+ xzI

1
=4
b AreaB = f( x 3 - 3x 2 + 2x)dx = [ : -x +x
4
3 2
I Note
The minus sign refers only to
=(4-8+4) - (±- 1+1) the position of area B relative
1 to the x-axis. The actual area
=-- is 2 of a square unit.
4 4
Finding compound areas
I Example 6
Find the area between the curve y= x' and the line y =3x.
The area can be found from

(area of the triangle bounded by the line, the x-axis and x = 3) - (area between
the curve. the x-axis and x = 3).
~ .!.. x 3 x 9-
2
J
3
0
x 2 dx = 13.!..-[..!:.x3 ]
2 3
3
= 13~ -9 =4~
Exercise 3
In Questions 1 to 9, find the a rea with the given boundaries.
0 The X-axis, the curve y = r + 3 and the lines X= 1, X= 2.
G The curve y = ../X, thex-axis and the lines x= 4, x= 9.
0 The X-axis, th e lines X=- 1 X= 1, and the curve y = r + 1.
1
0 The curve y = r +X, the X-axis and the line X= 3.

e The positive X andy axes and the curve y = 4-r.
G The lines X= 2, X=4, the x-axis and the curve y = r .
0 The curve y = 4 - r , the positive y-axis and the negative x-axis.
0 The x-axis, the lines x = 1 and x = 2, and the cu rve y = .!.. r + 2x.
2
0 The x-axis and the lines x = 1, x = 5, andy = 2x.
Ch eck the result by sketching the area and finding it by calculation.
D Integration
G Find the area below the x-axis and above the curve y =X: - 1.
G Find the area bounded by the curve y = 1 - xl, the x-axis and the
lines x = 2, x = 3.
e Find the area between the X andy axes and the curve y = (x - 1)2 •
G) Sketch the curve y = x(X:- 1), showing where it crosses the x-axis. Find
a the area enclosed above the x-axis and below the curve
b the area enclosed below the x-axis and above the curve.
~ Repeat Question 4 for the curve y = x( 4- X:).
Q Evaluate
a fc x-2)dx b fcx- 2)dx c fc x-2)dx

Interpret your results with a sketch.
Ca Find, by integration, the area bounded by the x-axis, the line x = 2 and
the curve y =X:.
b Hence find the area bounded by they-axis, the line y = 4 and the
curvey=r.
G) Find the area bounded by the curve y = 1 - X: and the line y = 1 - x.
( ) Evaluate the area between the line y = x- 1 and the curve y = x( 1 - x).
G) Evaluate the area between the line y= x -1 and the curve y= (2x+ 1)(x- 1).
$ Calculate the area of the region bounded by the curve y= (x + 1)(x - 2) and
the line y = x.
7.3 The trapezium rule

The definite integral r
f( x)dx can be used to find the area
between the curve y = f(x), the x-axis and the lines x =a and x = b
y
but it is not always possible to find a function whose derivative is

f(x). In this case the definite integral, and hence the exact value of
an area, cannot b e found.
However the area can be divided into a .finite number of strips. The
sum of the areas of these strips gives an approximate value for the 0 X
area and hence an approximate value of the definite integral.
When the area in the diagram is divided into vertical strips as
shown, each strip is approximately a trapezium.
When the width of the strip and its two vertical sides are known, the area of the
strip can be found using the formula
1
area= - (sum of parallel sides) x width
2
The sum ofthe areas of all the strips then gives an approximate value for the
area under the curve.
Integration G
.Y. y
\ \
\ \
\ \
, __..,.,
' __ ...
..... ~
' I
~ "1::! ;,.';
Yo YI Yz Yn- 2 Yn-I Yn
+
-;:; ~
+
+N
I -
I
b .5
-I N -IN §... -IbN
0 -+d•-+d•
------- -+d•-+d• X 0
-------
X
With n strips all with the same width, d, and with the vertical edges of the strips
labelledyo,yi,y2, .. ·•Yn - I'y",
then the sum of the areas of all the strips is
1 1 1 1 1
2(Yo + Yl)(d)+2(yl + Y2)(d)+2CY2 + Y)(d)+· ··+2(Yn-z + y"_)(d)+2(Yn-I + Y")(d)
Therefore the area, A, under the curve is given approximately by
1
A "' -2 (d )[y 0 + 2yI +2y2 + ..·+2yn - 1 + y n ]
This formula is known as the trapezium rule.

An easy way to remember the formula in terms of ordinates is
half width of strip x (first+ last+ twice all the others)
Be careful not to confuse the number of strips and the number of ordinates-
they are not the same.
Example 7
Use the trapezium rule and four strips to find an approximate value for the
definite integral ls x 3•
Five ordinates are used when there are four strips whose widths must all be the Y.
same. From x = 1 to x =5 there are four units so the width of each strip must be
1 unit. Hence the five ordinates are where x = 1, x = 2, x = 3, x = 4 and x = 5.
Using the trapezium rule,
y0 = 13 = 1, y 1 = 23 =8, y2 = 33 = 27, y3 = 64, y4 = 125
The area, A, is given by
1 0
A "'-(1)[1+ 125+2{8+27+64}] = 162
2
The area is approximately 162 square units .
• Integration
Exercise 4
In Questions 1 to 6 to estimate the value of each definite integral, using the
trapezium rule with five ordinates.
Give answers correct to 3 significant figures where necessary.
1
0 Jo -x dx
4
0 fcx -1)(x - 2)dx 0 fFxctx

0 f.Jx 2 - 9dx 0 ~dx r
0.6 X
Summary
1
The indefinite integral of x•with respect to xis given by J x 11 dx = - - x 11+1 +c
11 + 1
so to integrate a power of x, increase that power by 1 and divide by the new
power.
Integration can be done term by term, so J (f(x)+g(x))dx = J f(x)dx+ J g(x)dx.
The area between a curve y = f(x), the x-axis and the ordinates
wherex=a andx= b is given by x= J: ydx.
r
The trapezium rule gives an approximate value for the definite integral
f(x)dx where
f bf(x)dx ::: I..d[y0 +2y1 + ... +2y 1 +y]

a 2 II - II
where dis the width of each strip and the values of yare the lengths of the
parallel sides of the trapeziums, that is, they-coordinates of the points on the
curve at the edge of each strip.
Review
Integrate the ftmctions in Questions 1 to 6 with respect to x.
1
0 2
x --
x2 0
0 x./X-1
0
Fx
Evaluate the definite integrals in Questions 7 to 9.
vA J JG (6- x)2dx 0. J s 3y dy
-1 ~
0 J 32( if; _ _
1
1
if;
)dx
(;) Find the area bounded by the x a ndy axes and the curve y = 1 - :CJ.
G Find the area bounded by the curve y =.X: - 4 and the x- axis.
f) Find the area between the curve y = 4 - .x;2 and the line y = 4 - x.
ea Find an approximate value for the area between the x-axis and the curve
y = (x- 1)(x- 4), using the trapezium rule with four ordinates.
b Evaluate fc x- 1)(x- 4)dx.

Integration •
Assessment
2 2
3) 6 9
Qa Show that x -
(
x4
can be expressed as 1--+-.
x2 x4
c Hence find J x x- 3
2(
1
2
4
)2
dx.
0 The sketch ShOWS the CUrve with equation y = 6- X- r . y
a Find L(6-x - x 2 )dx.
b Hence find the area of the shaded region bounded by the curve
y= 6 -x-r and the line AB.
X
0 The point P(4, l) lies on the curve with equation y = f(x) where
f'(x) = .J";- Jx +l.
a Find the equation of the normal to the curve at the point P.

b Find the equation of the curve.
0 a Use the trapezium rule with three ordinates to estimate the value of
J: (3+x)dx.
b Find the value off (3+ x)dx.
c Explain the connection between the results of a and b.
C) The equation of a curve Cis y = 2x.

a Describe the transformation that transforms the curve C to the curve
X
with equation y = i 2.
b Use the trapezium rule with four ordinates (three strips) to estimate
X
the area between the curve y = i 2, the x-axis and the lines x =l and
x=4.
• Integration
G The curve with equation y = x;5- 3x + x + 5 is sketched below. The point 0 is
2
at the origin and the curve passes through the points A(- 1, 0) and B(1, 4).
Find L (x5 - 3x2 + x + 5)dx
ii Hence find the area of the shaded region bounded by the curve between
A and B and the line segments AO and OB.
0 a Use the trapezium rule with five ordinates (four strips) to find an
approximate value for
4 2x
1 - - dx
o x+1
giving your answer to three significant figures.
b State how you could obtain a better approximation to the value of the
integral using the trapezium rule.
AQA MPC2 January 20 12
Integration ~~
Look at this set of numbers: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, ... By the end of this chapter,
This set of numbers, in the order given, has a pattern. There is also you should know how to ...
a clear rule for getting the next number and as many following .,.. Decide if a sequence
numbers as needed. Sets like these are called sequences and each is convergent or
member of the set is a term of the sequence. divergent.
.,.. Distinguish between
Now look at this sum: 2+ 4 + 6 + 8 + 10 + ...
a finite series and an
The terms of the sequence, in order again, are added. Sums like
infinite series.
these are called series.
.,.. Understand and use
the :E notation.
.,.. Define an arithmetic
series and a
Recap
geometric series.
You need to remember how to.. .
.,.. Find the sum of an
.,.. Expand brackets such as (1 + 2x)(x2- 3x - 7).
arithmetic series
.,.. Solve a pair of simultaneous equations.
and the sum of a
.,.. Solve a quadratic equation.
geometric series
.,.. Solve a linear inequality.
including the sum to
infinity.
.,.. Expand (a+ b)" as
a series wh en n is a
Applications positive integer.
To calculate 2.01 6 without a calculator involves several long
multiplications. By expressing 2.01 6 as (2 + 0.01)6 , it is possible to expand
(2 + 0.01)6 as the sum of terms involving powers ofO.Ol. This makes the
arithmetic simpler as powers of 2 and 0.01 are easy to calculate.
••• • •••••• •••••• ••• •••••••••••••• •••• •

8.1 Defining a sequence
The terms in a sequence are denoted by u1, u2, .. . , u,., ... wh ere u,. is the nth term.
Each term in the sequen ce 1, 2, 4, B, 16, ... is a power of 2 so the sequence can
be written as
All the terms are of the form 2', so 2' is a general term.
However, 2' is not the nth term, as u1 =2°, u2 =2 1, u3 =22, ...
This shows that nth term, u,. is given by u" =2" - 1

•
u" = 2" - 1 can now b e used to find any term of the sequence, for example, the
ninth term, u9, is given by u9=29 - 1
=256.
• Sequences and Series

Therefore the rule U11 = 211 - 1for n = 1, 2, 3, . .. enables the whole sequence
to be generated and so it defines the sequence completely.
When a sequence is defined by U 11 = f(n), any term ofthe sequence
can be found.
1here is another way to define a sequence.
Look at the sequence 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, ...
The obvious way to describe this sequence is 'starting with 2, add 2 to
each term to get the next term; or, using notation, u 1= 2, U 11 • 1= U 11 + 2.
This is also a definition of the sequence because it can be generated as follows.
u1= 2, u2 = u1+ 2 = 4, u3 = u2 + 2 = 6, and so on.
Any sequence can be generated when one term is known together with a
relationship of the form U11 • 1= f(u,.).
The relationship between U11 and U 11 +1is called a recurrence relation.
Example 1
I
Write down the first four terms of the sequence defined by
n u
a u = -- b u =2 u =--~~-
11 n+1 1 ' 11 + 1 u +1
II
n 1 1
a u = - - => u 1 = - - = -
11 n+1 1+1 2
2 2
u = --=-
2 2+1 3
3 3
u =--=-
3 3+1 4
4 4
u =--=-
4 4+1 5
u
b u1=2,andu 1= -11-
ll + u +1 II
u 2 2
=> u =--1- = - - =-
2 u1 +2 2+1 3
2
u =
3 2
3 =~5
- +1
3
2
u
5 2
=--=-
4 2 7
- +1
5
The behaviour of un as n --7 oo
1 2 3 4
Lookatthesequence -,-, - ,-, .. .
2 3 4 5
All the terms are less than 1, and the values of the terms are increasing
as n increases. As the sequence progresses, the value of the terms is getting
closer to 1. Expressing this in symbols gives
U 11 ~1asn~= or limu
11-tOO II
=1
and the sequence is called convergent.
Sequences and Series •
We can illustrate this on a graph by plotting values of U11 against values of n. u,I
•
Any sequence whose terms approach one finite value, L, converges to L.
0.8 • • •
A sequence that is not convergent is called divergent. •
0.6
When a sequence is defined by a recurrence relation, u,.. =f(u,.), then if the 0.4
•
1
sequence converges to L, 0.2
both u,. and U11+1 approach Las n__, oo. Therefore replacing U +
1
and U by Lin 0
11 11
2 4 6 8 10 12 ll
U11• 1 = f(u,.) gives the equation L = f(L).
The solutions of the equation L = f(L), if they exist, do not always give a
reasonable value for lim u 1. They need to be looked at together with the first few
n-+oo '
terms of the sequence.
For example, when u1 = 3 and U11 • 1 = 2U11, the first few terms of the sequence are
3, 6, 12, 24, ... so the sequence clearly does not converge. However the equation
L = 2L gives L = 0 which is not a reasonable answer.
Exercise 1
0 Write down the first six terms of each sequence and state whether it is
convergent or divergent.
1
a u =-
n''
b uII = (-1) 11 211 c llII =(-1)"
II 2"
0 Write down the first six terms of the sequence given by the recurrence
relation. Give answers correct to 2 decimal places where necessary.
1+u
a u =- - '-' j u =3
11 + 1 1+2u 1
II
b u11+1 =2- (uJJ ) 2 - uII ; u1 =- 4
1
d uII = -(5
5 - {u11 - 1 } )· u1 = 1
2
I
2
0 A sequence is generated by the recurrence relation u - .
2-u
II
II + 1
=-
Describe whether the terms converge or diverge as n increases when
0 Rep eat Question 3 for the sequence defined by U 11 + 1 = ±(2-u") when
a u1= 1 b u 1 =-1 c u 1 =2
Find the value to which the terms of the sequence converge for those
sequences that do converge.

8.2 Series
A series is formed when the terms of a sequence are added.
For example 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + ... is a series.
When the series stops after a finite number of terms it is called a finite series.
For example 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + 32 + 64 is a finite series of seven terms.
If the series continues indefinitely it is called an infinite series.
1 1 1 1 1 1 . . fi . .
For example 1+-+-+-+-+- + .. +--+· ·· IS an m mte senes.
2 4 8 16 32 1024
Look again at the series l + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + 32 + 64.
Each term is a power of2 so this series can be written as
20 + 21 + 22+ 23+ 24 + 25+ 25
All the terms of this series are of the form 2' with r =0 giving the first term , so
2"- 1is the nth term.
Therefore the series can be defined as the sum of terms of the form 2"- 1, where
n takes all integral values in order from 1 to 7 inclusive.
Using I as a symbol for 'the sum ofterms such as' the series can be defined
simply as I211 • 1, n taking all integer values from 1 to 7 inclusive, or, even more
7
simply as ~)~~ - ~.
Placing the lowest and highest value that n takes below and above
I respectively, shows that n takes all integer values between and including
these extreme values.
10
So L,,n 3
means 'the sum of all terms of the form n3, where n takes all integer values
r~ = l 10
from 1 to 10 inclusive; that is In = 13+2 + 3 + 4 +5 +6 + 7 +8 +9 + 10
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
•
11 = 1
Them . fu'ute sen.es 1+ -1 + -1 +-+-+--·

1 1 can a1so be wntten
. .m th. e sigma Note
2 4 8 16
notation. The continuing dots after the last written term show that the series is
When a finite series is
infu1ite, that is there is no last term.
Each term of this series is a power of!. The first term is 1 or (.!.. J
so the nth
written out, it should always
end with the last term even
termcanbewritten(~J- .
1 2 2
if intermediate terms are
omitted, for example
There is no last term of this series, so there is no upper limit for the value of n.
00
3 + 6 + 9 ... +99.
111 l
Therefore 1+- + - + - +-+ ... can bewntten as
2 4 8 16
.
11 • 1
L-
(1)1! - l
2
Writing a series in sigma notation, apart from the obvious advantage of being Note
brief, means that a particular term of a series can be written without having to
write down all the earlier terms.
When a given series is
10 rewritten in sigma notation,
For, example, in the series L(2n +5), check that the first few
IJ = l
values of n gives the correct
the first term is the value of 2n + 5 when n =1, this is 2 x 1 + 5 =7,
first few terms of the series.
the last term is the value of2n + 5 when n = 10, this is 25,
the fourth term is the value of 2n + 5 when n =4, this is 13.
Sequences and Series IJ

Example 2
I- Write the following series in the sigma notation,

a - 2+4- 8 + 16 + ... - 128 b
a - 2 +4- 8+ 16+ ... -128 = -2 + (2)2 - (2)3 +(2) 4 -

1- x +XZ - i'+ ...
... -
So the nth term is ±2", and is positive wh en n is even and n egative

(2) 7
when n is odd.
Because (- 1)" is positive when n is even and n egative when n is odd,
the nth term can be written (- 1)" 2".
7
Hence- 2+ 4 -8 + 16 + .. . - 128 = ~)- 1)"2".

11 ; 1
b 1 -x+ r - i' + ... = xfl - x+r -xl+ ...

The nth term ofthis series is ±x"- 1• The nth term is positive when n is odd
and n egative wh en n is even.
(- 1)"- 1 is positive when n is odd and n egative when n is even.
Therefore nth term is (- l)"-1x"-1•
00
Hence 1-x+ r -.xl + ... = I,C-1)"- 1 x"- 1•

11= 1
Exercise 2
0 Write the following series in the sigma notation:
a 1 + 8 + 27 + 64 + 125 b 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + ... + 20
1111 1 111
c -+-+ - + - + .. . + - d 1+-+ - + - + .. .
2 3 4 5 50 3 9 27
1
e - 4 -1 + 2+5 ... + 17 f
8+4+2+1 +-+ .. .
2
0 Write down the first three terms and, where there is one, the last term of
each of the following series:
a f]_
11 = ! n
b
s
L,n(n - 1)
n=l
c L20
n+2 d
00
~ (n21+1)
, .
1
(n +l)(2n +l)
8 00
e L,n(n+l) (n+2) f I,a" (- 1)"+1
e
ns l /1 = 1
For the following series, write down the term indicated, and the number of
terms in the series.
9 8
a L 2", 3rd term b I,C2n + 3), 5th term
fl • l
~(~)".nth term
1
L (n +l)(n+2) ,20th term
00
c d
Ji m !
1 1 1 1
e 8+4+0 - 4 - 8- 12 ... - 80, f - +-+-+- + ... +32 7thterm
16 8 4 2 I
15th term

8.3 Arithmetic series
Look at the series 5 + 8 + 11 + 14 + 17 + ... + 29.
Each term of this series is 3 greater than the previous term, so the series can be
written as
5 + (5 + 3) + (5 + 2 X 3) + (5 + 3 X 3) + (5 + 4 X 3) + ... + (5 + 8 X 3)
This series is an example of an a rithmetic ser ies which is a ser ies where any
term differs from the term b efore it by the same constant. This constant is called
the co m m o n differen ce.
The common difference can be positive or negative. For example, the first six
terms of an arithmetic series whose first term is 8 and whose common
differen ce is -3, are 8, 5, 2, - 1, - 4, -7.
In general, if an arithmetic series has a first term a, and a common d ifference d,
the first four terms are
a, (a+ d), (a + 2d), (a+ 3d), and the nth term, u", is a+ (n -1)d.
So
an arithmetic series with n terms can be written as
a+ (a+d) + (a+2d) + ... + [a+(n-l)d]
Example 3
The eighth term of an arithm etic series is 11 and th e 15th term is 21.
Find
a the common difference
b the first term of the series
c the nth term.
a If the firs t term of the series is a and the common d ifference is d, then the
eighth term is a+ 7d,
Therefore a +7d = 11 [1)
The 15th term is a + 14d, => a + 14d =21 [2)
[2)- [1] gives 7d =10 => d = 10

7
1he common d ·ccIuerences .IS -10 .
7
b From [2], a = 1, so the first term is 1.
10
c Hence the nth term is a+ (n - 1)d = 1+(n - 1) = ..!:_(lOn -3) .
7 7
Example 4
I- The nth term of a n arithmetic series is 12- 4n. Find the first term and the
common differe n ce.
I
The nth term is 12 - 4n so the first term ( n = 1) is 8 and the second term
(n = 2) is 4.
Therefore the common difference is -4.

The sum of an arithmetic series
The sum of the first ten even numbers is an arithmetic series.
Writing it first in normal, then in reverse order gives
s= 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + ... + 18 + 20
. . _.;_
s _=_20.;_+_
1.8:..._
+ ...::.
1...::.6_+_1_4_+_.._._+_4_+_2_
Add mg g1ves
2S = 22 + 22 + 22 + 22 + ... + 22 + 22
There are ten terms in this series, therefore
2S= 10 X 22 => S= 110
Using this method with a general arithmetic series gives formulae for the sum,
which may be quoted and used.
If S11 is the sum of the first n terms of an arithmetic series with last term I,
then S11 =a+ (a+d) +(a+ 2d)+ ... + (I -d) +I
reversing S11 =I+ (I- d)+ (I- 2d) + ... + (a+ d)+ a
adding 2S11 = (a+ l) +(a+ l) +(a+ l) + ... +(a+ l) +(a+ l)
There are n terms so 2S11 =n( a+ l)
1
::> S n =-
2
n(a+l)
. 1
Because the nth term, I, IS equal to a+(n-1)d, then S =-n[a+a + (n-1)d].
II 2
1
Therefore S =- n[2a+ (n - 1)d ].
II 2
Either of these formulae can be used to find the sum of the first n terms of an
arithmetic series.
The sum of the first n natural numbers

1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n is an arithmetic series with a= 1 and d = 1 so
n 1
·~> = 2 tl(n + 1) This result can be quoted.
r• l
Example 5
Find the sum of the following series
a an arithmetic series of eleven terms whose first term is 1 and whose last
term is 6
a The first and last terms and the number of terms are given so use
1 11 77
S =-n(a+I) => S = - (1+6) = -
11 2 II 2 2
b ±(2- 2')=!+~+0-~-
~ 3 3 3 3
.. . - 10
3
. an an'th metic
. IS . senes 4 d
. w1'th8 terms wh ere a=-, 2
Th IS = - -.
3 3
Using S11 =~n(2a+(n-1)d) gives S = 4[ ~+7( -~) ] =-8.

8
Example 6
I
The swn of the first ten terms of an arithmetic series is 50. The 5th term is three
times the 2nd term.
Find the first term and the sum of the first 20 terms.
Using S=.!.. n[2a +(n - 1)d] gives S10 =so = s(za + 9d) [1]
2
Using u, =a + (n - I)d gives u5 =a + 4d and u 2= a+ d
Therefore a+ 4d = 3(a + d) [2]
1
Solving [1] and [2] simultaneously gives d = 1 and a= - .
2
So the first term is.!_ and the sum of the first 20 terms is S20 where
2
S20 = 1o(1 + 19 x 1) =zoo.
Example 7
I The swn of the first n terms of a series is given by S, = n (n + 3).

Find the fourth term of the series and show that the terms are in arithmetic
sequence.
The terms of the series a re a 1 a2 , a 3, oo ., a, so S, = a 1 + a 2 + oo • + a,= n (n + 3).

Therefore S4 = a1 +a2 + a3 + a 4 = 4 X 7 = 28 (l]
and S3 =a1 + a 2 + a 3 = 3x6=18 [2]
[l] - [2] gives a4 = 10.
S, = a1 + a2 +oo. +a,_ 1+ a,= n(n +3) [l]
and s, _l=al+ a 2+oo. +a, _l= (n- 1)(n+ 2) [2]
[1]- [2] gives a, = n (n + 3) - (n - I)(n + 2) = 2n + 2
Replacing n by n - 1 gives the ( n - l)th term
so a, _1 = 2(n - I) + 2 = 2n
Then a - a
II II - 1
= (2n + 2) - 2n = 2
Therefore there is a common difference of 2 between successive terms, showing
that the series is an arithmetic series.
Exercise 3
0 Write d own the fifth term and the nth term of the following arithmetic
series.
II II
a I,c2n - 1) b 'L,4(n - 1)
ll• l 11 = 1
d first term 5, common difference 3

e first term 6, common difference - 2
f first term p, common difference q
g first term 10, last term 30, 11 terms
1
h 1,5, 000 2, 1-, 000 -4,-1, 00 0
2

0 Find the sum of the first ten terms of each arithmetic series given in
Question 1.
0 The 9th term of an arithmetic series is 8 and the 4th term is 20. Find the first
term and the common difference.
0 The 6th term of an arithmetic series is twice the 3rd term and the first term
is 3. Find the common difference and the lOth term.
0 The nth term of an arithmetic series is~( 3- n ). Write down the first three
2
terms and the 20th term.
G Find the sum, to the number of terms indicated, of each of the following
arithmetic series.
1
a 1+2-+ ...,6terms b 3+5+ ... ,8terms
2
c the first twenty d a 1 + a 2 + a3 + ... + a8 where
odd integers a,.=2n+ 1
311
e 4+6+8 + ...+20 f _Lp-4n)

g Sn = n 2 -3n,8terms h Sn = 2n(n+ 3),mterms
0 The sum of the first n terms of an arithmetic series isS, where S,. = n2 - 3n.
Write down the fourth term and the nth term.
0 The sum of the first n terms of a series is give n by S, where S, = n(3n- 4).
Show that the series is an arithmetic series.
C) In an arithmetic series, the 8th term is twice the 4th term and the 20th
term is 40.
Find the common difference and the sum of the terms from the 8th to the
20th inclusive.
G How many terms of the arithmetic series, 1 + 3 + 5 + ... are needed to make
a sum of 1521?
G Find the least number of terms of the arithmetic series, 1 + 3 + 5 + ..., that
are needed to make a sum greater than 4000.
t!\ The sum of the first n terms of a series is S where S = 2n2 - n.
"' II II
a Prove that the series is an arithmetic series, stating the first term and the
common difference.
b Find the sum of the terms from the 3rd term to the 12th term inclusive.
G) In an arithmetic series the 6th term is half the 4th term and the 3rd term is 15.
a Find the first term and the common diffe rence.
b How m any terms are needed to give a sum that is less than 65?
8.4 Geometric series

Consider the sequence 12, 6, 3, 1.5, 0.75, 0.375, ...
Each term of this sequence is half the term before it so the sequence can be
written
12, 12(~).12(~J. 12(~J. 12(~f 12 (~J. ..

Sequences and Series
A sequence like this is called a geometric series which is a series where each
term is the same constant multiple of the term before it. This constant
multiplying factor is called the common ratio, and it can have any value.
Therefore, if a geometric series has a first term of 3 and a common ratio of -2,
the first four terms are
3, 3(-2), 3(-2)2, 3(-2)3 => 3, -6, 12,-24
In general if a geometric series has a first term a, and a common ratio r, the first
four terms are a, ar, ail, afl and the nth term, u,, is ar''- 1•
Therefore, a geometric series with n terms can be written a+ ar +ail+
... +ar''- 1 + ...
The sum of a geometric series

Look at the sum of the first eight terms, Sa, of the geometric series with first term
1 and common ratio 3,
so sa= 1 + 1(3) + 1(3)2 + 1(3)3 + ... + 1(3)7
Hence Sa- 3Sa = 1 + 0 + 0 + o+ ... + 0- 3a.

1-3a 3a - 1
Therefore sa(1 - 3) = 1- 3a => s8 = - - = - -.
1-3 2
Now look at the sum, S,, of the first n terms of a geometric series with first term
a and common ration r,
so S =a +ar + ... +ar" - 2 +ar" - 1
II
[1]
Multiplying by r gives rS" = ar+ar+ ... +ar" - +m" 1
[2]
[1 ]- [2] => S - rS = a- ar''
11 II
=> S, (1 - r) =a(1 - r'')

=> S =a(1-r 11
)
11
1- r
a(r11 - 1)
When r > 1 the formula can be written .
r- 1
Example 8
The 5th term of a geometric series is 8, the third term is 4, and the sum of the
first 10 terms is positive. Find the first term, the common ratio, and the sum of
the first 10 terms.
For a first term a and common ratio r, the nth term is ar'' - 1•
Therefore when n =5, arA = 8 [1 ]
and when n = 3, ail = 4 [2]
[1] + [2] => r2 = 2
Therefore r = ± ../2 and a =2.
a(r11 - 1)
Using S = gives,
II /' - 1
when r=../2,S10 =
2 ((.J2f
../2
-1) =-r:;--
62
2-1 v2-1 (continued)

(continued)
2((-.J2)1°- l) -62
I
when r=-.J2,S10 = .J2 =~
- 2-1 v2+1
62
ButS10 > 0, so r =.J2 andS10 =~= 62(.J2+1)
v2 -1
Example 9
~.
I
The first term of a geometric series is 3 and the common ratio is
a Write down the sixth term of the series.
b Find the sum of the first 5 terms.
a a= 3 and r=.!. so using nth term= ar 11 - 1

,
2 5
the sixth term is 3(.!.) = ~

2 32
. a(l-r") 3(1-(tr) 30D 93

b UsmgS ,S5 = --=-
11 1-r 1-t t 16
Exercise 4
0 Write down the 5th term and the nth term of the following geometric series.
1
a 2, 4, 8, .. . b 2, 1, -, .. .
2 8 . 1
c 3, - 6, 12, .. . d fi rst term , common ratio --
2
e first term 3, last term_!__, 6 terms
e 81
Find the sum, to the number of terms given, of the following geometric
series.
a 3 + 6 + ... , 6 terms b 3 - 6 + ... , 8 terms
1 1 . 1
c 1+-+- + ... ,20 terms d first term 5, common ratio -,
2 4 5
5 terms
1 . 1
e fi rst term - , common ratio-- , lO terms
2 2
f first term 1, common ratio -1, 2001 terms.
E) The 6th term of a geometric series is 16 and the 3rd term is 2. Find the first
term and the common ratio.
0 Find the common ratio, given that it is negative, of a geometric series when
a = Sanda= - .
1
8 ~e nth ter~ ola geometric series is ( -~

the lOth term.
10
r
Write down the first term and
0 Evaluate L(1.05) 11
11• 1
0 Find the sum of the first n terms of the following series.
1
a x+x2+ r +... b x+ l+-+ ...
X
x 2 x3 x 4
c 1 - y+f - ... d x+ - +-+ - + ...
2 4 8
e l - 2x + 4x2- 8r+ ...
0 Sequences and Series

0 The sum of the first 3 terms of a geometric series is 14. The first term is 2.
Find the possible values of the sum of the first 5 terms.
~3 (3)
10 11
Q Evaluate 4 .
Convergence of series
When a piece of string, of length l, is cut up by first cutting it in half and keeping
one piece, then cutting the remainder in half and keeping one piece, and so on,
the sum of the lengths that are kept is
l l l l
-+-+-+-+ ...
2 4 8 16
This process can (in theory) be carried on indefinitely so the series formed
above is infinite.
After several cuts have been made the part of the string that is left will be very
small indeed, so the sum of the cut lengths will be very nearly equal to the total
length, l, of the original piece of string. The more cuts that are made the closer
to l this sum becomes.
Therefore, if after n cuts, the sum of the cut lengths is !_+_!_+_!__+ ... +_!__
2 22 23 2 11
l l l lim[!_+_!_+ ... +_!__] =l
then, asn~ oo, -+-+ ... +- ~l or 11-->~ 2
2 2 11 2
2
2 2
11
2
lis called the sum to infinity of this series.
When S is the sum of the first n terms of any series and if lim[s exists and is
11 -~ 11
J
finite then the series is convergent. ·
The sum to infinity of a convergent series, S.o' is given by s.. = !L~!![ S11 J.
. -l +-
The senes l +-
l + ... 10r
c examp1e, IS
. convergent as Its
. sum to 'fu'
m uty 'IS[.
2
2 2 23
However, for the series 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n, S = .!..n(n+ 1).
11 2
As n ~ oo, S11 ~ oo so this series does not converge, it is divergent.
For all arithmetic series S11 = ~n[2a+(n-1)d], and this always approaches
infinity as n ~ oo.
Therefore all arithmetic series are divergent.
The sum to infinity of geometric series

a(1-r 11 )
For any geometric series, a+ ar + ar + ... , S = --=----=-
11 1-r
when lrl < 1, limr 11 =0.
n-+oo
Clr l means the positive value of rwhether ris positive or negative, so lrl<1 is a
shorter way of writing - 1 < r < 1 .)
So lim S = lim[ a(1-

,......~ " ,......~ 1-r
r")] = __!!__
1-r
When Ir I~ 1, lim = oo so the series does not converge.
n -+oo
Sequences and Series CJ

Therefore, provided that lrl < 1, a geometric series converges to a sum of_!!.._
1-r
.
S_is called the sum to infinity where for a geometric series
a
s_= - provided that lrl <I.
1- r
Example 10
I Find out whether each series converges. If it does, give its sum to infinity.
a 3+5+7+...
1 1 1
b 1- -+---+...
4 16 64
a 3 + 5 + 7 + ... is an arithmetic series (d = 2) and so does not converge.

c
9 27
3+-+-+ ...
2 4
b 1-~+ 1~ - 614 + ... = 1+(-~)+( -~J +(- ±J + ...

which is a geometric series where r= _2_, so
4
lrl < 1.
4
Therefore thisseries converges and S _ = --"-- = ( )
1- r __ .!_ 5
1
4
c 3+~+ 2: + ... =3+3(~)+3( ~)+ ... =3+3( ~)+3(~J + ...

This series is a geometric series where r= ~ and, because lrl > 1, the series
does not converge.
Example 11
that~
I- l
1
Find the condition satisfied by x so (x- )" converges. Find s_when
-
x-1.5. ~ 2"
n=l
2
(x- 1)" = x-1 +(x-1 ) + ...
n=l 2" 2 2
x-1
This series is a geometric series with common ratio - - and so converges if
2
-x-11
- < 1, that is if-1 < -x -1
- <1
l 2 2
=> -1 <X< 3.
When x =1.5, the series converges
2 3
- (x- 1)"
and I-2-,.- =
n=l
Loo (
n =-l
1 )" 1 ( 1 ) ( 1 )
4 =4 + 4 + 4 +· · ·
1
.
usmg 1 and a=-
S = -a- w1.th r =- 1 g1ves
. S = -4- =-
1
- 1- r 4 4 - 1_.!_ 3.
4
Example 12
The 3rd term of a convergent geometric series is half the sum of the 1st and
I
-
2nd terms.
a Find the common ratio.
b The first term is 1. Find the sum to infinity.
a Usinga+ar+afl+a,.-J+ ...
1
then ar 2 =-(a+ar)
2
a :t 0, so 2fl- r-1 = 0 =::} (2r+ l)(r-1) = 0
1
so r=-- or r=1
2
The series is convergent so the common ratio is-~.
2
1 1 2
b When r=--anda=1, S =--=-.
2 ~ 1 3
1+-
2
Exercise 5
0 Decide if each of the series given below converges.
4 4
a 4+-+-+ .. . b 9+7+5+3+ ...
3 32
5 5 5
c 20-10 + 5-2.5 + ... d - + - + - - + ...
10 100 1000
1 1
e p+2p+3p+ ... f 3-1+---+ ...
3 9
0 Find the range of value of x for which the following series converge.
1 1
a 1+x+x2+il+... b x+1+-+-+ ...
x x2
c 1 +2x+4x2 +8il+ ... d 1-(1-x)+(1-x)2 -(1-x)3 + ...
1 1
e (a+x)+(a+x)2+(a+x) 3 + ... f (a+x)+l+--+ + ...
a+x (a+x)2
0 Find the sum to infinity ofthose series in Question 1 that are convergent.
0 The sum to infinity of a geometric series is twice the first term. Find the
common ratio.
C) The sum to infinity of a geometric series is 16 and the sum of the first
4 terms is 15. Find the first four terms.
() a, b and care the first three terms of a geometric series. Prove that J(i +
.Jb + JC is another geometric series.
8.5 The Binomial theorem

(1 + x) 20 could be expanded using Pascal's triangle but it takes time to get down
to row20.
We sometimes need to expand expressions such as (a+ b)4 but the

multiplication is tedious when the power is three or more.

We now describe a far quicker way of obtaining such expansions.
Consider the following expansions,
(a+b) 1 =a+b
(a+ b)2 = a2 + 2ab+ b2
(a+ b)3 = a 3 + 3a2 b+ 3ab2 + b3
(a+ b)4 = a 4 + 4a3b + 6a2b2 + 4ab3 + b4
The first thing to notice is that the powers of a and bin the terms of each
expansion form a pattern. Looking at the expansion of (a+ b)4 we see that 1 2
the first term is a4 and then the power of a decreases by 1 in each "'- 3 / 3
succeeding term while the power of b increases by 1. For all the terms, the 4 "6/ 4
sum of the powers of a and b is 4 and the expansion ends with b4• There is
Diagram 1
a similar pattern in the other expansions.
Now consider just the coefficients of the terms. Writing these as a
triangular array gives diagram 1.
This array is called Pascal's Triangle and it has a pattern. Each row 2
starts and ends with 1 and each other number is the sum of the two 3 3
numbers in the row above it, as shown. When the pattern is known, 4 6 4
Pascal's triangle can be written down to as many rows as needed. 5 10 10 5
Using Pascal's triangle to expand 6 15 20 15 6
(a+ b)6, for example, we go as far as row 6, shown in diagram 2. Diagram 2
We then use our knowledge of the pattern of the powers, together
with row 6 of the array, to fill in the coefficients,
so (a+ b) 6 = a 6 + 6a5 b + 15 a 4b2 + 20a3 bl + 15a2b4 + 6ab 5 + b6
The following worked examples show how expansions of other brackets can be
found.
Example 13
I Expand (x + 5)3.
From Pascal's triangle (a+ b) 3 = a 3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 +bl
I Replacing a by x and b by 5 gives (x+ 5) 3 = xl + 3x2(5) + 3x(5) 2 + (5) 3
Example 14
= xl + 15x2+ 75x + 125
I Expand(2x-3)'.
From Pascal's triangle, (a + b)4 = a 4 + 4a3b+ 6a2b2 +4abl+ b4
I
•
Replacing a by 2x and b by -3 gives
(2x- 3)4 = (2x)4 + 4(2x)3 ( -3) + 6(2x)2 ( - 3)2 + 4(2x) (-3) 3 + (-3) 4
= 16x4- 96r + 216xl- 216x + 81

A general method uses the binomial theorem which states that, if n is a positive
integer,
n(n-1) n(n-1)(n -2) n(n-1)(n -2)(n -3)
(1+x)"= 1+nx+ x2 + x3 + x 4 + ... +nx"- 1 +x".
(2)(1) (3)(2)(1) (4)(3)(2)(1)
The right-hand side of this expression is called the exp ansion of(1 + x)".
The coefficients of the powers of x are called binomial coefficients.
The denominators of these coefficients involve the products of all the positive
integers from the power of x in that term down to 1 and we can write these in a
shorter form using factorial notation.
The product (4)(3)(2)(1) is called '4 factorial' and is written 4!
and 8! means the product of all the positive integers from 8 down to 1.
When r Is a positive integer,

rl means the product of all the positive integers from r down to 1. Note
A term somewhere in the middle of the series, involving x' where r is an integer
n(n - 1)(n-1)(n-r - 1)
between 1 and nand the pattern of the binomial coefficients, shows that the
r!
coefficient of x' is n(n- 1)(n-Z) ...(n-r+ 1) and this is denoted by ( n )· simplifies to n!
rr r r!(n -r)!
So ·
n
( r
)=n(n - I)(n - 2)...(n - r + I)
rl
To summarise, the binomial theorem states that, if n is a positive integer,

n(n - 1) 2 n(n-l)(n - 2) 3
(l +x)" = l + nx+ x + x
21 3!
n(n - I)(n - 2)(n - 3) 4
+ X + ... + nx"-1 + x".
4!
This shows that

0 the expansion of (1 + x)" is a finite series with n + l terms
e the coefficient of X', n(n - 1)(n -Z) ...(n-r+ l) I has r factors in the numerator
r!
0 the term containing x2 is the third term, the term containing x3 is the fourth
term, and so on.
Look at (a+ b)", where n is a positive integer.
(a+b)" =(a(l+~))n = a"(l+~)"

Replacing x by!!.. in the binomial series gives
a

=a" +( 7)a"- b+( ~ )a"- b + ... +(; }
1 2 2
',_,b, + ... + (: } "
n(n - 1) 2 2
=a" +na'o-tb+ a"- b + ...+b"
2!
For example
(a+bt =as+6asb+ (6)(5) a4b2+ (6)(5)( 4) a 3b3+ (6)(5)( 4)(3) a2b4+ (6)(5)( 4)(3)(2) abs+ bs
2! 3! 4! 5!
= a 6 + 6a 5 b+15a 4 b 2 +20a 3b 3+ 15a b 4 +6ab 5 +b 6
2
Example 15
I-
Write down the first three terms in the expansion in ascending powers of x of
a (1 + x)8
1
b (3 - 2x) 8
a Using (1 + x)" = 1 + nx+ n(n- ) X: + ... and replacing n by 8 gives

2!
8 8 1
(1 +x)8=1+8x+ ( - ) x2+ ...
2!
= 1 + 8x + 28X: + ...
b (3-2x) 8 =3 8 (1-~x J.
Replacing x by -~ x and n by 8 in the expansion of (1 + x)" gives
3
(3-2x)B= 38(1+8( -~X )+(S; 7 )( -~X J + ... )
Therefore the first three terms of this series are 38- (16)(37)x+ (112)(36)r.
Example 16
I-
Find the 4th term in the expansion of (a - 2b)20 as a series in ascending powers
of b.
2b) 20
(a~2b) 20 = a20 (1--;-

The 4th term in the expansion of (1 + x)" is ( ~)
xJ. Replace x by - :
2
and n by20.
2 2
The 4th term is a20 ( ; )(- : J 2
( 0)(~~)( )
18
(a) 17 (8)(b)3 = -91 20a 17 ~.
~~ Sequences and Series

I
Example 17
Write down the first three terms in the binomial expansion of (1- 2x l(1+~ X r
The third term in the binomial expansion contains i'-, so start by expanding
10 •
1+~x ) as far as the term m i'-.
r
(
(l+~x =l+(lo{~x )+ (lO;~g)(~x J + ...
- 45 2
-l+5x+-x +...
4
10
Therefore (l-2x) ( l + l x ) = (l -2x) ( 1+5x+ 45 x 2 + ... ) Note

2 4
45
- 45x2 +... -2x-10x 2 + ... The product of -2x and x2
-l+5x+-
4
4
is not written down as terms
--l+3x+-
5 x 2 +... in x 3 are not required.
4
Exercise 6
0 Write down the first four terms in the binomial expansion of
a (1 + 3x)1 2 b (1- 2x) 9
c (2+x) 10 d (~-~r
e (2-~xY f (~ + 2x J
0 Write down the term given in the binomial expansion of each of the
following functions.
a (1 - 4x)7, 3rd term b ( 1-~ Jo, 2nd term

c (2- x) 15, 12th term d (p - 2q) 10, 5th term
e (3a + 2b) 8, 2nd term f (1 - 2x) 12, the term in .x4
g (2+~J, thetermin XS h (a+b) 8,thetermina3
0 Write down the binomial expansion of each function as a series of

ascending powers of x as far as, and including, the termini'-.
a (1 +x)(1-x)9 b (1-x)(l + 2x) 10
c (2+x)(1-~r d (1+x)2(l -5x) 14

0 a Expand (x + y) 5 as a series of ascending powers of y.
b By replacing x by 2 andy by 0.01, show that
(2.01)5 =a + b(0.01) + c(0.01)2 + d(0.01)3 + e(O.Ol) 4 +/(0.01)5
giving the values of the constants.
c Hence calculate the exact value of (2.01) 5•
Sequences and Series 0

Summary
A sequence is a set of numbers in order, for example 1, 3, 5, 7, ...
A sequence can be generated when the nth term is given as a function of n, that
is when uII = f(n) or when a term is known and a relationship between
successive terms is given.
A sequence whose nth term approaches a finite value as n approaches infinity is
convergent.
A series is the sum of the terms in a sequence, for example 1 + 3 + 5 +7 + ...
In an arithmetic series any term differs from the term before it by the same
constant. This constant is called the common difference.
An a rithmetic series with n terms can be written as
a+ (a+d) +(a+ 2d) + ... +[a+ (n - 1)d].
The sum of the first n terms of an arithmetic series is either
S =..!.n(a+l) or S =..!.n[2a+(n-1)d].
II 2 II 2
The sum of the first n n atural numbers is ..!.n(n + 1).
2
A geometric series is a series where each term is the same constant multiple of
the term before it. This constant multiplying factor is called the common ratio.
1
The sum of the first n terms of a geometric series is S, = a( - r" ) where a is the
. th . 1-r
fir st term an d r IS e common ratio.
The sum to infinity of a geometric series is S = ~ provided that lrl < 1.
~ 1- r
The binomial theorem states that, if n is a positive integer,
(l+ x )" = 1+nx+ n(n -1) x2 + n(n-1)(n-2) x 3 + n(n - 1)(n - 2)(n - 3) x 4 + ... +nx"_1 + x"
2! 3! 4!
=1+( 7) x+ ( ~ )x+( ~ }
2 3
+ ... +(; ) x' +... +x"
Review
In Questions 1 to 3, write down the first six terms of each sequence and describe
the behaviour of the terms as the sequence series.
0 u, = ,.2~1
0 ur+l=(ul - u,
a when u1 = 1 b when u 1 = 0.5
e 1
u,+l = 1-u when
r
a u1 =2 b u1 = 1
In Questions 4 to 8, find the sum of each series.
0 1-.!.+..!._.!.+ ...
2 4 8
0 2- (2)(3) + (2)(3)2 - (2)(3)3+ ... + (2)(3)10

r =2
11
0 I,4r
r=S
M 1
O I,-
2'
r= 1
( ) u 1 = u2 and u,+1 =~(2u~ -5). Find the possible values of u 1•

G The sum of the first n terms of a series is n 3
• Write down the first four terms
and the nth term of the series.
G) The fourth term of an arithmetic series is 8 and the sum of the first 10 terms
is 40. Find the first term and the lOth term.
e Find the value ofx for which the numbers X+ 1, x+ 3, X+ 7, are in geometric
series.
G) The second term of a geometric series is ..!.2 and the sum to infinity of the
series is 4. Find the first term and the common ratio of the series.
~ Find the first three terms and the last term in the expansion of (1 + 2x)9 as a
series of ascending powers of x.
e Find the first four terms in the expansion of (2- 3x) 9 •
Assessment
0 a Expand (1 + 3x) 5 as a series of ascending powers of x.
b Hence write down the expansion of (1- 3x) 5•
c Hence show that (1 + 3 J3 ) + (1- 3 J3 ) = 7832.
5 5
e The second term of a geometric series is 6 and the sixth term of the
series is 96.
a Find the common ratio of the series.
b Find the first term of the series.
30
c The nth term of the series is u . Show that "u
11 ~~~
= 3{2 30 -1) .
e n:==l
The first term of an arithmetic series is 6. and the common difference is 1.
a The nth term of the series is u 11 . Show that ~

~
u n
= An 2 + Bn giving the
values of A and B. 11=1
II
b Find the value of n for which "u

~II
=n.
11= 1
0 A sequence of numbers is defined by u1 =4 and un+1 =10-2u11 .
a Write down the first four terms of the sequence.

4 6
b Show that"
~, u -£..J
" u11 =u1•
n= l n- 1

E) a Show that the first four terms in the expansion of (1 - 2x)" are
a+ bx + cx2 +dx 3 giving the values of a, b, c and d in terms of n.
b Use your answer to part a with the substitution x= 0.01 and a suitable
value of n to find an approximate value for 0.986•
G The nth term of a sequence is u,.. The sequence is defined by u,.+ 1 =pu,. + q
where p and q are constants.
The first two terms of the sequence are given by u 1 =60 and u2 =48.
The limit of u,. as n tends to infinity is 12.
a Show that p = ~ and find the value of q.
4
b Find the value of U 3•
AQA MPC2 June 2011
0 a i Using the binomial expansion, or otherwise, express (2 + y)3 in the
form a+ by+ cf + y, where a, band care integers.
ii Hence show that (2 + r 2 3
) + (2- r 2 3
can be expressed in the
)
form p + qx\ where p and q are integers.

b Hence find j[(2+ x-2 ) 3 + (2-x-2 )3]dx
ii Hence find the value of f[(2+ x-2 ) 3 +(2- x-zp] d.x

AQA MPC2 June 2013

A point P can be anywhere in the xy plane. When the positions of P are By the end of this chapter,
kept to a line (curved or straight), the relationship between x andy which you should know how to ...
applies only to this line is called the equation of the line. ~ Find the equation of
This chapter looks at a variety of methods for dealing with coordinate a circle.
geometry problems involving the equations of circles. ~ Find the effect of a
translation on the
equation of a circle.
Use the properties of
Recap tangents to circles to
· You need to remember how to... solve problems.
~ Find the midpoint and the distance between two points in the xyplane.
~ Solve a quadratic equation.
~ Solve a pair of simultaneous equations when one equation is
quadratic.
~ Understand the meaning of a translation including when it is defined
using vector notation.
~ Find the equation of a straight line given a point on the line and its
gradient.
~ Remember the meaning of a normal to a curve.
• •• •• •••• • ••• ••• •• ••••• ••• ••••••••• •••

9.1 The equation of a circle
/
/ ''
When a point Pis always at the same distance r from a fixed point C, I
I
I
I
the path that P follows is a circle whose centre is C and whose radius is r. I
I
I
A point P(x, y) is at a constant distance, r, from the point C(a, b). I
I
I
Therefore Pis on the circle if and only if CP =r, so CP = I

2 2 \
1 • \
' ............
CP = (x- a) + (y- b)
2 2 2
------
P(x,y)is onthe circle ~ (x - a )2 + (y - b)2 =r.
nterefore (x- a )2+ (y - b)2 = r is the e quation of a circle
with centre (a, b) and radius r.
For example, the equation of a circle with centre (- 2, 3) and radius 1 is
[x-(-2)]2+[y - 3]2 =1 ~ (x+2)2+(y - 3) 2 =l ~ r + y + 4x-6y+ l2 =0
Recognising the equation of a circle

As well as being able to write down the equation of a circle given its centre and
radius, it is also important to be able to recognise an equation as that of a circle.
ll Coordinate Geometry and Circles

Expanding and simplifying the equation (x- a)2 + (y- b) 2= r gives
r+ y-2ax- 2by+ (a2+b2- r) = 0
which can b e expressed as r + y2 + 2gx + 2.fy + c = 0 where g,J a nd care
constants.
Comparing the constants gives r =.f + ff- c => r = ~ / 2+ g 2- c and for r to Note
have a real value, ff + .f- c > 0.
Notice that the coefficients of
So an equation of the form r+ ;F+ 2gx+ 2./Y+ c= 0 is the equation of x 2 and y 2 are equal and that
a circle provided that If+F- c > 0. there is no xy term.
Example 1
I- Find the centre and radius of the circle whose equation is

r+y+8x-2y+13=0
To compare the given equation with (x- a)2+ (y - b)2= r, first rearrange the
given equation as r+ Bx+ T- 2y=-13, then complete the square on r + Bx
andony-2y.
r+y2+8x-2y+13=0 => r+8x+16+y-2y+1=16+1-13
=> (x+4) 2+(y-l)2 =4
Therefore the centre of the circle is (- 4, 1) and the radius is 2.
Example 2
I
a Show that 2r + 2y- 6x+ lOy = 1 is the equation of a circle and find its centre
and radius.
b Find they coordinates of the points where the circle cuts they-axis.
a Divide both sides of the equation by 2 so that it can be compared

with (x- aF+(y - b) 2= r .
1
2r+2y - 6x+l0y=l => r+y-3x+5y= -
2
Completing the square on r - 3x and on y2 + 5y gives
( x-~)2
2
+(y+~)2 = .!:.+~+ 25 = 9
2 2 4 4
1herefore the equation does represent a circle.
The centre is (%, -%)and the radius is 3.

b The circle cuts they-axis where x = 0, and that is where 2y +lOy = 1.
Solving this equation gives 2f + lOy-1 = 0
=> y = -10±~ -~ ±3J3.

4 2
Therefore the circle cuts they-axis where y = -~ + 3../3 and where
5 2
y= ---3../3.
2
Coordinate Geometry and Circles

Exercise 1
0 Write down the equ ation of the circle with
a centre (1, 2), radius 3 b centre (0, 4), radius 1
c centre (-3, -7), radius 2 d centre (4, 5), radius 3.
E) Find the centre and radius of the circle whose equation is
a il+ f+8x - 2y- 8= 0 b il+ f+x+ 3y- 2=0
c il+f+6x-5 =0 d 2x2+2f - 3x+2y+l=O
e il+f=4 f (x-2) 2 +{y+3) 2 =9
g 2x+6y-x2 - f=l h 3x2+3f+6x-3y-2=0
e Which of the following equations represent circles?
a il+f=8 b 2x2+f+3x-4=0
c il- f=8 d il+f+4x - 2y+20=0
e il+f+8=0 f x2+f+4x-2y-20 = 0
0 Find the x coordinates of the points where the circle (x - 2) 2 + (y+ 3)2 = 25
cuts the x-axis.
C) The diagram shows a circle whose centre Cis the point (3, 2) and whose
radius is 3. The diameter parallel to the x-axis meets the circle at the point A.
a Find the coordinates of the point A.
b The line through A wh ose gradient is .!_ cuts the circle again at the point B.
2
Find the coordinates of B.
The effect of a translation on the equation

of a circle
When the circle (x - a) 2 + (y - b)2 = r is translated by the vector [ p
centre moves but the radius of the circle does n ot change. q
l' the
The centre is moved p units parallel to the x-axis and q units up they-axis.
Therefore the centre of the translated circle is the point (a+ p, b + q).
So the equation of this circle is
(x-(a+ p)t +(y - (b+q)t =r2 ~ (x-a-p)2 +(y - b - q)2 =r 2
Example 3
The circle whose equation is ,il + f- 4x+ 6y+ 7 =0 has centre C and is
I translated by a vector to the circle with centre D.

The equation of the translated circle is ,il + f + 4y - 2 = 0. Find the vector that
describes the translation.
First express each equation in the form (x- a) 2 + (y - b)2 = r by completing the
square.
4
2
y
- r- - -
X
0
il+f-4x+6y+7=0 ~ (x-2)2+(y+3)2=4+9-7=6 - 2
1- r-
D
il+f+4y-2 = 0 ~ .il+(y+2)2=6 r-- 2 -
Therefore Cis the point (2, -3) and Dis the point (0, -2).
R ~c
1-
The diagram shows that C is translated to D by the vector [ ~ 2

]. l -
D Coordinate Geometry and Circles

Exercise 2
0 A circle C has a radius of 10 and its centre is the point (5, -2). C is translated
by the vector [ ~4 ] to the circle D.
Find the equation of circleD in the form (x- a)2 + (y- b)2 = r.
0 The equation of a circle Cis r + f- Bx-10y+ 5 = 0. C is translated by the
vector [ ~3 ] to the circle D.
Find the equation of the circleD in the form r + f + px + qy + w = 0.

0 c
The circle with equation r + f- 2y- 7 = 0 is translated to the circle
r + f +6x - 2y+ 1 = 0.
Find the vector that d escribes the translation.
9.2 Geometric properties of circles

These importa nt facts about circles are useful in solving problems.
The perpendicular bisector of a chord of a circle goes through the centre

of the circle.
An angle in a semicircle is goo.

This is the angle subtended by a
diameter on the circle.
Example 4
I
-
A circle of radius 2 units wh ich has its centre at the origin, cuts the x-mds at the
points A and Band cuts the y-mds at the point C. Prove that angle ACB =goo.
The diagram sh ows the information given in the question and properties known
about the figure.
2 0
From the diagram, the gradient of AC is - 1
0- (-2)
A(-2, 0)
2
and the gradient ofBC is -0 = - 1.
0- 2
Therefore (gradient of AC) x (gradient of BC) = -1
so AC is perpendicular to BC => angle ACB =goo.
Example 5
I
-
A circle contains a triangle whose vertices are at the points A(O, 4), B(2, 3) and
C(- 2, - 1). Find the centre of the circle.

When a circle circumscribes a figure, it passes through the vertices of the figure.
The centre of the circle lies at the point of intersection of the perpendicular
bisectors of two chords.
0-2 4-1]
ThemidpointofACis [ - -, - - => '' B(2, 3)
2 2 ''
/
''
The gradient of AC = ~. so the gradient of the perpendicular bisector
/
I
I
' \
I
I
2 2 I
I
I
ofACis -- I
I
I
I
5 I
I
. . . 2 11 I
I
an d 1ts equauon1s y= --x+- => 4x+ 10y-ll =0 [1) I
I
I
I
5 10 I
I
-i·
I I
1,~) and its gradient is

I
The midpoint of AB is ( \
\
\
Therefore the gradient of the perpendicular bisector of AB is 2 C(-2, - 1)'

. . . 3
an d 1tsequat1onis y=2x+- => 4x-2y +3=0 [2] ---- ---
2
Solving equations [1) and [2] simultaneously gives
7 1
12y-14=0 => y =-andx=--.
6 6
Therefore the centre of the circle is the point ( - i, ~).
Exercise 3
0 C(5, 3) is the centre of a circle of radius 5 units.
a Find the equation of the circle in the form (x- a)2 + (y - b)2 = r2.
b Show that this circle cuts the x-axis at A(l, 0) and B(9, 0).
c Prove that the radius that is perpendicular to AB goes through the
midpoint of AB.
f) A triangle has its vertices at the points A(l, 3), B(5, 1) and C(7, 5). Prove that
triangle ABC is right-angled a nd hence find the coordinates of the centre of
the circle that circumscribes the triangle ABC.
0 The line joining A(5, 3) and B(4, -2) is a diameter of a circle. P(a, b) is a
point on the circumference. Find a relationship between a and b.
0 A triangle has its vertices at the points A(l, 3), B(-2, 5) and C(4, - 2).
Find a the coordinates of the centre of the circle that circumscribes
triangle ABC
b the radius of the circle that circumscribes triangle ABC: Give
your answer correct to 3 significant figures.
9.3 Tangents to circles

When a line and a circle are drawn there are three possible positions of the line
p
in relation to the circle. The line can miss the circle, or it can cut the circle in two
distinct points, or it can touch the circle at one point.
A line that touches a circle at one point is called a tangent.
The point at which it touches the circle is called the point of contact.
The length of a tangent drawn from a point to a circle is the distance from that
point to the point of contact.
PT is the length of the tangent from P. B
A tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the radius drawn from the point of

contact so AB is perpendicular to OT.
As the radius is perpendicular to the tangent at T, OTis the normal to the circle at T.
Example 6
The centre of a circle is the point C{2, 5) and the radius of the circle is 3 units.
A
The equation of a line, L, is x+ y- 2 = 0.
a Find the equation of the line J that goes through C and is perpendicular to L.
b Find the distance of C from L and hence determine whether Lis a tangent to
the circle.
a The line J is perpendicular to x + y - 2 = 0

so its equation is x- y + k= 0.
The point (2, 5) lies on J therefore 2 - 5 + k = 0 => k = 3
so the equation of lis x - y+ 3 = 0.
b The coordinates of A, the point of intersection of Land J, are needed to find y
the distance of C from L.
Solving the equations of Land J simultaneously gives 2x + l = 0
l 5
=> x =--andy=-
2 2
so A is the point (-.!. ~)·

1
2 2
Therefore CA = {2-(-~) r +{5 -%r = 3.54to3significantfigures.
For the line to be a tangent, CA would have to be 3 units exactly

X
(equal to the radius).

CA > 3, therefore Lis not a tangent.
Example 7
I
-
Find the equation of the tangent at the point (3, l) on the circle with equation
.x2 +1- 4x+ lOy- 8 = 0.
r+ 1 - 4x+ lOy - 8 = 0 => (x- 2)2 + (y + 5) 2 = 37

The centre of the circle is C{2, - 5).
The tangent at A is perpendicular to the radius CA.
The gradient of CA is l- (- 5) = 6.
3-2
Therefore the gradient of the tangent at A is _.!_ and the tangent goes
6
through A(3, 1).
Soitsequationisy-1 = _.!_ (x-3) => 6y+x=9.
6

Example 8
I- Find the equatio n of the circle whose diameter is the line joining the points
A(!, 5) and B(-2, 3).
We can use the fact that the angle in a semicircle is 90°.

P(x, y) is a point on the circle if and only if (gradient AP) x (gradient BP) = - 1.
5 3
The grad ient of AP is y - and the gradient of PB is Y-
x- 1 x+2
:. P(x, y) is on the circle~ (Y- 5)(Y-3) =-1
x - 1 x +2
~ (y- 5)(y -3) =-(x- l)(x +2).
Therefore the e quation of the circle is X:+ f + x- By+ 13 = 0.
Alternatively the points A and B can be used to find the centre and radius
of the circle.
The centre of the circle is the midpoint of AB, that is the p oint (- .!._ , 4).
2
The radius is the distance between the centre and A (or B),
so r2= (1 + .!_)2 + (5 - 4)2 = 13 .
Therefore ~e equation of~e circle is (x+ .!._2 )2 + (y - 4) = 134
2
~ r+f + x-8y +13= 0.
Exercise 4
0 The line x - 2y + 4 = 0 is a tangent to the circle whose centre is the point
C(- 1, 2).
a Find the equation of the line through C that is perpendicula r to the line
x-2y+4= 0.
b Hen ce find the coordinates of the point of contact of the tangent and the
circle.
E) The point A(6, 8) is on the circumferen ce of a circle wh ose centre is the
point C(3, 5). Find the equation of the tan gen t that tou ches the circle at A.
0 Write down the equation of the tangent to each circle at the given point.
a X: + f- 2x +4y -20 =0; (5, 1)
b r+f - 10x - 22y + 129= 0;(6, 7)
c r + f- By +3 =0; c- 2, 7)
0 Find the equation of the tangent at the origin to the circle
r+f + 2x+4y =O
0 The line y =3x- 4 is a tangen t to the circle whose centre is the point (5, 2).
Find the equation of the normal to the circle a t the point of contact of the
tangent.
0 The centre of a circle is the p o int C(5, 3). The gradient of the ta ngent to the
. A'1s - -1 .
. leat th e p omt
c1rc
2
Find the equation of the lin e through C and A.

Summary
The perpendicular bisector of a chord of a circle goes through the centre
of the circle.
An angle in a semicircle is 90°.
The equation of a circle with centre (a, b) and radius r is (x- a)2 + (y- b)2 = r.
An equation of the form ar + by+ gx + Jy + c = 0 is the equation of a circle
provided that Ef +F- c > 0.
Review
0 The equation ar+ by+ fx+ gy+ c= 0 is the equation of a circle with radius
3 and its centre at the origin. Find the values off, g and c.
f) Which of the following equations is the equation of a circle? Give reasons
for your answers.
a r+2y= 1 b (x-2) 2 -(y-1)2 =4
c r+y+2x-2y+ 1=0 d r+y +4=o
Q The points A(5, 5) and B(-3, -1) are the ends of a diameter of the circle C.
a Write down the coordinates of the centre of the circle.
b Find the equation of the circle in the form (x - a)2 + (y- b)2 = r.
0 A circle C has equation (x- 2) 2 + (y- 4)2 = 20.
a Write down the coordinates of the centre of the circle and its radius.
b Show that the point (-1, 3) lies inside the circle.
0 The circle c has equation r + y + 2x- 6y- 3 = 0.
a Find the radius and the coordinates of the centre of C.
b Show that the point (1, 6) lies on the circle.
G Find the equations ofthe following circles.
a A circle has its centre on the line x + y = 1 and passes through the origin
and the point (4, 2).
b The line joining (2, 1) to (6, 5) is a diameter of a circle.
c A circle with centre (2, 7) passes through the point (-3, -5).
d A circle intersects they-axis at the origin and at the point (0, 6) and also
touches the x-axis.
0 The equation of a circle is (x - 4) 2 + (y-2) 2 =25.
a Find the coordinates of the points where the circle crosses the x-axis.
b Find the equation of the tangent at the point where the circle cuts the
positive x-axis.
0 The centre of a circle is the point C(-1, 3). The gradient of the tangent to the
circle at the point A is~. Find the equation of the line through C and A.
3

Assessment
0 A circle has centre C{3, - 1) and radius 10.
a Give the equation of the circle in the form (x- a)2 + (y- b)2 =c.
b Find they-coordinates of the points where the circle cuts they-axis.

2
c The tangent to the circle at the point A has gradient-. Find an equation
3
of the line CA.
E) A circle with centre C has equation r + f- 2x- 6y- 7 = 0.

a Find the coordinates of C and the radius of the circle.
b Find they-coordinates of the points where the circle cuts they-axis.
0 The circle with centre C(S, 3) touches they-axis at the point A.

a Give the equation of the circle in the form (x-a)2 +(y-b)2 =c.
b Show that the point A(8, -1) lies on the circle.
c Find the equation of the tangent to the circle at the point A.
0 A circle with centre C has equation x 2 + y 2 - 4x+6y=12.

a Find the coordinates ofC and the radius of the circle.
b The point A (8, 4) lies outside the circle. Find the gradient of the line
through C and A.
c The line CA cuts the circle at P. Find the gradient of the tangent to the
circle at P.
0 The points A and B have coordinates (2, 5) and (4, 12).

a Find the coordinates of the midpoint of AB.
b The line AB is a diameter of a circle. Find the radius of the circle.
c Write down the equation of the circle in the form (x - a)2 +(y - b) 2 =c.
d Find the equation of the tangent to the circle at the point B.
0 A circle with centre C has equation x 2 + y 2 + 2x- 6 y- 40 =0.
2
a Express this equation in the form (x- a)2 +(y-b ) =d.
b State the coordinates of C.
ii Find the radius of the circle, giving your answer in the form nJ2.
c The point P with coordinates (4, k) lies on the circle. Find the possible
values of k.
d The points Qand R also lie on the circle, and the length of the chord
QRis 2.
Calculate the shortest distance from C to the chord QR.

AQA MPCl June 2015
0 A circle has centre C(3, -8) and radius 10.
a Express the equation of the circle in the form (x -a)2 + (y - b) 2 = k.
b Find the x-coordinates of the points where the circle crosses the x-axis.
5
c The tangent to the circle at the point A has gradient 2· Find an equation
of the line CA, giving your answer in the form rx + sy + t = 0, where r, s
and tare integers.
d The line with equation y = 2x + 1 intersects the circle.
Show that the x-coordinates of the points of intersection satisfy the

equation x 2 +6x- 2 = 0
ii Hence show that the x-coordinates of the points of intersection are of

the form m±.Jn, where m and n are integers.
AQA MPC1 June 2011

Triangles are involved in many practical measurements so it is important By the end of this chapter,
to be able to make calculations from limited information about a triangle. you should know how to ...
This chapter shows how trigonometry is used to calculate sides, angles and .,.. Use trigonometry to
areas of triangles. find sides, angles and
areas of triangles.
Recap
You need to remember how to...
.,.. Use the sum of the interior angles of a triangle to help with calculations .
.,.. Use Pythagoras' Theorem.
.,.. Work with surds.
Applications
Triangulation is a process used in surveying which uses triangles to work
out distance between places. The length between two points is measured
and the angles to another distant point are measured from each end of
the line. The triangle formed is used to work out the distances of the third
point from each end of the line.
\.
• ••• •••• • ••••••• ••••••• • • • •• •••• • ••• ••

10.1 Trigonometric ratios of acute angles
The sine, cosine and tangent of an angle are called trigonometric ratios.
The sine, cosine and tangent of an acute angle A in a right-angled triangle are
.C Ls:ypo
enuse
t
defined in terms of the sides of the triangle as oppostte
. A
sm =
opposite cos A = adjacent tan A = ~:.__- opposite B A
hypotenuse' hypotenuse' adjacent adjacen t
When any of these trigonometric ratios is given as a fraction, the lengths of two
of the sides of the right-angled triangle can be marked. The third side can then
be found using Pythagoras' theorem.
Example 1
A=~
I-
•
Given that sin
Trigonometry
5
find cos A and tan A.
sin A = opp , so draw a right-angled triangle with the side opposite angle A c
3 w1its l~~ and a hypotenuse 5 units long.
Using Pythagoras' theorem in triangle ABC gives
(AB)2 +32 =52 => AB=4.
Then cos A= adj = i and tanA = opp =~
hyp 5 adj 4'
Exact values of trigonometric ratios

From the diagram (which is half an equilateral triangle of side 2 units)
sin 60° = .J3, cos 60° = .!., tan 60° = .J3

2 2
sin 30° = .!., cos 30° = .J3, tan 30° = ~

2 2 "3
From the diagram (which is an isosceles right angled triangle)
sin 45° =cos45° = ~~ tan45° = l

These values (or how to derive them) should be learnt.
Trigonometric ratios of obtuse angles

The cosine of an obtuse a ngle
Using a calculator to find the cosines of angles from 0 to 180° gives the values
shown in the table.
e 0 30° 45° 60° goo 120° 135° 150° 180°

cos e (to 2 decim al places) 1 0.87 0.71 0.50 0 -0.50 -0.71 -0.87 -1
Plotting a graph of these values gives a shape called a cosine curve. cos f)
(The symbol eis the most commonly used symbol for a variable angle.)
0.5
The values in the table and the graph show that an acute angle has a positive
cosine and an obtuse angle has a negative cosine. These values also show that
-o.s
cos 60° = 0.5 and cos 120° = -0.5 - 1
so cos 120° =-cos 60° (120° + 60° = 180°)
and cos 45° = 0.71 and cos 135°= -0.71
so cos 135° = - cos45° (135° + 45° = 180°)
An accurate graph also shows that the cosine of an angle is equal to minus the
cosine of the supplementary angle, so
cos 6=- cos (180°- 6)
The sine of an obtuse angle
Using a calculator to find the sines of angles from 0 to 180° gives the values
shown in the table.
e 0 30° 45° 60° goo 120° 135° 150° 180°

sine (to 2 decim al places) 0 0.5 0.71 0.87 1 0.87 0.71 0.5 0
Trigonometry G
Plotting these values gives this graph which is called a sine curve. sin 0
Again relationships can be seen between the sines of pairs of supplementary
angles, for example 0.5
sin 30° = 0.5 and sin 150° = 0.5 0
so sin 150° = sin30° (150° + 30° = 180°)

also sin 60° = 0.87 and sin 120° = 0.87
so sin 120° =sin 60° (120° + 60° = 180°)
Therefore sin 0= sin (180°- 0).

An accurate graph also shows that tan 0=- tan ( 180°- 0).
Example 2
I Given sinO=.!.. find two possible values for e.

5
~
Using a calculator, the angle with a sine of 0.2 is 11.5°.
I But sin 0= sin (180° - O) so
to 1 decimal place.
Exercise 1
5
sin 11.5° =sin (180° -11.5°),
e
therefore when sinO=.!.., two possible values of are 11.5° and 168.5° correct
In Questions 1 to 7, leave answers in surd form where necessary.

0 X
0 tanA =
12
5
. Find sin A and cos A.
f) cosX= !. Find tanXand sinX.

5
40
0 sin P =
41
. Find cos P and tan P.
0 tanA = 1. Find sin A and cosA.
C) cosY=~. Find sin Yand tan Y.

3
C) sinA= .!...
2
a Find cos A.
b Use your calculator to find the size of angle A correct to 1 decimal place.
0 sinX=!!.... and tanX = '!_.

25 a
Find cosX.
In Questions 8 to 15, find X where Xis an angle from 0 to 180°.
0 sin X= sin 80° Q cos X= -cos 75°

0 sin X= sin 128° G) cos 30° =-cos X
4!) sinX=sin81° G) -cos 123° =cosX
~ sin90°= sinX 4t) cos91° =-cosX
The unknown angles in Question 16 to 18 are in the range 0 to 180°.
• Trigonometry
G cos X=~.
13
Find sin X.
f) sine=!. Find, to the nearest degree, two possible values of e.
5
0 Given that sin A= 0.5 and cos A= -0.8660, find angle A correct to
1 decimal place.
~ Is there an angle X where
a cosX= 0 and sinX= 1 b sinX=O and cosX= 1
c cosX=OandsinX= - 1?
~ Given cos A= -cos B, state a relationship between angle A and angle B.
G An angle A has tan A= 1. Write down the exact value of cos A.
$ An angle X has sin X= J2.
2
Give two possible values of X that lie between
0° and 180°.
10.2 The sine rule and cosine rule

A triangle can be defined without knowing every side and angle in the triangle.
When enough information is known about a triangle, the remaining sides and
angles can be calculated using a formula. The two formulae that are used most
frequently are the sine rule and the cosine rule.
The notation used in a triangle ABC is that the side opposite to angle A is
denoted by a, the side opposite to angle B by band so on.
The sine rule

Look at the triangles bothlabeled ABC in which there is no right angle.
c c
a
a
nL---------------~~--~--
A D
180° -A
A line drawn from C perpendicular to AB, extended if necessary, divides each
triangle ABC into two right-angled triangles, CDA and CDB.
In triangle CDA sinA = ~ ~ h = bsinA (sin(180 -A)= sinA).
b
. h
In triangle CDB sm B = - ~ h = a sin B.
a
a b
Therefore asinB=bsinA ~ sinA = sinb'
The triangles ABC can also be divided into two right-angled triangles by
drawing the perpendicular line from A to BC (or from B to AC). This gives the
b c
result--= - -.
sinE sin G
Combining the two results gives the sine rule.
In any triangle ABC, _ a_ = _ b _ = _ c_ (use in this form to find a side)
sinA sinB sinG
sinA sinH sinG .
or - - = - - = - - (use in this form to find an angle)
a b c
Trigonometry •
The sine rule is made up of three separate fractions and only two of them can be
used at a time. Therefore select the two fractions that contain three known
quantities and only one unknown quantity.
To use the sine rule, the information needed is
either two sides and the angle opposite one of them
or two angles and a side.
When the sine rule is used to find an unknown angle, it can be used in the form
sin A sinB sinC
- - = -- = - -
a b c
Example 3
I In triangle ABC, BC = 5 em, angle A= 43° and angle B = 61°. Find the
length of AC.
Angles A and B and side a are known. Side b is needed, so the

two fractions to use from the sine rule are _a_ = _b_.
sinA sinB c
5 b
sin43° sin61 °
5sin 61°
=> b= 6.412 ...
sin43°
Therefore AC = 6.41 em correct to 3 significant figures.
I
Example 4
In ABC, AC • 17cm, angle A • I 05° and angle B. 33°. Hnd AB.
The two sides involved are band c, so angle C must be found. c

The sum of the angles in a triangle is 180° => angle C = 42°.
. thesme
U smg . r ul e - b -= - c -
sinB sinC
17 c 17 x sin 42°
=> - - = - - => c= =20.88 .. .
sin33° sin42° sin33°
Therefore AB = 20.9cm correct to 3 significant figures.
The ambiguous case

Two sides and one angle in a triangle are known.
When the angle is between the two sides there is only one possible triangle.
When the angle is not between the two given sides it is sometimes possible to
draw two triangles from the given information.
0 Trigonometry
Look at a triangle ABC in which angle A = 20°, b = 10 and a= 8. B
The two triangles with these measurements are shown in the diagram;
in one of them B is a n acute angle, and in the other one B is obtuse.
There are n ot always two possible triangles.
For example when angle A= 20°, b = 6 and a= 8, there is only one triangle that
fits the information.
B
Therefore when a known angle is not between the two known sides in a triangle,
always ch eck whether the obtuse angle is possible.
I
Example 5 c
In the t<iangle ABC, find C given that AB ~ ~

5 em, BC 3 em a nd angle A ~ 35°,
Sides a and c and angle A are known so the sine rule can be used to find angle C.
sinA _ sin C ____.. sin35° __ sinC ____.. sm
· C= 5xsin 35° B
----.' ----.' - - - =0.955 ...
a c 3 5 3
73° (to the nearest degree) is one angle whose sine is 0.955 ...
A
but 107° (to the nearest degree) is also an obtuse angle with the same sine.
If angle C = 107°, then a ngle A + angle C = 107° + 35° = 142°
~ B = 180° - 142° = 38°.
So there is a triangle in which angle C = 107° and there are two possible triangles.
B B
3cm
A A
Therefore angle C is either 73° or 107°.
I
Example 6
In the t'ia n gle XYZ, angle Y ~ 41°, XZ ~ =

11 em and YZ 8 em. Find angle X.
Use the part of the sine rule that involves x, y, angle X and angle Y
sinX sinY sin X sin41° . 8xsin41°
- - = - - ~ - - = - - ~ sm X= =0.4771. ..
X Y 8 11 ll
The two a ngles with a sine of 0.4771 ... are 28° and 152° (to the nearest degree). Y
Checking whether 152° is a possible value for angle X sh ows that

angle X+ a ngle Y = 152° + 41° = 193°.
(continued)
Trigonometry a
(continued)
This is greater than 180°, so angle X cannot be equal 152°.
I In this case then, there is only one possible triangle conta ining the given data:
the triangle in which angle X= 28°.
The diagrams show the two different situations in Examples 1 and 2.

5cm
Arc of radius
3 em cu ts side
of triangle
at two points
When AB = 5 em, BC = 3 em and angle A = 35°, constructing ~L.___::::::.......L_ _~.i....::==,...l.<~

the triangle gives
z ll em
When XZ = 11 em, YZ = Scm and angle Y = 41°, constructing the triangle gives
Exercise 2 ~em
Give answers correct to 3 significant figures.
0 In triangle ABC, AB = 9 em, angle A= 51° and angle
C = 39°. Find BC.
f) In triangle PQR, angleR= 52°, angle Q = 79° and PR = 12.7 em. Find PQ. 11 em cuts sid e
of triangle only once
0 In tria ngle DEF, DE= 174 em, angleD= 48° and angle F = 56°. Find EF.
0 In triangle XYZ, angle X= 130°, angle Y = 21° and XZ =53 em. Find YZ.
f) In triangle PQR, angle Q = 37°, angleR= 101° and PR = 4.3 em. Find PQ.
( ) In triangle XYZ, XY = 92 em, angle X= 59° and angle Y = 81°. Find XZ.
0 In triangle PQR, angle P = 78°, angleR= 38° and PR = 15 em. Find QR.
0 In tria ngle ABC, AB = 10 em, BC = 9.1 em and AC = 17 em. Can you use the
sine rule to find angle A? If you answer YES, write down the two parts of the
sine rule that you would use. If you answer NO, give your reason.
In Questions 9 to 14, find the angle shown by a question mark. Give two valu es
when there are two possible triangles.
Give angles correct to the n earest degree.
AB BC CA A B c
0 2.9cm 6.1 em ? 40°
~ 5.7cm 2.3cm 20° ?
CD 2l cm 36cm 29.5° ?
~ 2.7cm 3.8cm ? 54°
~ 4.6cm 7.1 em ? 33°
e 9cm 7 cm ? 40°
The cosine rule

The sine rule canno t be used when only three sides of a triangle are known, but
the cosine rule can be used .
B B
• Trigonometry
Triangle ABC has no right angle. BD is drawn perpendicular to AC.
Labelling AD as x, the length of CD is (b- x) or (x- b). Labelling BD as h, and
using Pythagoras' theorem in each of the right-angled triangles BDA and BDC
gives
h2 =Cl - r and h2 =a2 -(b-x) 2 or (h2 =a2 - (x - b)2 )
Therefore c2 - -~ = a 2 - (b -x)2
=> r;2 - r =a 2
- b + 2bx- r
2
=> a 2 =b2 + r;2 - 2bx.
In triangle DAB, x = c cos A.
Therefore a 2 = b2 + Cl - 2bc cos A.
When the height is drawn from A or fro m C sim ilar expressions for the other
sides of a triangle are obtained, giving
a2 =b2 +c2-2bccosA,lr=c2+a2 -2cacosB and c2 =a2 +1J2-2ab cosC

These formulae are valid wh en the angles are acute or obtuse.
I
Example 7
In triangle ABC, BC =7 em, AC =9 em and C =61 '· Find AB.
Using the cosine rule, startin g with Cl, we have B

Cl =a + b - 2ab cos C
2 2
=> r;2 = 7 + 92 - (2)(7)(9) cos 61°

2
=> c = 8.30l...
Therefore AB = 8.30 em correct to 3 significant figures.
I
Example 8
XYZ is triangle in which angle Y = 121', XY =14 em and YZ =26.9 em. Find xz.
Usingy = z 2 +r - 2zxcos Ygives x
I y = (14)2 + (26.9) 2 -
Hencey= 1307.53 .. .
(2)( 14)(26.9) cos 121°
=> y=36. 15 ...
Therefore XZ = 36.2 em correct to 3 significant figures.
Using the cosine rule to find an angle

~
z ~o y
26.9
14
The cosine formula can be rearranged to find an unknown angle.

a z +b2 - c2
For example Cl = a2 + b2- 2ab cos C can be rearranged as cos C = - -- -
2ab
with similar expressions for cosA and cos B.
Trigonometry ~
Example 9
I
-
In triangle ABC, a= 9, b = 16 and c = 11. Find, to the nearest degree, the largest
angle in the triangle.
The largest angle in a triangle is opposite to the longest side, so angle B is B
C~A
needed in this question.
c2 +a2-b2
cos B = .:...__;__----
2ca
16
121+81 -256
=
(2)(11)(9)
=-0.2727 ...
The negative sign sh ows that angle B is obtuse.
Therefore angle B = 106° to the nearest degree.
Example 10
I
-
The sides a, b, c of a triangle ABC are in the ratio 3 : 6 : 5. Find the smallest a ngle
in the triangle correct to 3 significant figures.
The lengths of the sides are not necessarily 3, 6 and 5 units so represent them by
3x, 6x and 5x.
B
~
The smallest angle is A (opposite to the smallest side).
b 2 +c2 - a2
cosA=----
2bc
C ~ A
36x 2 +25x 2 - 9x 2
52
= - = 0.8666 ...
2
60x 60
Therefore the smallest angle in triangle ABC is 29.9° correct to 3 s ignificant
figures.
Exercise 3
In Questions 1 to 8, use the information given for triangle PQR to find the length
of the third s ide. Give answers correct to 3 significant figures.
PQ QR RP p Q R
0 Scm 4.6cm 39°
e 11.7cm 9.2cm 75°
0 29cm 37cm 109°
0 2.1 em 3.2cm 97°
e 135cm 98cm 48°
G 4.7cm 8.1 em 138°
0 44cm 62cm no
0 19.4cm 12.6cm 167°
• Trigonometry
In Questions 9 to 15, give angles correct to the nearest degree.
0 In triangle }0{Z, }0f = 34 em, YZ = 29 em and ZX = 21 em. Find the smallest
angle in the triangle.
~ In triangle PQR, PQ = 1.3 em, QR = 1.8 em and RP = 1.5 em. Find angle Q.
G In triangle ABC, AB =51 em, BC = 37 em and CA = 44 em. Find angle A.
~ Find the largest angle in triangle }0{Z given that x = 91, y = 77 and z = 43.
G) In triangle BC, a= 13, b = 18 and c = 7. What is the size of
a the smallest angle
b the largest angle?
~ In triangle PQR the sides PQ, QR and RP are in the ratio 2 : l : 2. Find angle P.
0 ABCD is a quadrilateral in wh ich AB = 5 em, BC = 8 em, CD = 11 em,
DA = 9 em and angle ABC= 120°. Find
a the length of AC correct to 3 significant figures
b the size of the angle ADC.
General triangle calculations

A decision about whether to use the sine rule or the cosine rule to find sides or
angles in a triangle depends on the facts that are known about the triangle.
The sine rule is easier to work with so use it whenever the given facts make this
possible, that is whenever an angle and the opposite side are known.
(Remember that if two angles are given, then the third angle is also known.)
The cosine rule is used only whenever the sine r ule cannot be used.
p
For example, given the triangle PQR in the d iagram, only one angle is known
and the side opposite to it is not known.
Therefore the cosine rule must be used first to find the length of PR. Q
When q is found, angle Q is known so the sine rule can be used to find either
of the remaining angles. R
Exercise 4
Questions 1 to 6 refer to a triangle ABC. Fill in the unshaded spaces in the table.
Give lengths correct to 3 significant figures and angles correct to 1 decimal place.
A B c a b c
0 80° 50° 68cm
0 112° 15.7cm 13cm

0 41° 69° 12.3 em
0 58° 131 em 87cm
0 49° 94° 206cm

0 ll5° 31° 21 em
0 The three sides of a triangular field are bounded by straight fences of
lengths 100 m, 80 m an d 65 m. Find the angles between the boundary
fences.
Trigonometry •
10.3 The area of a triangle
The simplest way to find the area of a triangle is to use the formula
Area= ! base x perpendicular height.

2
When the perpendicular height is not known, use the formula
1
area of triangle ABC= - be sin A
2
with similar expressions for angles B and C, giving
area=! absinC and . B.
area = -1 ac sm
2 2
Each of these formulae can be remembered as
area = ! product of two sides x sine of included angle.

2
I
Example 11
Find the area of triangle PQR, given that P = 65°, Q= 79° and PQ = 30 em. R
The given facts do not give two sides and the included angle so another side is
needed.
The sine rule can be used to find a side.
AngleR = 180°- 65° - 79° = 36°.
p I'
From the sine rule, - - = - -
sinP sinR
30xsin65°
::} p= =46.25 ...
sin36°
Therefore area triangle PQR =! pr sin 79° = 681.1 ...
2
So the area oftriangle PQR is 681 cm2 (correct to 3 significant figures).
Exercise 5
Find the area of each triangle given in Questions 1 to 5. Give answers correct to
3 significant figures.
0 Triangle XYZ; XY = 180 em, YZ = 145 em, angle Y = 70°.
0 Triangle ABC; AB = 75 em, AC = 66 em, angle A = 62°.
0 Triangle PQR; QR = 69 em, PR = 49 em, angleR = 85°.
0 TriangleXYZ;x=30,y=40, angle Z= 49°.
0 Triangle PQR; p = 9, r = 11, angle Q = 120°.
() In triangle ABC, AB = 6 em, BC = 7 em and CA = 9 em. Find angle A and the
area of the triangle.
• Trigonometry
0 In triangle PQR, angle P = 60°, angleR= 50° and QR = 12 em. Find PQ and
the area of the triangle.
( ) In triangle XYZ, XY = 150 em, YZ = 185 em and the area is 11000 cm2• Find
angle Y and XZ.
0 The area oftriangle ABC is 36.4 cm2• Given that AC = 14 em a nd angle
A= 98°, find AB.
~ In triangle ABC, BD is perpendicular to AC. Using has the length of BD,
find an expression for h in triangle ABD. Hence prove that the area of
triangle ABC is..!.. be sin A.
2
Summary
The sine, cosine and tangent of an acute angle A in a right-angled triangle are
defined as
adjacent . A opposite A opposite
cos A = , su1 = , tan
hypotenuse hypotenuse adjacent
sin60° = J3, cos60° = ..!.., tan60° = J3

2 2
sin30° = ..!.., cos30° = J3, tan30° = ~

2 2 v3
sin 45° = cos 45° = Jz, tan 45° = 1
cos e= - cos(180° - e)
sine = sin(180° - e)
tan e=- tan {180°- e)
In any triangle ABC,
a b c
the sine rule is - - = - - = - -
sin A sinE sinC
the cosine rule is a 2 = b2 + c2 - 2bc cos A,
b2 = c2+ a 2 - 2ca cosB and c2 =a2 + b2- 2ab cos C
1 1 1
the area is 2 be sin A = 2 ab sin C = 2 ac sin B.
Review
0 Angle A is between 0° and 180°. Find the value of angle A when
a cosA=-cos64° b sin94° =sinA.
0 Angle Xis acute and sin X=!____, Find cos(180° -X).
25
0 Given that sin A= ~.find tan A in surd form when
8
a angle A is acute b angle A is obtuse.
Trigonometry G
0 Use the information in the diagram to find, in surd form, sin 8 and cos 8.
a b
G Given that sin X= 12

13
and X is obtuse, find cos X.
C) In triangle ABC, BC = 11 em, angle B = 53° and angle A= 76°. Find AC

correct to 3 significant figures.
0 In triangle PQR, p = 3, q = 5 and angleR= 69°. Find r correct to 3 significant
figures.
C) In triangle XYZ, XY = 8 em, YZ = 7 em and ZX = 10 em. Find angle Y correct
to the nearest degree.
0 In triangle ABC, AB = 7 em, BC = 6 em and angle A= 44°. Find all possible
values of angle C to the nearest degree.
(:) Find the angles of a triangle whose sides are in the ratio 2 : 4 : 5.
Give answers correct to the nearest degree.
~ b2+c2-a2
w Use the cosine formula, cos A= 2bc , to show that
a angle A is acute if a 2< b2+ c2 b angle A is obtuse if a 2> b2 + CZ.
C!) In triangle PQR, PQ = 11 em, PR = 14 em and angle QPR = 100°.
Find the area of the triangle correct to 3 significant figures.
f) The area of ABC is 9 cm 2
• AB =AC=6 em.
a Find sinA.
b Are there two possible triangles? Give a reason for your answer.
Assessment B
0 Use the information in the diagram,

a to find angle ABC to the n earest degree Bcm
b to find the area of triangle ABC correct to 3 significant figures

c hence find the length of BD.
0 In the triangle ABC, AB = 10m and angle ABC= 150°. - - - -- - - !Ocm - - - - - - •
The area of the triangle is 16m2•
c
a Find the length of BC.
b Calculate the length of AC giving your answer correct to three
significant figures. A ....:::;._ _ _ ___.__~
!Om
c Find the size of the smallest angle in the triangle, giving your answer
correct to one decimal place.
• Trigonometry
0 The line with equation y = x and the x-axis form two sides of the triangle OAB.
The line with equationy + 2x- 5 = 0 intersects the line y= x at A
and the x-axis at B.
a Find the coordinates of A and B.
b State the size of the angle AOB.
c Find the area of triangle OAB.
0 The points P and Q are two points on land which are A
inaccessible. To find the distance PQ, a line AB of

length 300 metres is marked out so that P and Q are p
on opposite sides of AB. 300m
The directions ofP and Q relative to the line ABare
then measured and are shown in the diagram.
Q
a Find the length of AP.
b Find the length of AQ.
B
c Hence calculate the length of PQ.
0 A surveyor stops at the point A and then walks 500 m due North along a
road to a point B.
The points A and B are 500 m apart.
The point C is the base of a tower. c
From A, the surveyor measures the angle between AB and AC as 62°.
From B the surveyor measures the angle between AB and BC as 84°.
a Find the distance AC.
b Find the area of triangle ABC. A
c Hence find the perpendicular distance of the base of the tower

from the road through A and B.
( ) The diagram shows a triangle ABC. A
The size of angle BAC is 72° and the size of angle ABC is 48°. The length of
BCis20 em.
a Show that the length of AC is 15.6 em, correct to three significant figures.
b The midpoint ofBC isM. Calculate the length of AM, giving your answer,
in em, to three significant figures.
AQA MPC2 June 2015
0 The triangle ABC, shown in the diagram, is such that A
AB is 10 metres and angle BAC is 150°.
The area of triangle ABC is 40 m 2 •
B~C
a Show that the length of AC is 16 metres.
b Calculate the length of BC, giving your answer, in metres, to
two decimal places.
c Calculate the smallest angle of triangle ABC, giving your answer to the
nearest0.1°.
Trigonometry 0
The angles used so far are angles that are measured in degrees and angles By the end of this chapter,
that can be found in a triangle, that is angles in the range 0° to 180°. you should know how to ...
This chapter introduces a different measure of angles and defines .,.. Define a radian as a
trigonometric functions for angles of any size. measure of an angle.
.,.. Find the length of an
arc and the area of a
sector of a circle.
Recap .,.. Define the
You need to remember how to... trigonometric
.,.. Use the formulae for the circumference and radius of a circle. functions for sinx,
.,.. Use the exact values of the sine, cosine and tangent of30°, 45° and 60°. cos x and tan x .
.,.. Understand the meaning of rotational symmetry. .,.. Solve equations
.,.. Understand the effect on the equation of the curve y = f(x) of a involving the sine,
translation, a reflection and a one way stretch. cosine and tangent of
\.
angles in a range of
values of the angle.
•• • •••• •• • •• •••••• • ••• •• ••• •••••• • ••••
11.1 Angle units
So far angles have been measured in d egrees but there is another unit.
Before introducing that unit, here is a reminder of the names for parts of a
circle.
Radians
Part of a circle is called an arc.
If the arc is less than half the circle it is called a minor arc;
if it is greater than half the circle it is called a major arc.
0 is the centre of a circle and an arc PQ is drawn so that its length is

equal to the radius of the circle.
TI1e angle POQ is called a radian.
An arc equal in length to the rad ius of a circle su btends an a ngle of
1 radian at the cent re of the circle.
The number of radians in a complete revolution is the number of times the

radius divides into the circumference.
The circumference of a circle is 2nr, so the number of radians in a revolution
is 2nr + r= 2n.
Therefore 2 n radians = 360°.
• Trigonometric Functions and Equations

So n radians = 180° and.!.. n radians= 90°.
2
The radian symbol is not used when an angle is given in terms of n, so it is
written as 180° = n (not 180° = n rad).
If an angle is a simple fraction of 180°, it can be given in terms of n.
1 n 3 3n
For example 60° = - of 180° = - and 135° = - of 180° = - .
3 3 4 4
7n 7 2 2
Conversely, -
= - of180° = 210° and - n =-of 180° = 120°.
6 6 3 3
Angles that are not simple fractions of 180°, or n, can be converted using the
relationship n = 180° and a calculator.
73
For example 73° = x n = 1.27 rad (correct to 3 significant figures)
180
23 6
and 2.36 rad = · x 180°= 135° (correct to the nearest degree).
n
1
1 rad = - x 180° = 57° (correct to the nearest degree),
n
so 1 radian is a little less than 60°.
Example 1
I Express 75° in radians in terms of n.
180° = nradians ~ 1° = _!!____ radians;
1
180
so to convert degrees to radians, multiply by_!!__ .
180
75° = 75 x _!!____ radians= Sn radians
180 12
Example 2
Express _.!.._n radians in degrees.

16
1800
n radians = 180° ~ 1 rad = ; so to convert radians to degrees,
180 n
multiply by - .
n
1800 450
_.!.._ n radians= ~x = = u.!..o
16 16 n 4 4
Exercise 1
0 Express each of the following angles in radians as a fraction of n.
a 45° b 150° c 30° d 90°
e 270° f 120° g 60° h 22.5°
240° j 300° k 315° 135°
Trigonometric Functions and Equations •

e Express each of the following angles in degrees.
1 1 d n
a -n b n c -n
6 10 3
5 1 7n
e -n f -n g - 3
h - n
6 12 6
4
n 3 4 1
-n k -n - rc
9 2 9 4
3n 1
m n -n
5 8
e Express each of the following angles in radians correct to 2 decimal places.
a 35° b 47.2° c 93° d 233°
e 14.1°
0 Express each of the following angles in degrees correct to 1 decimal place.
a 1.7 rad b 3.32 rad c 1 rad d 2.09 rad
e 5 rad f 6.28319 rad
0 Write down the value of
. 1 . rc 1 rc
a sm-rc b sm- c cos - rc d cos-
3 6 2 3
1 rc
e tan-rc f tann g sin - h cosrc
4 2
3rc 2
tan - cos-n
4 3
G Write down, as a fraction of rc, the possible values of x in the range 0 :5 x :s 2rc
for which
1
a cosx= 1 b tanx= 1 c sinx=-
2
1
d cosx=- e sin x=-1 f cosx= - 1
2
1
g sinx= 1 h tanx= -1 sinx= - -
2
1
tanx=O k cosx=O sinx=- ../2
For Questions 7 and 8 give answers correct to 3 significant figures.
0 Use your calculator to find Note
a sinl. 2 rad b cos 0.35 rad Make sure that the angle mode on your
c tan 1.47 rad d cos2.5 rad calculator is set to radians then sine rad
0 Use your calculator to find, in radians, the acute angle for which can be keyed in directly. Also with the mode
a sinx=0.28 b tanx=l.339 in radians, a calculator will give the angle in
radians for which for example, sine= 0.7.
c cosx=0.7997 d sinx= 0.0226
11.2 The length of an arc

From the definition of a radian, the arc that subtends an angle of 1 radian at the
centre of the circle is of length r.
Therefore when an arc subtends an angle of eradians at the centre, the length of
the arc is re.

"\\ rfJ
/)
The length of arc AB = r8.
Example 3
I-
7r
An arc sub tends an angle of 3 at the centre of a circle with radius 4.5 em. Find
the length of the arc in terms of n.
7r
Length of arc= r() = 4.5 x- em = 1.5n em .
3
Example 4
I Find, in radians, the angle subtended at the centre of a circle of radius 4 em by

an arc of length 8 mm.
The units must be consistent when using any formula. In this question we use
millimetres for both the length of the arc and the radius. Remember also that
Note
When an angle is given or
when using 'length of arc = rfl the angle must be m easured in radians. needed in degrees, use
length _
_:::....__ _= e
of arc
Length of arc = r8. 2nr 360
Therefore 8 = 408 ~ 8 = 0.2 rad.
Exercise 2
0 The radius of a circle is 4 em. Find, in terms of n, the length of the arc that
subtends an angle of .!.n radians at the centre ofthe circle.
e 6 5
An arc sub tends an angle of - n radians at the centre of a circle of radius
4
10 em. Find, in terms of n, the length of the arc.
0 Find, in radians, the angle subtended at the centre of a circle of radius 5 em
by a n arc of length 12 em.
0 Find the size of the angle subtended at the centre of a circle of radius
65 mm by an arc of length 45 mm. Give your answer in radians correct to
0 Find in terms ofn the radius of a circle in which an arc of length 15 em
subtends an a ngle of n radians at the centre.
G An arc of length 20 em subtends an angle of in
5
radians at the centre of a
circle. Find in terms of n the radius of the circle.

0 Find, in terms of n:, the length of the arc that subtends an angle of 60° at the
centre of a circle of radius 12 em.
0 An arc of length 15 em subtends an angle of 45° at the centre of a circle.
Find, in terms of n:, the radius of the circle.
0 Find, in degrees, the angle subtended at the centre of a circle of radius a em
by an arc of length 2a em. Give your answer in terms of n:.
~ Calculate, in degrees correct to 1 decimal place, the angle subtended at the
centre of a circle of radius 2. 7 em by an arc of length 6.9 em.
11.3 The area of a sector

The area enclosed by two radii and an arc is called a sector.
The area enclosed by a chord and an arc is called a segment.
If the segment is less than half a circle it is called a minor segment;
~f it is greater than half a circle it is called a major segment.
A sector contains an angle of() radians at the centre of the circle. Major
segment
The complete angle at the centre of the circle is 2n:.
& • area of sector angle contained in the sector
Th ere1ore usmg =
Minor segment
area of circle complete angle at the centre
. area of sector (}
gtves =-.
area of circle 2n:
The area of the circle is m2 ,
() 1
therefore area of sector=- x n:r 2 = -r 2 0.
2Tr 2
1
The area of sector AOB = - r 2 9.
2
Example 5
I Find, in terms of n, the area of the sector of a circle of radius 3 em that contains
Tr
an angle of-.
5
I Example 6
1 2() = -1 ( 3) 2 ( -n: ) em2 =9Tr
Area of sector = -r
2 2 5 10
2
- em.
I
AB is a chord of a circle with centre 0 and radius 4 em. AB is of length 4 em and
divides the circle into two segments. Find, correct to two decimal places, the
area of the minor segment.

AOB is an equilateral triangle, so each angle is 60° = n rad.
3
To find the area of the minor segment, subtract the area of triangle AOB from
the area of sector AOB.
Area of sector AOB =.!..r 2 0=.!..( 4)2 (.!..n)=8.3775 ...

2 2 3
Area of triangle AOB =.!..r2 sin0= .!..(4)(4)(sin~) =6.9282 ...
2 2 3 A
Area of minor segment= area of sector AOB -area of triangle AOB
= 8.3775 - 6.9282 = 1.4493 Note
The area of the minor segment is 1.45 cm2 correct to 3 significant figures.
To use the formula A= ~ rO
Exercise 3
for the area of a sector, the
Give answers that are no t exact correct to 3 significant figures. angle must be in radians.
0 A sector of a circle of radius 4 em contains an angle of 30°. Find the area of When the angle is in degrees
the sector. use A=nr2 x~.
0 A sector of a circle of radius 8 em contains an angle of 135°. Find the area of 360
the sector.
0 The area of a sector of a circle of radius 2 em is n cm 2 • Find the angle
contained by the sector.
0 The area of a sector of a circle of radius 5 em is 12 cm 2 • Find the angle
contained by the sector.
0 A sector of a circle of radius 10 em contains an angle of ~n. Find the area of
6
the sector.
( ) An arc of length 15 em subtends an angle nat the centre of a circle. Find the
radius of the circle and hence the area of the sector containing the angle n.
0 A sector of a circle has an area 3n cm2 and contains an angle .!.. n. Find the
6
radius of the circle.
0 A sector of a circle has an area 67n cm2 and contains an angle of 45°. Find
the radius of the circle.
C) An arc of a circle is of length 5n em and the sector it bounds has an area of
20n cm2 • Find the radius of the circle.
C Calculate, in radians, the angle at the centre of a circle of radius 83 mm
contained in a sector of area 974 mm2 •
~ A circle has centre 0 and radius 5 em. AB is a chord of the circle of length
Scm. Find
a the area of triangle AOB b the area of the sector AOB.
$ Achord of length 10 mm divides a circle of radius 7 mm into two segments.
Find the area of each segment.
CD A chord PQ, of length 12.6 em, subtends an angle of 3. n at the centre of a
ci~~B~ 3
a the length of the arc PQ b the area of the minor segment
cut off by the chord PQ.
Trigonometric Functions and Equations IJ

11.4 The trigonometric functions
The general definition of an angle p
An angle is defined as a measure of rotation.

A line can rotate from its initial position OP0 about the point 0 to any other
position OP.
The amount of rotation is shown by the angle between OP0 and OP, so
an angle is a measure of the rotation of a line about a fixed point.

The anticlockwise sense of rotation is taken as positive and clockwise rotation is
negative. Therefore an angle formed by the anticlockwise rotation of OP is a
positive angle.
p
The rotation of OP is not limited
to one revolution, so an angle can
be as big as we want to make it. /p
If e is any angle, then e can be
measured either in degrees or 0~
0~
X X
in radians and e can take all
real values.
p
Definition of
trigonometric ratios
The sine, cosine and the tangent of an angle are defined for angles of all values
as follows.
OP is drawn on x- andy-axes as shown and, for all values of e, the length of OP
is rand the coordinates of P are (x, y), then
y
sinO=L
r
X
cos6=-
r
y
tane=L
X
X X
The sine function

P(x, y)
Measuring 6 in radians, the definition off( 6) =sin 6 shows that:
For 0 ~ (} ~ tn, OP is in the first quadrant;
y is positive and increases in value from 0 to r as e increases from 0 to .!.n.
2
r is always positive, so sine increases from 0 to 1.
For tn ~ (} s; n, OP is in the second quadrant;

again y is positive but decreases in value from r to 0,
so sin(} decreases from 1 to 0.

n tn, OP is in the third quadrant;
For s; (} s;
y is negative and decreases from 0 to -r,
so sin (} decreases from 0 to - 1.
For tns; (} s; 2n, OP is in the fourth quadrant;

y is still negative but increases from -r to 0,
so sin (}increases from - 1 to 0.
For (} ~2n, the cycle repeats itself as OP rotates round the quadrants again.
For negative values of e, OP rotates clockwise round the quadrants in the order
4th, 3rd, 2nd, 1st, and so on.
So for negative values of e, sine decreases from 0 to -1, then increases to 0 and
on to 1 before decreasing to zero and repeating the pattern.
P(x, y)
This shows that sin(} is positive for 0 < e< nand negative when n < e< 2n.
Also, sin e varies in value between - 1 and 1 and the pattern repeats itself every
revolution.
A plot of the graph off( e)= sine confirms these observations.
sine
P(x,y)
Note
A graph of this shape is called a sine wave and shows the following properties of Search online for 'animation
the sine function. of the sine graph' to see
The curve is continuous {it has no breaks). this graph develop from the
-1Ssin8Sl definition.
The shape of the curve from e=0 to e=2n is repeated for each complete
revolution. Any function with a repetitive pattern is called periodic or cyclic.
The width of the repeating pattern, as measured on the horizontal scale, is
called the period.
'Tite period of the sine function is 2n.
Other properties of the sine function shown by the graph are as follows.
sin e= 0 when e=mr where n is an integer.
The curve has rotational symmetry about the origin so, for any angle a.
sin (- a)= - sin a, for example sin (-30°) =-sin 30° = _.!_
2
An enlarged section of the graph for 0 s; e s; 2n shows further relationships.
The curve is symmetrical about the line e= .!.. Tf 1 SO
2
sin (n - a)= sin a, for example sin 130° = sin(l80° - 130°) =sin 50°
e
The curve has rotational symmetry about 0 = n, so
sin(n+ a) = - sin a and sin(2n- a)=- sin a
Trigonometric Functions and Equations

Example 7
I Find the exact value ofsinin.

3
sinO
I Example 8
8
~ Sketch the graph of y = s;n ( 0- ~") for values of 6 between 0 and 21r.
y
~ Use the fact that the curve y= f(x- a) is a translation ofthe curve y= f(x) by the
~~ vector [ ~ l 8
Exercise 4
For Questions 1 to 4, find the exact value of
0 sin120° E) sin-2n
0 sin300° 0 sin-210°
0 Write down all the values of() between 0 and 6n for which sin()= 1.
G Write down all the values of ebetween 0 and - 4n for which sine= - 1.
For Questions 7 to 10 express in terms of the sine of an acute angle
0 sin125° 0 sin290°
C) sin-120° G sin2.n
6
For Questions 11 tol6 sketch the curve for values of() in the range 0 ~ e ~ 3n.
G r=sin(e+~n) e r=-sine e r=sin(-e)
e y= 1-sin() e y=sin(n- e) 0 y=sinG·n-e)
G) On the same set of axes draw the curves y= sin() andy= sin30. What can
you deduce about the relationship between the two curves?
G) Sketch the curves
a y =sin4 f) b y=4sin()
P(x,y)
The cosine function
For any position of P, cos()=~.
r
When P is in the first quadrant,
X decreases from r to 0 as ()increases, SO COS() decreases from 1 tO 0.

When Pis in the second quadrant, P(x,y)
x decreases from 0 to - r,
so cos 8 decreases from 0 to -1.
When P is in the third quadrant,

cos 8 increases from - 1 to 0.
When Pis in the fourth quadrant,

cos 8 increases from 0 to 1.
P(x,y)
The cycle then repeats itself, giving this graph off( 8) = cos8.
8 P(x,y)
The graph shows the following properties of the cosine function.

The curve is continuous.
-1 S cos OS 1
It is periodic with a period of 2~.
It is the same shape as the sine wave but is translated a distance ..!:..rc to the left.
2
1 1 3 5
cos8=0when 8= ... - -rc, -rc, -rc, -rc, ...
2 2 2 2
The curve is symmetric about e= 0, so cos -a= cos ex.
The curve has rotational symmetry about () = ..!:..rc, so
2
cos (7t- ex)= -cos ex
Symmetry also shows that
cos (rc +ex)= - cos ex and cos (27t- ex)= cos ex
Exercise 5
0 Write in terms of the cosine of an acute angle
a cos 123° b cos250°
c cos(-20°) d cos(-154°)
E) Find the exact value of
3
a cos 150° b COS- TC
5 2
C COS-TC d COS61t
4

0 Sketch each of the following curves
a y=cos(e+n) b y=cos (e-~n) c y=cos (-e)
0 Sketch the graph of y=cos( e- ~1t} Describe the relationship this shows
between sine and cos ( e- ~ 1t}

0 Sketch the curve y=cos(e-~1t) for values of e between - 1t and 1t. Use the
sketch to find the values of e in this range for which
a cos( e- ±n) = 1 b cos( e- ±n)= - 1 c cos( e- ±n)=o
0 On the same set of axes, sketch the graphs y=cos eandy= 3 cos e.
0 On the same set of axes, sketch the graphsy = cos eandy = cos3e.
0 Sketch the graph off( e)= cos 4e for 0 s; e s; 1t.Hence state the values of e in
this range for which f( e) =0.
The tangent function

P(x,y)
For any position of P, tan 8 = l..
X
As OP rotates through the first quadrant, x decreases from r to 0, while
y increases from 0 to r.
This m eans that the fraction f increases from 0 to very large values therefore as
1
e -t -1t,
2
tane -t 00 ,
Looking at the behaviour off in the other quadrants shows that

in the second quadrant, tan e is negative and increases from -oo to 0,
in the third quadrant, tan eis positive and increases from 0 to oo,
in the fourth quadrant, tan e is negative and increases from -00 to 0.
The cycle then repeats itself giving this plot of the graph off( e) =tan e.
tanll
The graph shows that the properties of the tangent function are different from
those of the sine and cosine functions.
1 1 3
It is not continuous, as it is undefin ed when 8= . . . - -n,- n,- n, ...
2 2 2
The ra nge of values of ta n 8 is unlimite d.
It is periodic with a period of n (not 2n as for sin 8 and cos 0).
The graph has rotational symmetry about e= 0, so

tan(- a) = -tan a

The graph has rotational symmetry about () =.!.. n, giving
2
tan (n- a)= -tan a
The cycle repeats itself from () = n to 2n, so
tan (n +a)= tan a and tan (2n - a) = - tan a
Example 9
I
~~ Express tan
11
4 n as the tangent of an acute angle.
1 tane
=- tan-n
4
Exercise 6 8
0 Find the exact value of
9 2 7
a tan - n b tan 120° c tan--n d tan-n
4 3 4
e Write in terms of the tangent of an acute angle
12 7
a tan 220° b tan - n c tan310° d tan--n
7 5
0 Sketch the graph of y = tan() for values of() in the range 0 to 2n. From this
sketch find the values of() in this range for which
a tan() = 1 b tan e = -1 c tan e = 0 d tan e = 00
11.5 Solving trigonometric equations

The definitions of sin e, cos e, and tan e are sine = 1.., cos() = !.., tan () = 1..
r r x
where x, y, and rare the sides of a right-angled triangle.
sin() y x y
So - -= -+-=- =tan()
cos() r r x
y2 x 2 y2+x2
and sin2 () + cos 2 e= - +- = - - , and from Pythagoras' theorem,
, 2 ,.2 r2
f+ x2 = r2 , therefore sin2 8+cos2 8 = l.
sin()
n1erefore for all values of 6, tan() = - - and sln2 6+ cos2 8= 1.
cos()
These relationships, together with sketches of the graphs of the trigonometric
functions can help to solve a number of trigonometric equations and you need
to learn them.
sin x
Example 10
~ Find the values of x between 0 and 360° fm which sinx" - 0.3.

The value given for x by a calculator is -17.5°. Note
I The graph shows that when sin x = -0.3, the values of x in the given range are
180° + 17.5° and 360° -17.5°.
When sinx= -0.3, x= 197.5° and 342.5°.
Example 11
When the range of values is
given in degrees, the answer
should also be given in
degrees and the same is true
for radians.
I- Find the smallest positive value of e for which cos e= 0. 7 and tan e
is negative.
When cos e= 0.7, the possible values of eare 45.6°, 314.4°,

cos 8
I
000
8
tan e is positive when e is in the first quadrant and negative when eis in the
fourth quadrant. Therefore the value of eis 314.4°.
cos +
I
Example 12 tan+
cos+
tan -
Solve the equation 2 cos' e- sin e" I lor values of ein the range 0 to 2rr.
The equation is quadratic, but it involves the sine and the cosine of e, so use
cos 2 e+ sin2 e= 1 to express the equation in terms of sine only.
2cos2 8-sine= 1
sinO
==> 2(1- sin2 8)- sine= 1
2sin2 e +sine- 1 = 0 l.
2
==> (2sine-1)(sin8+1)=0 ==> sine=.!. or-1 8

2
When sine=.!., e=.!.n,~n. -1
2 6 6
When sin9= - l, e=~n.
Therefore the solutio~ of the equation is 8 =..!.. n, ~ n, ~ n.
6 6 2
Example 13
c~sx
I- Solve the equation
smx
= sinx for values of x from 0 to 360°.
Both sides of an equation can be multiplied by any number except zero. The
equation can be simplified by multiplying by sinx provided that sinx;t: 0. So any
values of x for which sinx= 0 must be excluded from the solutions.
cosx 0
--=smx ==> cosx=sin2 x :=:> cosx=1-cos2 x :=:> cos2 x +cosx-1=0

SlllX cosx
This equation does not factorise so use the formula
==> cosx = ~(-l±vls) =:>cosx=0.618 or cosx= - 1.618
and there is no value of x for which cos x = - 1.618.
:=:> x= 51.8° or 308.2° (sinx;t: 0 for either value of x.)

Exercise 7
Give answers that are not exact to 1 decimal place for degrees and to
3 significant figures for radians.
0 Within the range -21r ::; e::; 21r, give all the values of efor which
a sin8=0.4 b cos8= - 0.5 c tan8= 1.2
e Within the range 0::; ()::; 720°, give all the values of() for which
a tan8=-0.8 b sin8=-0.2 c cos8=0.1
0 Find the smallest angle in radians (positive or negative) for which
a cos e= 0.8 and sine~ 0 b sin 8=-0.6 and tane::; o
. 1
c tan () =sm-1r
6
0 Using tan()= sine show that the equation tan e=sin() can be written as
cose
sine (cos e- 1) = 0, provided that cos e=1- 0.
Hence find the values of() between 0 and 2n for which tan()= sin e.
Solve the following equations for angles in the range 0::; e::; 360°.
0 sine= J3
2
G cos8=0 0 tan8=-J3
O sine=-± C) cos8 = -..!:_

2
C tan8=1
G sin e=..!:.4
2
e 4 cos e+ 5 sin e = 3
2
Solve the following equations for angles in the range -1r::; e::; 1r.
e 5 cos ()-4 sin2 8= 2 e 2 cos e-4 sin2 8+2= 0
e 2sin8cos8+sin8=0 0 F3tan8=2sin8
Equations involving compound angles

Many trigonometric equations involve a compound angle.
For example i
sin(()- 1r) = 1.
Equations of this type can be solved by finding first the values of the compound
angle and then, by solving a linear equation, the corresponding values of e.
Example 14
I Find the values of ein the inte,val-n < e<n,fo' which cos( e- ; ) = ~.
Using (e- ~)=¢gives cos<P=i·
Values of() are to be found in the interval-n ::; ()::; 1r, so values of¢= ( e- ~)
must be found in the interval -1r - !:.. ::; ¢::; 1r- n.
3 3
1r 7r . 1 1 1
In the range-n --::; ¢::; 1r-- the solutwns of cos¢= - are --1r,-1r.
3 3 2 3 3
But¢= ( 8-- 1r) ~ 8=¢+-, 1r 1 1 -1r+
therefore e= - -n+-1r, 1 -1 1r =0, -1r
2
3 3 3 33 3 3
2
~ e=o,-1r.
3 Trigonometric Functions and Equations
A
W
Exercise 8
In Questions 1 to 6, find the solution of the equation, for values of e in the range
os; es; 180°.
0 tan (e- 30°) = 1 0 cos(e-45°)=-0.5
0 sin(e+l5°)=- J2
2
0 cos(e-45°)=0
C) sin(e+30°)=-1 0 tan(e-60°) = 0
In Questions 7 to 11 solve the equations for values of e in the range 0 s; es; n.
0 tan(e-~)=-FJ 0 cos(e-n)=~
Q tan( e+ ~ )=-1 ~ cos( e+~n )=~
G) tan( e-~n )=-1
Summary
One radian (1 rad) is the size of the angle subtended at the centre
of a circle by an arc equal in length to the radius of the circle.
The length of arc AB is re.
The area of sector AOB is ..!.r e.

2
2
The sine function, f(x) =sin x, is defined for all values of x, Sine function
f(x)
is periodic with a period 2n,
has a maximum valu~ of 1 when x=( 2n+~ )n, a minimum value

X
of-1 when x=( 2n+z-)n, is zerowhenx= nn.
The cosine function, f(x) =cos x, is defined for all values of x, Cosine function
is periodic with a period 2n,
has a maximum value of 1 when x = 2nn, a minimum value of -1
whenx= (2n+ 1)n, is zero when x=±(2n+1)n.
X
The tangent function, y= tan x, is undefined for all odd Tangent function
tan8
multiples of..!.,., is periodic with period n.
2
sine
tan e= - - and sin2 e+ cos2 e= 1
case
e

Review
In Questions 1 to 3 write down the letter giving the correct answer.
0 120° in radians is
n 2n
a - b 2 c 2n d e-
2 3 3
G An angle of 1 radian is equivalent to:
a 90° b 60° c 67.3° d 57.3° e 45°
0 An arc PQ subtends an angle of 60° at the centre of a circle of radius 1 em.
The length of the arc PQ is
1
a 60cm b 30cm c -ncm
6
1 1
d -ncm e -n em2
3 18
In Questions 4 to 9, give angles that are not exact correct to 1 decimal place.
0 When cos {3 = 0.5, find possible values for sin {3 and tan {3, giving your
answers in exact form.
0 Find the values of e for which tan ( ()- ~n) = 1 in the interval-n :5 () s; n.
0 Find the solution of the equation tan()= 3 sin() for values of() in the range
- 180° s; () s; 180°.
Q Solve the equation cos() =.!. .J3 giving values of() from 0 to 180°.
2
0 Find, in the range -180° s; () s; 180°, the values of() that satisfy the equation
2cos2 e- sin() = l.
Assessment
Oa Solve the equation sin x = 2_ in the interval 0° < x< 360°.
2
b Show that sin 2 e-sin ()cos8=12 can be expressed as
tan 2 e-tan() - 12=0
c Hence solve the equation sin 2 8 -sin()cos() = 12 in the interval
0° < x < 360° giving your answer to the nearest degree.
G The diagram shows an arc ADC of a circle with centre 0 and radius 4 em. A
4cm~
2n
The angle AOC = - .
3 0 n/3 D B
a Find the length of the arc ADC.
4cm
b Find the area of the sector OADC.
c
c The line AB and AC are tangents to the circle at A and B.
Find the length of OB.
d Hence find the area enclosed by the arc ADC and the lines AB and BC.
0 The diagram shows a sector of a circle whose centre is 0 and whose radius A
0 ~"
isr m.
The angle AOB is eradians and the perimeter of the sector AOB is 20 m.
20-2r
a Showthat () = - - .
r
b The area of the sector is A m 2• Find an expression for A in terms of r.

0 a Solve the equation 2sin2 x +3cos x=O for values of x in the interval
0° <X< 180°.
b Hencesolve theequation2sin{x-~n )+3cos(x-~n )=o for values
of x in the interval 0° < x < n.
0 a Find the values of sin x for which 5 cos2 x = 1 -sin x.
b Hence solve the equation 5 cos2 x= 1 - sinx for values of x in the interval
0°< X< 180°.
G The diagram shows a sector OAB of a circle with centre 0 and radius 5 em.
A
o~•=
B
The angle between the radii OA and OB is ()radians.

The length of the arc AB is 4 em.
a Find the value of e.
b Find the area of the sector OAB.
cos2 x +4sin2 x 3
Oa Given that 2
1-sin x
= 7, show that tan 2 x =-
2
. cos2 28 + 4sin 2 28
b Hence solve the equation 7 in the interval
1- sin2 28
0° < () < 180°, giving your values of() to the nearest degree.
AQA MPC2 June 2014

Introduct ion Objectives
Exponentials and logarithms are closely related. By the end of this chapter,
This chapter explains what an exponent is and what a logarithm is and how you should know how to ...
to work with them. 11> Understand
exponential functions
and their graphs.
11> Express a power
Recap of a num ber as a
You need to remember how to... logarithm.
11> Describe the effect on the equation of the curve y =f(x) of a 11> Find and use the laws
translation, a reflection and a one way stretch. of logarithms.
11> Use the laws of indices. 11> Use logarithms to
11> Use the factor theorem to find factors of cubic polynomials. solve equations such
as 2x= 1.3.
• • •••••• • • ••• ••• •••••••••• •••• •• ••••••

12.1 Exponential functions
Exponent is another word for index or power.
An exponential function is one where the variable is in the index.
For example, 2x, 3-x, lOx+ 1 are exponential functions of x.
The shape of the graph of f(x) = ax

The table gives corresponding values of x and 2x.
1
X -oo~ ..• - 10 -1 --101 0 -
10
1 10 .. . ~ oo
1 1
J(x) 0~ ... - - - 0.93 1 1.07 2 1024 .. . ~ oo
1024 2
• Exponentials and Logarithms

The table shows tha t
..,. 2x h as real values for all real values of x
..,. 2x is positive for all values of x
..,. as x~ -oo, f(x) ~ 0
..,. as x increases, f(x) increases at a rapidly increasing rate.
A plot of the curve y = 2x confirms these observations and looks like this.
The graph shows that
..,. the curve crosses the crosses y-axis at (0, 1), so f(O) = 1 -6 -4 -2 2 4 X
..,. as x ~ -oo, the curve gets closer and closer to the x-axis -2
..,. the curve never crosses the x-axis
..,. the x-axis is an asymptote. Note
Any function of the form f(x) =a', where a> 1, crosses they-axis at (0, 1)
Any line that a curve gets
b ecause a 0 = 1.
closer and closer to but
The curve f(x) =ax is similar in shape to that of f(x) = 2x. never crosses is called an
I
Example 1 asymptote.
1
Sketch the graph of a y=3x-1 b y=Jx'
a The curve y =3x- 1 is the translation of the curve y

6 I
y = 3x by 1 unit in the positive direction of the x-axis. I
5 I
I
I
4 I
I
I
3 I
I
2 ,'
I
I I
,,'
-4 -2 2 4 X
-2
b y = _!.._ =3-xwhich is the reflection of the curve

3X
y = 3x in they-axis.
-4 -2 2 4 X
-2
Exercise 1
0 a Write down the values of f(x) = ( ~ J corresponding to
x =-4, -3, -2, - 1, 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4. Use these values to deduce the

behavior of f(x) as x ~ ± oo and h en ce sketch the graph of the function.
b Explain the relationship between the curve y = 2x a nd the curve y = (

E) Sketch the graph of
~ r.
1
a y =4x b y=4x+2 c y = 42x d y =4x
Exponentials and Logarithms
. ::: ~£rL~ . . ,~ ., . ·. ,. ~ ,. . . . ~
... • y ~ • • ' .. • • - ' • t • '
12.2 Logarithms
The statement 102 = 100 can be read as 'the base 10 raised to the power 2 is
equal to 100:
This relationship can be rearranged to give the same information, but in a
different order:
2 is the power to which the base 10 must be raised to equal100.
In this form the power is called a logarithm (log).
The whole relationship can then be shortened to read
2 is the logarithm to the base 10 of 100 or 2 = log 10 100
102 = 100 and 2 = log 10 100 are equivalent.
In the same way, 23 = 8 <=> 3= lo~ 8
and 4
3 = 81 <=> 4 = log3 81
Similarly log5 25 = 2 <=> 25=5 2
1
1
and lo~3 = - <=> 3=92
2
The base of a logarithm can be any positive number, including an unspecified
positive number represented by a letter, for example
b= a< ~ log. b= c
The power of a positive number always gives a positive result, for example
1
42 = 16,4- 2 =-.
64
Therefore when log. b = c, b =a<, so b must be positive, therefore logarithms of
positive numbers exist, but
the logarithm of a negative number does not exist.
Example 2
I
a Write lo8z 64 = 6 in index form.
b Write 53 = 125 in logarithmic form.
c Complete the statement 2-3 = ? and then write it in logarithmic form.
a lo8z 64 =6 means that the base is 2, the number is 64 and the power is 6.
l08z 64 = 6 => 64 = 26
b 53 = 125 means that the power is 3, the base is 5 and the number is 125.
53 = 125 => 3 = log5125
1
c 2- 3 =-
8
The base is 2, the power is -3 and the number is .!..
8
2- 3
=~ => -3 = log 2 ( ~)

Evaluating logarithms
A simple equation in index form is usually easier to solve than an equation in
logarithmic form. Therefore change a logarithm to index form to find the value
of the logarithm without using a calculator.
For example to find the value oflog49 7
1
write x=log497 ~ 49x=7so x=-
2
1
therefore log 49 7 = .
2
In particular, for any base b,
when x= Iogb 1 then if= 1 ~ x= 0
therefore the logarithm of 1 to any base is zero.
Using a calculator
A scientific calculator can be used to find the values of logarithms with
a base of 10.
The button marked [log] gives the value of a logarithm with a base of 10.
Exercise 2
Convert each of the following facts to logarithmic form.
0 103 = 1000 e 24 = 16
0 32=9 () 42=16
I
0 9 2 =3
G 12°= 1
e x>'=2
Convert each of the following facts to index form.
( ) log 10100000 = 5 Q log4 64 = 3 ~ log10 10= 1
G) lo~4=2 ~ lo~32=5 ED log 1000 = 3
e
10
$ log51 =0 log39=2 f1J log 16 = 2

4
G) log 27 = 3
3 ~ lo~66 = ~ $ log.1 =0
~
~
logy=z
x
~
~
loga5= b ~ logPq=r
In Questions 31 to 46, find the value of the logarithm without using a calculator.
t) log24 E) log 1000000
10
G) log264
~ log3 81 G) log8 64 G) log4 64
$ lo~3 G) log! 4 ~ log10 0.1
2
$ log12 1 11 0 log5 1 (!) log22
(D log644 (D lo~9 1 G) log273
G logaa3
G Use a calculator to evaluate, correct to 3 significant figures,
a log 10 3 b log10 2.4 c log 10 0.201
d log 10 17.3 e log10 5.6 f log 10 250
Exponentials and Logarithms •

12.3 The laws of logarithms
Indices obey certain rules in the multiplication and division of numbers.
Because logarithm is just another word for index or power, logarithms
also obey laws.
When b=log.x and c=log.y
~ ab=x and a' =y
xy = (ab)(ac) ~ xy= ab+c
Therefore log. (xy)= b+ c
~ log. (xy) = log. x + log.y
This is the first law oflogarithms. As a can represent any base, this law applies to
the log of any product provided that the same base is used for all the logarithms
in the formula.
Using band c again ~= a b ~ ~=ab-c

y a' y
Therefore log. (~ ) =b-e

loga Y (~)= log a
x -loga y
This is the second law oflogarithms and again this law applies to the log of any
product provided that the same base is used for all the logarithms in the formula.
Using b = log.(.X"') => ab= x!'
b
at =x
Therefore kb = log.x ~ b = k log.x
log.(x!') = k log.x
This is the third law of logarithms. Because all three laws are true for any base,
the base d oes not n eed to be included.
In each of these laws the base of every logarithm must be the same.
logx+logy= log(xy)
logx-logy=log(~)
k logx= log (.vi')
Example 3
~ Exp<ess log (pq' .Jr) in terms oflog p, log q and log r.
II)
log (pq2 .Jr) = log p + log q 2 + lo; .Jr
= logp + 2 log q+-log r

2

Example 4
~ ~
Exprc" 3log p + n log q 4 log r as a single logarithm.
1
3 log p+ n log q- 4log r = logp3 + log q"-log t'
(p3q")
=log - -
r4
Example 5
I Exprc" log ( xx~ 1

) as sepamtelogarithms.
~ log ( xx: 1 ) =log(x+ I) ~ logi' =log (x+ I)~ 2logx

Example 6
I Express log (x + I) + log 4 ~~ log x as a single logarithm.
I log (x+ 1) + log4 -
Exercise 3
log x= log 4(x+ 1) - log
_
- 1og
(4(x+1))
.JX
.JX
Express in terms of log p, log q, and log r
0 log(pq) e log(pqr)
0 log(~q) 0 log(;) 0 log(p2q)
0 log(~) 0 log (p-.fo) 0 log ( p2rq3 )
~ log(~) G logq" e log(p"qm)
Express as a single logarithm

e logp+logq ~ 2logp+logq
e logq-logr ~ 3 logq+4logp
Q nlogp-log q G) log p + 2log q- 3 log r
••• '' 'v ' " \
.. ·· ·: . ' .. ' ' ' .. " ,· ' . . .. '
.... • • \ - • ,·,,., - ( • • / ·' < ' ' •
Express as the sum or difference of the simplest possible logarithms.

G) log(5x) $ log(5r ) ~ log[3(x+ 1)]
e log(~) x+1
e log(~)
x- 1
~ log(xf)
e log[x{x+4)] ~ log(r- 1) $ log[r (x+ y)J
$ 2
log[a x(x- b)]
Express as a single logarithm.
e log2+ logx ~ log3-log x G) 2 logx- log4
G logx-2log(1-x) e 2log x- ..!:..log(x- 1)
2
~ 2 log x- 3 logy
12.4 Equations containing logarithms

or x as a power
When x forms part of an index, first look to see if the value of x is obvious.
For example, when 4x = 16, it is obvious that x = 2 because 42 = 16.
Not so obvious is the equation 4x = 32, but 4 and 32 can both be expressed as
powers of2:
4x=32 ~ (22 )x=25, SO 22x=25
Therefore 2x = 5 ~ x = 2.5.
When the value of the unknown is not obvious, using logarithms will often
transform the index into a factor.
For example, when 5x= 10, taking logarithms of both sides gives
log10 .
x log 5 = log 10 ~ x = - - = 1.43 correct to 3 s.f. ( usmg a calculator)
logS Note
When an equation contains logs involving x, first look to see if there is an
obvious solution. For example, when log. x = log. 4, it is obvious that x = 4. log10 . 10
- - 1s NOT equal to log-.
log5 5
When the solution is not so obvious, express the log terms as a single logarithm
and then remove the logarithm.
For example, when 2lo~x - log 8 = 1, using the laws of logs gives lo~ ( ~ ) = 1.
2
2
Expressinginindexfromgives~=zl ~ r= 16 ~ x=4.
8
x = -4 is not a solution because lo~ (-4) does not exist so it is essential that all
roots are checked in the original equation, when solving equations of any form.
Exercise 4
Solve the equations in Questions 1 to 12. Give answers that are not exact correct
to 3 significant figures.
0 3X=9
e gx=27
Note
0 22x =5
0 3x- 1=7 0 4 2x+l =8 When the base of a logarithm
C) lo~x= lo~ (2x - 1) C log x=2 is not given, assume that the
e
4
base is 10.
G logx=2 log(x-2) log2+2 logx=log(x+3)

f) Express logx5- 2logx 3 as a single log term. Hence find the value of x when
logx5- 2logx3 = 2.
e Solve the equation log 4- 2log (x+ 1) = log X.
Gr) Express log y- 21og x as a single logarithm.
3 3
Hence express yin terms of x wh en loSJI- 2 1og3 x = 1.

0 Given that y = 2x, express 22x in terms of y.
By substituting y for 2x, solve the equation 22x- 2x- 2 = 0.
Summary
Exponentials
An exponential function is one where the variable is in the index,
for example f(x) = 2x.
The shape of the curve y =ax is
4 X
-2
For all values of a, the curve crosses they-axis at the point (0, 1).
Logarithms
b =a' ¢:::> log0 b = c
The logarithm of a negative number does not exist.
Laws of logarithms
log x+ logy= log (xy) log x -logy= log ( ~) k logx=log.xk
(In each of these laws every logarithm must be to the same base.)
Review
0 Sketch the graph of f(x) = (
E) Evaluate
r
~
a lo~ 128 b lo~5 5 c log 12 1
Exponentials and Logarithms ~~

0 Express in terms of log a, log b and log c
3
a log( (~2 )) b
b log (a")
c log( acb) d log ( a.Jl+ b)
0 Express as a single logarithm

a 3 loga- logb b log(~)+ log l
0 Express as a single logarithm
a logx- logy b 2+ log(x+ l)
c logA+ logx d logx-logxy+ logy
Solve the equations in Questions 6 to 9.

0 5X=l25 0 log 2x= log (x+ 2)
0 3X=l0 0 log 2- 2log(x-1) = logx
Assessment
0 a Sketch the graph ofy= ~.
4X
b Show that~=~ can be written as 4x = 1.2.

4x 6
c Solve the equation__!:__=~.

4 ·' 6
f) a Express 2 log 5-log 20+.!..log x as a single logarithm.

2
1
b Hence solve the equation 2 log 5- log 20+-logx=5.
2
0 a Express log3 6- 2 log 3 2+ log3 x as a single logarithm.

b Given that log 3 6- 2 log 3 2+ log 3 x = 2 + log3 y express yin terms of x in a
form not including logarithms.
0 a Express logx2 - log.xy - logy2 as a single logarithm.

b Given that log 10 x 2 -log 10 xy - log 10 y 2 = 0 express x in terms of yin a
form not including logarithms.
e a Given that y = 5x2 show that logs y = 1+ 2 log5X.

b Hence solve the equation l+2log5 x = log 5 (2x+3).
0 a Solve the equation W = 12 giving your answer correct to three significant

figures.
b Sketch the graph of y = 6x- 12 showing where the graph crosses the axes.
c Solve the equation log6 (2x + 1)=-1.
~~ Exponentials and Logarithms

I
Rl
0 a Sketch the curve with equation y = 4x, indicating the coordinates of any
point where the curve intersects the coordinate axes.
b Describe the geometrical transformation that maps the graph of y = 4x
onto the graph of y = 4x- 5.
c i Use the substitution Y = 2x to show that the equation 4x- 2x+ 2 - 5 = 0
can be written as ¥2 - 4Y- 5 = 0.
ii Hence show that the equation 4x- 2x+ 2 - 5 = 0 has only one real
solution.
Use logarithms to find this solution, giving your answer to three decimal
places.
AQA MPC2 June 2011
() a Given that loga b = c, express bin terms of a and c.
b By forming a quadratic equation, show that there is only one value of x
which satisfies the equation 2lo~(x + 7) - lo~(x + 5) = 3.
AQA MPC2 June 2013

The development of probability was stimulated by this enquiry to By the end of this chapter,
Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) from his friend the Chevalier de Mere: you should know how to...
Which is the more likely to occur, a throw ofsix at least once in 4 throws ofa .,.. Assign probabilities to
single die or a throw ofdouble six at least once in 24 throws ofa pair ofdice? events using relative
It was the resulting correspondence between Pascal and Fermat (1601-1665) frequencies or equally
which laid the foundations for the serious study of probability. likely outcomes.
.,.. Apply the addition
law of probability and
adapt it for mutually
exclusive events.
Recap
.,.. Applythe
In this chapter you will review many of the methods studied at GCSE,
multiplication law of
drawing them together formally in the probability laws. This will enable
probability and adapt
you to tackle complex probability problems.
it for independent
events .
.,.. Use tree diagrams.
Apps
Probability is used widely in everyday life, from assessment of risk to
reliability of consumer products, from trading in financial markets to testing
of new medicines; in the biological and physical sciences; in engineering;
in business; in politics; the list is endless.
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
13.11ntroduction to probability
The probability of an event is a measure of the likelihood that it will happen
and it is given on a numerical scale from 0 to 1. Probabilities can be written as a
decimal, fraction or percentage.
The two extremes on the probability scale are impossibility at one end and
certainty at the other end.
A probability of 0 indicates that the event Is Impossible.

A probability of 1 (or 100%) indicates that the event Is certain to happen.
All other events have a probability between 0 and 1.
For example:
There is an 'even' chance of a fair coin showing heads when it is tossed;
the probability is ! = 0.5 = 50%.
2
• Probability
There is a one in four chance of a fair tetrahedral die marked 1, 2, 3, 4
landing on 3;
the probability is!= 0.25 = 25%.
4
The weather forecaster may say that there is a 70% chance of rain;
the probability is 70% = 0. 7.
If you select a tennis ball from a box of yellow tennis balls
the probability that you will select a yellow ball is 1 (certain)
the probability that you will select a blue ball is 0 (impossible).
These probabilities are shown on a probability scale below:
! I
Impossible 4 2 Certain
0 0.25 0.5 0.7
Practical probability
When a drawing pin is dropped it lands in one of two positions: 'point-up' or
'point-down'
What is the probability that the drawing pin will/and 'point-up'? point-up point-down
You could estimate the probability by dropping the pin a number of times
and working out the proportion, known as the relative frequency, that land
'point-up; where
. fr number of 'points-up'
relatiVe equency = ---------=-----=-----
total nwnber of times the pin is dropped
How many times should you drop the drawing pin to get a good estimate?
To investigate this, a drawing pin was dropped 200 times and the relative
frequency of the number that landed 'point-up' was calculated after every
10 throws. Here is part of the table of results:
Number of times pin is dropped 10 50 100 150 200

Cumulative number of'point-up' 3 28 55 86 122
Relative frequency (2 dp) 0.3 0.56 0.55 0.57 0.61
All the relative frequencies were plotted on a graph.
'?
~
.5
0
~ 0.4
(?
~ 0.3
:I
cr
"'
~ 0.2
"'
>
·c
~ 0.1
p::
o+-~~-+-+-L-L~~+-L-~~-+-L-L~~~
0 10 20 30 40 50 100 150 200
Number of times the pin is dropped
Probability ..
You can see that as the pin is dropped more and more times, the relative
frequency appears to be settling to a value around 0.6. This limiting value is
taken as an estimate of the probability that the pin will land 'point-up'.
In general, if an event occurs r times in n trials, an estimate of the probability is
given by the long-term relative frequency, which is the limiting value of!....
n
The reliability of the estimate increases as n increases.
Theoretical probability
Suppose you wanted the probability of a fair coin showing heads when it is
tossed. You would give the answer.!. straight away, without bothering to toss a
2
coin a large number of times to work out the long-term relative frequency.
Intuitively, you would use the definition of probability that applies when
outcomes are equally likely:
number of successful outcomes
prob a billty= - - - - - - - - -- - - -
total number of possible outcomes
When a fair coin is tossed, there are twci possible outcomes, hea9 or tail, only
one of which (getting a head) is successful. Since the coin is unbiased, each
outcome is equally likely, so the probability of a head is.!..
2
Definitions and notation

Any statistical experiment or trial has a number of possible outcomes.
The set of all distinct possible outcomes is the possibility space S.
The number of outcomes inS is written n(S).
s
An event A consists of one or more of the outcomes in the possibility space.
The number of outcomes resulting in event A is written n(A).
When outcomes are equally likely, the probability of event A is given by
n(A) -+---- number of outcomes resulting in event A
0
P(A)-
n( S) -+---- total number of outcomes in the possibility space S
The complement of A is A', where A' is the event 'A does not occur', s
0.
so A' denotes the event 'not A'.
Since an event either occurs or does not occur,
P(A) + P(A') = 1
so P(A') = 1-P(A)
Example 1
a A fair cubical die is thrown. The 'score' is the number on the uppermost
face. Find the probability that
i the score is less than 3 ii the score is at least 3.
b Two fair cubical dice are thrown. Find the probability that
the sum of the scores is 6 ii the sum of the scores is not 6.
~~ Probability
a Possibility spaceS= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, so n(S) = 6.
If event A is 'the score is less than 3', then A= {1, 2} and n(A) = 2. IGtD 3 4 s 61s
P(score is less than 3) = P(A) = n(A) = 3. = 2..
n(S) 6 3 A
1l P(score is at at least 3) = P(A') = 1- P(A) = 1-2_ = 3.

3 3
b When two fair dice are thrown, there are 36 possible outcomes, shown by 6 • • • • • •s
dots on the possibility space diagram, so n( S) = 36. •
"' 5
If B is the event 'the sum of the scores on the dice is 6' then ~ 4 •
B = {(1, 5), (2, 4), (3, 3), ( 4, 2), (5, 1)}, shown ringed, so n(B) = 5. c
8 3 •
Jl
P(sum of scores is 6) = P(B) = n(B) = _i_ 2 •
n(S) 36
•
1l P(sum of the scores is not 6) = P(B') = 1- _i_ = ~
36 36 1 2 3 4 5 6
First die
Example 2
I
A box contains 20 counters numbered 1, 2, 3, ... up to 20. A counter is picked at
random from the box. Find the probability that the number on the counter is
a a multiple of 5 b not a multiple of 5 c higher than 7.
When you pick a counter at random from the box, there are 20 possible
outcomes and each outcome is equally likely to occur.
a The multiples of 5 are {5, 10, 15, 20}, so there are 4 successful outcomes.
P(multiple of 5) =..!. = 0. 2
20
b P(not a multiple of 5) = 1 - 0.2 = 0.8
c The numbers higher than 7 are {8, 9, ... 20}, so there are 13 successful
outcomes.
P(higher than 7) = ~ = 0.65

20
Playing cards are often used to demonstrate probability ideas.

An ordinary pack of playing cards consists of 52 cards, split equally into four
suits. Diamo nds and hearts are red suits; clubs and spades are black suits.
• A
•
Jack of hearts
•
2 of diamonds
y•
Ace of spades 9 of clubs
In each suit there are 13 cards:

Ace, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, Jack, Queen, King
The Jack, Queen and King are called picture cards.
Probability
Example 3
A card is dealt from a well-shuffled ordinary pack of 52 playing cards.
a Find the probability that the card is
i the 4 of spades ii a diamond or the 4 of spades.
b The first card dealt is placed face-up on the table. It is the 3 of diamonds.
What is the probability that the second card is from a red suit?
a The card is equally likely to be any of the 52 cards.

1
i P(4 of spades) = -
52 14 7
ii P( a diamond or the 4 of spades)= - = -
52 26
b Since the 3 of diamonds has been removed, there are 51 cards left
in the pack. Of these, 12 are diamonds and 13 are hearts.
25
P(from a red suit)=
51
Example 4
A party bag contains a selection of balloons, as shown in the frequency table.
Blue Red Gr een Yellow TOTAL
Long 17 20 10 18 65
Round 15 19 14 7 55
TOTAL 32 39 24 25 120
Yizi takes a balloon at random from the bag. Find the probability that the
balloon is
a red b a blue round balloon
c not yellow.
a P(red) a B R G y
39 13 ! Long
=-= -
120 40 [Round
39 120
b P(a blue round balloon) b B R G y
15 1 ! Long
= - =- rRound 15
120 8
120
c P(not yellow) c B R G y
32+39+24 19 r Long
= - -- - - -
120 24 !Round
Alternatively: 32 39 24 120
P(not yellow)
= 1 - P(yellow)
25 19
= 1--= -
120 24
Exercise 1
0 An ordinary fa ir cubical die is thrown. Find the probability that the score is
a even b lower than 7
c a factor of 6 d at least 4
e higher than 1.
0 In a box there are 10 red, 15 blue, 5 green and 10 yellow highlighters.
One fifth of the highlighters have dried up and will not write. Che picks a
highlighter at random from the box.
Find the probability that the highlighter
a is blue b is n either green n or yellow
c is purple d will write.
0 An integer is picked at random from the integers from 1 to 20 inclusive.
A is the event 'the integer is a multiple of 3' and B is the event 'the integer is
a multiple of 4'. Find
a P(A) b P(B ' ).
0 A card is dealt fro m a well-shuffled ordinary pack of 52 playing cards.
a Find the probability that the card dealt is
i a Queen
ii a heart or a diamond
iii a picture card showing spades.
b Two cards are dealt and put face-up on the table. They are the 4 of clubs
and the 7 of diamonds. A third card is now dealt. What is the probability
that it is a club or a 7?
0 Every work day Kusuma catches a bus to work. The bus is never early but it
is som etimes late.
Kusuma decided to record the number of m inutes the bus is late over a
period of 10 days. Here are his results.
0, 3, 4, 1, 0, 0, 5, 4, 6, 0
a Find the probability that on a randomly chosen day from the 10 days
the bus was on time
ii the bus was more than the m ean number of minutes late.
b Jamie estimates that the probability that his bus will be late when he is
on his way home fro m work is 0. 75. What is the probability that his bus
will not be late wh en h e is on his way home from work?
( ) A cubical die, with faces number ed 1 to 6, is weighted so that a 6 is twice as
likely to occur as any other number.
Find the probability that wh en the die is thrown th e score is
a 6 b odd.
Probability ..
0
~
A fair five-sided spinner has sides numbered 1, 1, 2, 3, 3.
3 3 • • • • •
The spinner is spun twice. Use the possibility space diagram to find the • • • •
·§.. 3 •
probability that <I)
"0
:::: 2
0
• • • • •
a the spinner stops at 1 at least once u
• • • • •
"'
Vl
b the sum of the numbers on the two spins is even. • • • • •

C) At a Driving Test centre there are three examiners, I, II and III. The table 1 2 3 3
shows the results of all the people who took their driving test during the First spin
first week of September.
Examiner I Examiner II Examiner III
Pass 32 27 41
Fail 11 14 15
A person is selected at random from those who took their driving test
that week. Find the probability that the person
a passed the driving test
.SL
b was assigned to Examiner II
c was assigned to Examiner III and passed the test
d was not assigned to Examiner III.
( ) Two fair coins are tossed together. Find the probability that
a exactly one tail is obtained
I: : : H T
b at most one head is obtained. First coin
«i) A tetrahedral die has four faces and they are labelled 1, 2, 3, 4. When the
die is thrown, the score is the number on which the die lands. Two fair 4 • • • •
tetrahedral dice are thrown. Find the probability that :a"0"' 3 • • • •
::::
a the sum of the scores is divisible by 4 0
u 2 • • • •
"'
Vl
• • • •
b the product of the scores is an even number
c the scores differ by at least 2. 1 2 3 4
$ Two ordinary fair cubical dice are thrown together and the scores are
First die
multiplied. P(N) denotes the probability that the number Nis obtained.
a Find i P(9) ii P(4) iii P(l4) iv P(37)
b If P(N) =..!., find the possible values of N.
9
13.2 Combined events

The following definitions relate to two events in the possibility space and are
illustrated using a Venn diagram.
~------------~s
AandB
The outcomes in event A and B are those in both A and B. This is the
intersection of A and B and is written A n B.
P(A and B)= P(A n B) = P(both A and B occur)

GJ AnBmeansA andB
• Probability
A orB s
The outcomes in event A orB are those in A orB or both. This is the union of
A and Band is written Au B.
P(A or B)= P(A u B)= P(A occurs orB occurs or both occur)
Neither A nor B
OJ
A v Bmean sAQr B .QI both
The outcomes in event neither A nor B are those that are not in the union of s
A and B.
P(neither A nor B)= 1- P(A or B)

A only
OJ Neithe r AllQIB
The outcomes in event A only are outcomes that are in A but not in B. You can s
think of this in two ways, where
P(A only)= P(A)- P(A and B)

or P(A only)= P(A or B)- P(B)
OJ A o nly
The addition law of probability

The addition Jaw gives the relationship between P{A or B) and P(A and B).
It is illustrated below using equally likely outcomes, but holds for probabilities
in general.
For two overlapping sets A and B, if you add together the nwnber of outcomes
in A and the number of outcomes in B, you will count the overlap twice.
So to find the numper of outcomes in event A u B, you need to subtract the
nwnber in the intersection:
n(A u B) = n(A) + n(B)- n(A n B)
Dividing by n(S) gives the addition law of probability:
P(A u B)= P(A) + P(B)- P(A '"'B)

so P(A or B)= P(A) + P(B)- P(A and B)
t
A or Borboth
t
BothAandB
The addition Jaw is stated in set notation in the Formulae and Statistical Tables
booklet. Note that, although it will not be essential to use set notation in the
examination, you are expected to understand it.
Example 5
Events A and Bare such that P{A) =0. 7, P(A or B) = 0.8 and P(A and B) =0.25.
Find
a P(B')
b P( only A occurs)
c P{exactly one of A orB occurs).
Probability ~-~
~·
a By the addition law:
P(A or B)= P(A) + P(B) - P(A and B)
0.8 = 0.7 + P(B)- 0.25
P(B) =0.35
P(B' ) = 1 - P(B)
= 1-0.35
= 0.65
b P(A only)= P(A)- P(A and B)
=0.7-0.25
=0.45
....---------., s
c P(exactly one of A or B) = P(A or B)- P(A and B)
= 0.8-0.25
= 0.55
Alternatively, you could use
OJ
P(exactly one of A or B) = P(A only)+ P(B only)
Example 6
All100 pupils in a year group were asked whether they had read two particular
comics, Whizz and Wham, during the past week. The results showed that 65 had
read Whizz, 55 had read Wham, 30 had read both Whizz and Wham and some
pupils had not read either comic.
A pupil was selected at random from the year group to answer more questions.
Find the probability that the pupil had read
a Whizz or Wham
b neither of the comics
c Whizz but not Wham.
Let Z be the event 'the pupil had read Whizz' and M be the event 'the pupil had
read Wham:
65 55 30
a P(Z)=- = 0.65, P(M)= - =0.55,(ZandM)=- = 0.3
100 100 100
P(Z or M) = P(Z) + P(M)- P(Z and M)
= 0.65 + 0.55- 0.3 P(Z v M) = P(Z) + P(M) - P(Z r'l M)
=0.9
b P(neither Z norM) = 1 - P(Z or M)
= 1- 0.9
= 0.1
c P(Z but not M) = P(Z only)
= P(Z)- P(Z and M)
=0.65 - 0.3
= 0.35
Alternatively, you could use a Venn diagram directly as follows:
Fill in the 30 who read both comics in the intersection (overlap).
Then fill in those who read Whizz only and those who read Wham only.
(continued)
• Probability
(continued)
20 35 Both comics
a P(WhizzorWham) = 35 + + = 90 = 0.9
100 100 s
b P(neither comic) = _!Q_ = 0.1
100
35
c P(Whizz but not Wham) = = 0.35
100
Notice that it is easy to find other probabilities from the Venn diagram.
For example,
35 25
P(pupil had read on ly one of the comics) = + = 0.6
100
Whizz only Wham o n ly
65 - 30=35 55 - 30 = 25
Probability tables
Often actual frequencies are not as important as the relative frequencies
between categories and it can be m ore convenient to work with proportions or
percentages of the total.
So, in Example 6 above, since there were 100 pupils in the year group, you know
that the proportion that read Whizz was 0.65, the proportion that read Wham
was 0.55 and the proportion that read both was 0.3.
These proportions (relative frequencies) can be shown in a two-way table
probability table, som etimes called a relative frequency table.
Step I Step 2
From th e given information you Now complete the missing entries
are able to fill in the following by making the totals agree. These
entries. Remember that the total are shown in red.
proportion (probability) is 1.
z Z' Total z Z' Total
M 0.3 0.55 M 0.3 0.25 0.55
M' M' 0.35 0.1 0.45
Total 0.65 I Total 0.65 0.35 I
You can see directly from the table that
P(Z or M) = 0.3 + 0.25 + 0.35 = 0.9 green, blue and yellow cells
P(n either Z nor M) = 0.1 pink cell
P(Z but not M) = 0. 35 blue cell
P(only one of Z or M) = 0.35 + 0.25 = 0.6 blue and yellow cells
Probability
A probability table is also useful when you are given the probabilities of events
directly.
In general, for two events A and B, label the columns A and A' and the rows B
and B'.
The column totals show P(A) and P(A') and the row totals show A A' Total
P(B) and P(B').
B P(AandB) P(only B) P(B)
The entries in the four cells give the probabilities of the combined B' P(only A) P(neither) P(B')
events shown.
Total P(A) P(A') 1
The grand total shows the sum of all the probabilities, so it is
always 1. 1
Total probability= 1
Example 7
Mario always contacts two particular friends, Jack and Sakchai, by text message.
The event that he contacts Jack is denoted by A and the event that he
contacts Sakchai is B. On any one day, Mario may contact neither, or one, or
both friends.
A A' Total
a Complete the table of probabilities for these events, where A' and B'
B 0.55
denote the events not A and not B respectively.
B' 0.4
b Hence find the probability that on a particular day, Mario:
Total 0.35
i contacts both Jack and Sakchai
ii contacts either Jack or Sakchai, but not both
iii contacts Jack or Sakchai.
a Use the row totals, column totals and 'grand total' to complete missing A A' Total
entries. These are written in red in the table.
B 0 .25 0.3 0.55
B' 0.4 0.05 0.45
b P(A and B)= 0.25 green cell
Total 0.65 0.35 1
ii P(either A orB, but not both)
= 0.4+ 0.3 blue and yellow cells
=0.7
iii P(A or B)
= 0.25 + 0.4 + 0.3 green, blue and yellow cells
=0.95
Note that if you are given P(A or B), you cannot enter it directly
into the table, but you can use it to find P(neither A nor B), since
P(neither A nor B) = 1 - P(A or B).
A A' A A'
B P(AandB) P(only B) B
B' P(onlyA) B' P(neither)
The sum of these entries This entry gives P(neither A nor B).
gives P(A or B).
D Probability
Example 8
Two events, A and B, are such that
P(A or B)= 0.95, P(A') = 0.45, P(B) = 0.65
a Find P(neither A nor B).
b Draw up a two-way probability table for events A and B.
c Find
i P(A and B) ii P(A) iii P(A only)
a P(neither A nor B)= 1 - P(A or B)
= 1-0.95
=0.05
b Enter the known values into the table, along with the grand total of 1.
You can then fill in the missing values, shown below in red.
A A' Total
B 0.25 0.4 0.65
B' 0.3 0.05 0.35
Total 0.55 0.45 1
c i P(A and B)= 0.25

ii P(A) =0.55
iii P(A only)= 0.3 Remember that P(A only) = P(A)- P(A and B).
Mutually exclusive events

Events are mutually exclusive if they cannot occur at the same time.
For example, when a die is thrown, the events 'the score is 3' and 'the score is 5'
are mutually exclusive, since the score cannot be 3 and 5 at the same time.
However, the events 'the score is an even number' and 'the score is a prime
number' can occur at the same time (since 2 is both even and prime), so they
are not mutually exclusive.
When A and Bare mutually exclusive there is no overlap between them,
so
P(A andB)=O
Note that in a probability table, the entry for P(A and B) will be zero.
P(A n B) = O
This leads to a special case of the addition law.
The addition law for two mutually exclusive events is
P(A or B)= P(A) + P(B)
so P(A u B)= P(A) + P(B) Note

The law can be extended to n mutually exclusive events, where This is the 'or' rule for
mutually exclusive events.
Probability •
Example 9
A card is dealt from an ordinary pack of 52 playing cards. Find the probability
I
-
that the card is
a a club (C) or a diamond (D)
b a club (C) or a King (K).
a A card cannot be a club and a diamond at the same time, so the events 11(S) = 52
are mutually exclusive.
P(C) =~ P(D)=~
52 I 52
13 13 26 1
So P(CorD)=P(C)+P(D)= - + - =-=-
52 52 52 2
80
b The events C and K are not mutually exclusive since the King of clubs is 11(S) =52
both a King and a club.
1
P(CandK) = -
52
P(C orK) =P(C)+ P(K) - P(CandK)
13 4 1 16 4
=-+---= - =-
52 52 52 52 13
Example 10
A fair cubical die is thrown. Events are defined as follows:
A: the score is at most 3
B: the score is at least 3
C: the score is lower than 3
D: the score is higher than 3
Identify pairs of events that are mutually exclusive.
List the outcomes in each event.
A= {1, 2, 3} B = {3, 4,5,6} C= {1, 2} D= {4, 5, 6}
Look for pairs where there is no overlap.
P(A and D) = 0, P(B and C) = 0, P(Cand D) =0
The following pairs of events are mutually exclusive:
A and D, Band C, C and D
Example 11
Jo, Paula and Maladee are playing a game in which there can be only one
winner. The probability that Jo wins is 0.3, the probability that Paula wins is 0.2
and the probability that Maladee wins is 0.4. Find the probability that
a Jo or Maladee wins
b Jo or Paula or Maladee wins
c someone else wins.
• Probability
Since there can only be one winner in the game, the events are mutually
exclusive.
a P(Jo or Maladee wins) = 0.3 + 0.4=0.7
b P(Jo or Maladee or Paula wins)= 0.3 + 0.4 + 0.2 = 0.9
c P(someone else wins)= 1-0.9 = 0.1
Exercise 2
0 An ordinary fair cubical die is thrown.
Find the probability that the score on the die is
a even b prime
c even or prime d even and prime.
0 All the students in a class of 30 study at least one of the subjects, physics
and biology. Of these, 20 study physics and 21 study biology. Find the
probability that a student chosen at random studies
a both physics and biology
b only physics
c only one of the subjects.
8 From an ordinary pack of 52 playing cards the seven of diamonds has been
lost. A card is dealt from the well-shuffled pack. Find the probability that
the card is
a adiamond b a Queen
c a diamond or a Queen d a diamond or a seven
e a diamond and a seven.
0 In a quality control test, all the components produced by three machines
on a particular day are tested. The results are summarised in the table.
Machine A MachineB Machine C

Faulty 2 3 l
Not faulty 80 72 42
A machine operator selects one of these components at random. Find the
probability that the component
a is from machine A
b is a faulty component from machine C
c is not faulty or is from machine A.
0 A class consists of 9 boys and 11 girls. Of these, 4 boys a nd 3 girls are in the
athle tics team. A pupil is chosen at random from the class to take part in
the 100 metres race on Sports Day.
Find the probability that the pupil is
a in the athletics team b a girl
c a girl in the athletics team d a girl or in the athletics team.
Probability •
G Two fair cubical dice are thrown. Using a possibility space diagram, find the
probability that the sum of the scores is
a a multiple of 5 b greater than 9
c a multiple of 5 or greater than 9 d a multiple of 5 and greater than 9.
0 The probability that a randomly chosen boy in Class 2 is in the football team
is 0.4, the probability that he is in the chess team is 0.5 and the probability
that he is in both teams is 0.2.
Find the probability that a boy chosen at random from the class
a is in the football team, but not in the chess team
b is in the football team or the chess team
c is not in either team d is in just one of the teams.
0 Events X and Yare such that P(X) = 0. 75, P(Y') = 0.45 and P(X and Y) = 0.5. X X' Total
Complete the probability table and use it to find y 0.5
a P(X or Y) b P(neither X nor Y). Y' 0.45
C) Events A and Bare such that P(A) = P(B), P(A and B)= 0.1 and Total 0.75
P(A or B) =0.7.
Find
a P(A') b P(B only).
(!) Events A and B are such that
P(A occurs)= 0.6, P(B occurs)= 0.7, P(neither A nor B occurs)= 0.1.
Find
a P(both A and B occur) b P(at least one of A and B occurs)
c P(A occurs orB occurs but not both A and B occur).
Q Events X and Yare mutually exclusive and P(X) = 0.5, P(Y) = 0.25.
Find
a P(X or Y) b P(X and Y).
e Events A, Band Care mutually exclusive.
P(A orB or C) = 0.8, P(A') = 0.95, P(A or B)= 0.45.
Find
a P(B) b P(C) c P(A or C) d P(Band C).
e Two fair cubical dice are thrown.
Even t' A is the scores on the dice are the same.
Event B is the product of the scores is a multiple of 3.
Event Cis the sum of the scores is 7.
State, with a reason, whether the following pairs of events are mutually
exclusive:
a A andB b AandC c Band C.
• Probability
13.3 Conditional events
Suppose you have a box of milk and plain chocolates. If you randomly select a
ch ocolate, eat it, then randomly select another one, the probability that the
second chocolate is plain depends on whether the first one was plain or milk.
The events are conditional.
The conditional probability that B occurs, given that A has occurred, is s
P(B given A), written P(B IA).
Since A has occurred, th e possibility space is reduced to just A.
P(B IA)= n(B and A )
So, n(A) .
BandA
Dividing the top and bottom of the fraction by n(S) gives
P(B I A) = P(B and A)
P(A)
Example 12
Of the 120 first year students at a college, 36 study chemistry, 60 study biology
and 10 study both chemistry and biology.
A first year student is selected at random to represent the college at a
conference. Find the probability that the student studies
a ch emistry, given that the student studies biology
b biology, given that the student studies ch emistry.
With obvious notation, P(C)=~,P(B)= 60

,P(C andB) =..!.9_
120 120 120
10
a P(CIB) P(CandB) _ 120 _ 1

P(B) - 6o - 6
120
10
b P(BIC) = P(B and C) = 120 = .!.Q = ~

P(C) ~ 36 18
120
Alternatively, use a Venn diagram directly: s

Fill in the 10 who study both by putting them in the intersection (overlap), then
~
~
the number in C but not in the intersection (26) and the number in B but n ot in
the intersection (50).
a Look only at the reduced possibility space of B.
P(CIB) n(Cand B)
n(B)
10 = ..!_
60 6 r-u
~
s
b Look only at the reduced possibility space of C.

s
P(BIC) = n(Band C) ~ = 2
n(C) 36 18 ~
aJ
Probability ii!N
_,
Example 13
Last month a consultant saw 60 men and 65 women suspected of having a
particular eye condition. Tests were carried out and the results are shown in the
table.
C is the event: the patient had the eye condition, C' is the event: the patient did
not have the eye condition, M is the event: the patient is a man; W is the event:
the patient is a woman.
c C' Totals
M 25 35 60
w 20 45 65
Totals 45 80 125
One of the patients was selected at random to take part in a survey. Find the
probability that the patient selected
a was a woman, given that the patient had the eye condition
b did not have the eye condition, given that the patient was a man.
Focus on the relevant numbers in the table.

a P(wom an, given eye condition) The possibility space has been
c C'
=P(W IC) reduced to the 45 patients in C.
M
20
=-
45
w 20
45
4
=-
9
b P(did not have eye condition, given man) c C' The possibility space has been
=P(C'IM) reduced to the 60 men.
M 35 60
35 w
=
60
7
=
12
The multiplication law of probability

For the conditional probability P(B IA)
P(BIA) P(B and A)
P(A)
This can be rearran ged to give the multiplication law of probability
P{B and A)= P(A) X P(B IA)
Similarly P(A and B)= P(B) X P(A I B)

In general, since P(A and B)= P(B and A),
P (A and B)= P(A) X P(B IA)= P(B) XP(A I B)
• Probability
Example 14
I- Two events X and Yare such that P(X) = 0.2, P(Y) =0.25 and P(YI X)= 0.4. Find
a P(Xand Y)
a P(X and Y) = P(X) x P(YI X)

b P(XI Y) c P(Xor Y).
= 0.2x 0.4
=0.08
b P(XIY)= P(XandY)
P(Y)
0.08
=- -
0.25
=0.32
c P(X or Y) = P(X) + P(Y)- P(X and Y)
= 0.2 + 0.25- 0.08
=0.37
Example 15
There are 5 red counters and 7 blue counters in a bag. Vuka~in selects a cou nter
Note
at random from the bag and puts it on the table. He then selects another
counter at random. This is known as sampling
without replacement, as
Find the probability that he selects
the first counter is not put
a a red counter then a blue counter
back Into the bag before the
b two counters that are the same colour second counter is taken out.
c at least one blue counter. The events are conditional.
a P(R 1 and B2)

= P(R 1) x P(B2 1 R.)
5 7 There are now only 11 counters in the bag,
= 12 x 11 of which 7 are blue.
35
=
132
b P(same colour)
= P(both red)+ P(both blue)
= P(R 1) x P(R2 i R1) + P(B.) x P(B2 i B.)
= C~ ~~)+C 2
7 6
X X 11)
5 7
=-+-
33 22
31
=
66
(continued)
Probability I
(continued)
c P(at least one blue)
= 1 - P(both red) frompartb
5
=1--
33
28
=
33
Alternatively, P(at least one blue)= P(both blue)+ P(R1 and B2) + P(B, and R).
The results can be extended to more than two events.
Example 16
There are three shelves in the classroom bookcase and the number and type of
books on each shelf is shown in the table.
Hardback Paperback Total
Shelf I 21 9 30
Shelf 2 8 7 15
Shelf 3 15 12 27
Total 44 28 72
A student is asked to select three books at random from the bookcase.
Calculate, to three decimal places, the probability that the student selects
a a hardback, then a hardback, then a paperback
b two hardbacks and one paperback
c one book from each shelf.
If you pick a hardback first, there are only 43 hardbacks left,
. /so reduce the numeratoron the second selection. There are,
/ however, still 28 paperbacks.
44 43 28
a P(H,H,P)= - x -x-
72 71 7~ After the first book has been selected, there are only
........_ 71 books to choose from and after the second selection
there are only 70, so reduce the denominators on the
second and third selections.
= 0.1480.. . =0.148 (3 dp)
b P(two hardbacks and one paperback)
= P(H, H, P) + P(H, P, H)+ P(P, H, H)
= ( 44 X 43 X 28
72 71 70
)+( 44 X 28 X 43) + ( 28 X 44 X 43 )
72 71 70 72 71 70
= 3 X 44 X 43 X 28 Notice that the probability Is the
72 71 70 same for each arrangement, so you
= 0.4441.. . could just find 3 x P(H, H, P).
= 0.444 (3 dp).
(continued)
(continued)
c There are 6 arrangements for the selection of the shelves:
1 2 3, 1 3 2, 2 3 1, 2 1 3, 3 2 1, 3 12
The probability is the same for each arrangement, so find the probability of
one arrangement and multiply by 6.
P(one book from each shelf)
=6 x P(Shelf 1, Shelf2, Shelf3)
30 15 27
=6X - x - x -
72 71 70
=0. 2037 ...
= 0.204 (3 dp)
Exercise 3
0 Each of the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 is written on a card and the nine
cards are shuffled.
A card is then dealt.
Given that the card is a multiple of3, find the probabiJity that the card is
a even b a multiple of 4.
f) In a large group of people it is known that 10% have a hot breakfast, 20%
have a hot lunch and 25% have a hot breakfast or a hot lunch. Find the
probability that a person chosen at random from this group
a had a hot breakfast and a hot lunch
b had a hot lunch, given that the person had a hot breakfast
c had a hot breakfast, given that the person did not have a hot lunch.
Q In a group of 100 college students, 80 own a laptop computer, 65 own
a desktop computer and 50 own both a laptop computer and a
desktop computer. Find the probability that a student ch osen at random
from the group
a owns a desktop computer, given that the student owns a laptop computer
b does not own a laptop computer, given the student owns a desktop
computer
c does not own a laptop computer or a desktop computer.
0 Two fair tetrahedral dice, each with faces labelled 1, 2, 3, 4, are thrown and
the number on which each lands is noted.
Find the probability that
a the sum of the two numbers is even, given that at least one die
lands on a3
b at least one die lands on a 3, given that the score is even.
e The table shows how pupils at a certain school travelled to school on the
first day of te rm.
Walk Cycle Bus Car
Boy 60 22 48 70
Girl 72 15 52 71
Probability ..
Find the probability that a randomly selected pupil from the school
a was a boy who had travelled to school by car
b had cycled to school or was a boy
c was a girl, given that the pupil travelled by bus
d travelled by car, given a boy was selected
e was a boy, given that the pupil did not walk or cycle.
0 Two events A and Bare such that P(A) = 0.3, P(B) = 0.45 and P(A IB)= 0.2. Find
a P(A and B) b P(B IA) c P(B or A).
0 Two events Wand X are such that P(WIX) = 0.5, P(XI VV) = 0.4 and
P(VV) = 0.7. Find
a P(WandX) b P(X)
c P(Wor X) d P(neither W nor X).
0 A bag contains 20 identical sweets apart from the colour: 10 are pink, 7 are
green and 3 are yellow. Jovian randomly selects two sweets from the bag,
one after the other, and eats them. Find the probability that
a she eats two pink sweets
b the first sweet is green and the second sweet is yellow
c she eats exactly one pink sweet
d neither sweet is green.
C) A card is picked from an ordinary pack containing 52 playing cards. It is
then replaced in the pack, the pack is shuffled and a second card is picked.
a both cards are the seven of diamonds
b the first card is a heart and the second card is a spade
c at least one card is a Queen.
G) A large apartment block consists of apartments with either 1, 2, 3 or 4
bedrooms. They are either owner-occupied or let to tenants.
The number of each type is shown in the table.
I bedroom 2bedrooms 3bedrooms 4bedrooms
Owner-occupied 8 27 45 11
Let to tenants 12 34 10 3
a Two apartments are selected at random. Find the probability that
neither has 4 bedrooms
II one is let to tenants and the other is owner occupied.
b Three apartments are selected at random.
Find the probability that one is owner-occupied and two are let to tenants.
Independent events
In general, for events A and B:
P(A and B)= P(A) x P(B IA)
However, if either event can occur without being affected by the other, the
events are said to be independent.
• Probability
Since it makes no difference that A has occurred,
P(B I A ) = P(B) In the same way P(A IB) = P(A)
This gives the multiplication law for independent events

P(A a nd B) = P(A) X P(B)
so P(A rt B) = P(A) X P(B) Note
The rule can be extended to n independent events This is the 'and' rule for
independent events.
P(A1 and A2 a nd A 3 and··· and A) = P(A 1) X P(A2) X P(A3 ) X ··· X P(An)
Example 17
a A fair cubical die is thrown twice. Find the probability that
the score is 3 on both throws
II the score is 3 only on one throw
iii neither score is 3.
b The die is thrown four times. Find the probability that the score is even on all
four throws.
. 1 5
a The scores are mdependent so, for each throw, P(3) = -, P(not 3) =-.
6 6
1 1 1 The outcomes in parts i, ii and iii
P(3onboth)= - x - = -
6 6 36 cover all the possible outcomes.
They are also mutually exclusive, so
II P(onlyone3)=(.!. x
6 6
~)+(~6 x .!.)=~=~
6 36 18 the total probability is 1.
. 5 5 25 Check:
iii P(neither shows 3) =- x - = -
.
6 6 36
1
_!36_ +!Q+ 25 = 36 = 1
36 36 36
b The scores are mdependent so, for each throw, P(even) = -.
4 2
P(score is even on all four throws)= (.!.)2 = _!_,
16
Example 18
There are 5 red counters and 7 blue counters in a bag. Eliza takes a counter from
the bag, notes its colour and then puts it back into the bag. Obren then takes a Note
counter from the bag. Find the probability that This is known as sampling
a Eliza takes a red counter and Obren takes a blue counter with replacement, as the
b Obren's counter is the same colour as Eliza's counter. first counter Is put back into
the bag before the second
As Eliza's counter is put back into the bag, the events are independent so, for counter is taken out. The
both Eliza and Obren, events are independent.
5 7
P(R)= ,P(B) =U
12
a P(Eliza picks red and Obren picks blue)
= P(RE) X P(B0 )
=~X _7_ ...,.,___ _ There are still l 2 counters in the bag, of
12 12 which 7 are blue.
35
=
144
(continued)
Probability G
(continued)
b P(same colour)= P(both red)+ P(both blue)
= P(RE) X P(R0 ) + P(BE) X P(B0 )
5 5 7 7
=- X-+-X -
12 12 12 12
37
=72
Example 19
Three coffee machines are installed in an office. The probability that this type of
machine will break down on any day is 0.1. Find the probability that on
Wednesday
a all three machines break down
b exactly one machine breaks down
c at least one machine is working.
Let B be the event 'the machine breaks down' and Wthe event 'the machine is
working'.
a P(all three machines break down)
= P(B 1 B2 B)
=0.1 x0.1 x 0.1
= 0.001
b P(exactly one machine breaks down)
= P(B 1 W2 W 3) + P(W1 B 2 W) + P(W1 W 2 B3) Notice that each probability is the
= (0.1 X 0.9 X 0.9) + (0.9 X 0.1 X 0.9) + (0.9 X 0.9 X 0.1) same, so you could just calculate
=0.243 3 X 0.1 X 0.92•
c P(at least one machine is working)
= 1- P(all three break down)
= 1 - 0.001 from part a
= 0.999
Example 20
A supermarket sells three types of mille red top, green top and blue top.
The probability that a customer will buy a particular type of milk is shown in
the table.
Milk Probabllity
Red top (R) 0.3
Green top (G) 0.55
Blue top (B) 0.15
Three customers were selected at random from those who had bought one type
of mill<. Find the probability that
a they all bought green top
b exactly two bought red top,
c one bought red top, one bought green top and one bought blue top.
D Probability
The events R, G and B are independent.
a P( all bought green top) = P( GGG)
= 0.55 X 0.55 X 0.55
= 0.166375
= 0.166 (3 s f)
b P(R) =0.3, P(R' ) =0.7
There are 3 arrangements of RRR' and each has the same probability, so
P( exactly two bou ght red top) = 3 x P(RRR' )
= 3 X0.3 X0.3X 0.7
= 0. 189
c There are 6 arra ngem ents of RGB, each with the sam e probability, so
P(one R, one G, one B) = 6 x P(RGB)
= 6 X 0.3 X 0.55 X 0.15
= 0.1485
Exercise 4
0 a A fai r cubical die is thrown twice. Find the p rob ability of obtaining
l a score of 2 on both throws
ll a score of 2 on just one of the two throws
ill a score of 4 on at least one throw
lv a score lower than 3 on both throws.
b The die is thrown 3 times. Find the probability that the score is even on
all three throws.
e A manufacturer makes p ens. When the process is going well, o nly 2.5% of
the pens are defective. The su p ervisor selects two p ens at random fro m the
production line. Find the probability that
a both pen s are defective
b exactly one p en is defective.
0 A coin is biased so that it is three times as likely to show heads than tails.
a The coin is tossed once.
Fin d the probability of obtaining a head.
b The coin is tossed twice.
Find the prob ability of obtaining at least one head.
c The coin is tossed three times.
Find the p ro bability of obta ining at m ost 2 h eads.
0 Anzer, Barb ara a nd Clefta are m embers of the skating club. The
indep endent probabilities that Anzer, Barbara and Clefta will go
to the club o n a Friday evening are shown in the ta ble.
Name Probability
Anzer 0.4
Barbara 0.3
Clefta 0.5
Probability ..
Find the probability that, on a randomly selected Friday,
a all three girls go to the skating club
b only Barbara goes to the skating club.
C) In an experiment, a coloured ball is selected at random from a bag
containing 6 red balls, 3 yellow balls and 1 blue ball. Its colour is noted and
the ball is put back into the bag.
a The process is performed twice. Find the probability that
two red balls are selected
ii a yellow and a blue ball are selected
iii neither ball is blue.
b The process is performed 3 times. Find the probability that
I one ball is red and two balls are yellow
ii a ball of each colour is selected.
c The process is performed 5 times. Find the probability that all the balls
selected are red.
13.4 Tree diagrams

You may prefer to show the outcomes and probabilities on a tree diagram.
Note
Tree diagrams can be used both for conditional events and for independent
events. You may use tree diagrams
Steps: in the examination, but
questions will not specifically
..,. Show the events in layers on the tree.
require you to use this
..,. Show the outcomes of each event in the branches, writing the appropriate
method.
probability on each branch. Remember that the probabilities on a set of
branches add up to 1.
..,. To find the final outcomes, follow each path .
..,. To work out the probability of each final outcome, multiply the probabilities
along the path .
..,. When more than one final outcome satisfies what you want, add the
probabilities of the final outcomes.
The method is illustrated in the following example.
Example 21
Each day I travel to work by route A or route B. The probability that I choose
route A is 0.2. The probability that I am late for work ifl choose route A is 0.3
and the probability that I am late ifl choose route B is 0.65.
a Find the probability that I am not late for work.
b Given that I am not late for work, find the probability that I chose route B.
Give your answer to 3 decimal places.
Event A: I go by route A P(A) = 0.2
Event B: I go by route B P(B) = 1 - 0.2 = 0.8
Event L: I am late for work P(L IA)= 0.3, P(L' IA)= 0.7
P(L I B) = 0.65, P(L' IB) = 0.35
First draw a set of branches to show the routes and write in the probabilities.
Then draw a set of branches from A to show whether or not I am late for work.
Route Late or not The events are conditional.
The probabilities on the branches

meeting at a point must add up to 1.
Now complete the tree:

Route Late or not Multiply along the branches.
L
P(A and L) = P(A) x P(L IA)= 0.2 x 0.3 = 0.06
L' P(A and L') = P(A) x P(L'I A)= 0.2 x 0.7 = 0.14
L P(B andL) = P(B) x P(L I B) =0.8 x 0.65 = 0.52
L' P(B and L') = P(B) x P(L' IB)= 0.8 x 0.35 = 0.28 *
Notice that the sum of these

probabilities is 1.
a P(not late for work)
= P(L')
= P(A and L') + P(B and L') highlighted outcomes
=0.14+ 0.28
=0.42
P( chose route B I not late for work) Note
__.. marked* The possibility space has been
P(BandL') ~
=__;_____,. :, reduced to the highlighted
P(L') . _ _ _ _ from part a outcomes.
0.28
0.42
=0.6666 ...
= 0.667 (3 dp)
Probability e
Example 22
A coin is biased so that the probability it shows heads is 0.8. The coin is
tossed twice.
Find the probability that there is
a exactly one head
b at least one head
c exactly one head, given there is at least one head.
For each toss, P(H) = 0.8, P(T) = 0.2.

First toss Second toss The events are independent.
H P(H1 and H)= P(H) x P(H2) = 0.8 X 0.8 = 0.64
0.8
T P(H1 and T2)=P(H1)x P(T)= 0.8x 0.2=0.16 *
0.2
T P(T1 and T2) = P(T) X P(T) = 0.2 x 0.2 = 0.04
a P(exactly one head) marked *

=0.16 +0.16 ~
=0.32
P(at least one head)

= P(exactly one head) + P(two heads) +---- highlighted outcomes
=0.32+0.64
=0.96
c P(exactly one head I at least one head)

0.32 from part a
= 0.96 from part b
1
=3
D Probability
Example 23
Dafydd, Eli and Fabio are members of an amateur cycling club that holds a time
trial each Sunday during summer. The independent probabilities that Dafydd,
Eli and Fabio takes part in any one of these trials are 0.6, 0. 7 and 0.8.
Find the probability that, on a particular Sunday during summer:
a none of the three cyclists takes part;
b Fabio is the only one of the three cyclists to take part;
c exactly one of the three cyclists takes part;
d either one or two of the three cyclists takes part.
AQA MS1B January 2007
Note
Event D: Daffyd takes part P(D) = 0.6, P(D') = 0.4
Atree diagram is not
Event E: Eli takes part P(E) = 0. 7, P(E') = 0.3
essential, but it may help to
Event F: Fabio takes part P(F) = 0.8, P(F') = 0.2
clarify the probabilities.
The events are D, E and Fare independent.
Daffyd Eli Fabio
a P(none takes part)
=P(D'E'F')
= 0.4x 0.3 x 0.2
/F
=0.024
0.7
E ~F'
b P(only Ftakes part) D
= P(D'E'F)
0.6 0.3
= 0.4 X 0.3 X 0.8
= 0.096
c P( exactly one takes part)
= P(only D)+ P(only E)+ P(only F) /F
E~F'
= (0.6 X 0.3 X 0.2) + (0.4 X 0.7 X 0.2) + 0.096 0.4
= 0.188
D'
d P(either one or two)
= 1- P(none)- P(all three take part)
= 1-0.024- (0.6 X 0.7 X 0.8)
=0.64
Exercise 5
Think carefully about whether events are independent or conditional.
0 A mother and her daughter are both entering a cake making competition
at a show. From past experience they estimate that the probability that the
mother will win a prize is ~
and, independently of her mother's result, the
6
probability that the daughter will win a prize is ~ .
7
Probability GJ.
a either the mother or the daughter, but not both, wins a prize, First Second
b the mother wins a prize, given that just one of them wins a prize, chocolate chocolate
c at least one of them wins a prize.

Sof< <son
0 A box contains 20 chocolates, of which 15 have soft centres and 5 have hard
Hard
<<
centres. Sadie takes two chocolates from the box and eats them.
a Find the probability that just one of the chocolates has a soft centre.
Soft
b Find the probability that the first chocolate has a soft centre, given that Hard
just one of the chocolates has a soft centre. Hard
G In a large batch of flower seeds 70% have been treated to improve
germination. The treated seeds have a probability of 0.8 of germinating,
whereas the untreated seeds have a probability of 0.3 of germinating.
A seed is selected at random from the batch. By drawing a tree diagram, or
otherwise, find the probability that
a the seed will germinate
b the seed has been treated, given that it has germinated.
0 A box contains 9 pens of which 6 are red and 3 are blue. Verlind is doing an
experiment as part of his mathematics homework.
a He takes a pen from the box at random, notes its colour and then puts it
back in the box. He does this a second time, then a third time.
Find the probability that he takes out
a red pen each time
ii at least one blue pen.
b Verlind now repeats the experiment, but this time he does not return the
pen to the box each time.
Find the probability that he takes out
l a red pen each time
ii at least one blue pen.
C) At a children's party each of the 12 guests is to receive a toy. Mohammed is
hoping to get a torch and Rebekah wants a ball. The 12 toys, consisting of
4 balls, 3 torches and 5 pens, are placed in a bag. Mohammed receives the
first toy drawn out ofthe bag and Rebekah receives the second toy drawn
out of the bag. Assume that at each stage each toy has an equal chance of
being drawn.
a Find the probability that Rebekah will get a ball.
b When Rebekah's parents arrive at the end of the party, Rebekah
shows them the ball that she got in the draw. Find the probability that
Mohammed got a torch.
C) Some students are answering multiple choice questions. In each question,
there are four choices.
a Amy does not know the answer to a particular question, so she guesses.
What is the probability that Amy guesses the correct answer?
D Probability
b Fahed guesses the answers to two of the multiple choice questions. Find
the probability that
i both answers are correct
ii exactly one answer is correct.
c Imogen guesses the answers to three of the multiple choice questions.
i all three are incorrect
ii exactly two answers are correct
iii at least two answers are correct
iv fewer than two answers are correct.
d Caliti guesses the answers to four multiple choice questions. Find the
probability that all his answers are correct.
0 Pippa is playing a game at a fund raiser event in which she randomly
selects a coloured disc from a bag. The bag contains 10 discs of which 9 are
blue and 1 is white. If she selects the white disc she will win a teddy bear.
She is allowed three attempts and no disc is returned to the bag once it has
been chosen.
a Find the probability that Pippa wins the teddy bear.
b Given that she wins the teddy bear, find the probability that she only
needed one attempt.
0 Garuda is playing table tennis. Each time that sh e serves, the
probability that she wins the point is 0.6, independent of the result of
any preceding serves. At the start of a particular game she serves for
the first five points.
a Find the probability that, for the first two points of the game,
i she wins both points
ii she wins exactly one of the points.
b Calculate the probability that she loses all five points.
0 When a particular firm needs to hire a taxi, the receptionist calls one of
three firms, X, Y or Z.
40% of the calls are to X, 50% are to Yand 10% are to Z.
9% of the taxis hired from X are late, 6% of those hired from Yare late and
20% of those hired from Z are late.
Find the probability tl1at the next taxi hired
a will be from X and will not arrive late
b will arrive late
c is from X, given that it arrives late.
Probability G
G Jodie and Kapil are playing a game in which they have two bags containing
coloured cubes.
Bag A has 7 red cubes and 3 blue cubes.
Bag B has 4 red cubes and 6 blue cubes.
a Jodie takes a cube at random from bag A and Kapil takes a cube at
random from bag B. Find the probability that
i both cubes are red
U just one of the cubes is red.
b The cubes are returned to their correct bags. Jodie now takes a cube at
random from bag A and after noting the colour she p uts it in bag B.
Kapil now takes a cube at random from bag B. Find the probability that
it is red.
Showing whether events are mutually

exclusive or independent
Mutually exclusive events occur in the context of several possible outcomes
in one experiment.
~ To prove that two events are mutually exclusive, you must give working to
show that either of the following is satisfied
P(A or B)= P(A) + P(B)
P(A andB)=O
Independent events occur in the context of two or more experiments taking
place together or being repeated one or more times.
~ To prove that two events are independent, you must give working to show
that any one of the following is satisfied
P(A and B) = P(A) x P(B)
P(A IB) =P(A)
P(B IA)= P(B)
Example 24
When a cubical die is thrown, the number on the uppermost face is the score. B c A
Two fair dice are thrown, one red and one blue. 6
The outcomes resulting in events A, B and Care shown on the possibility space
:a"' 5
"':::1
::0 4
diagram, where c:
0 3
A is the event: the score on the red die is more than 4; "'....u0 2
(/)
B is the event: the sum of scores is 7;
C is the event: the sum of the scores is 8.
1 2 3 4 5 6
a Giving a reason for your answer: Score on red die
state which two of the events A, Band Care mutually exclusive
li show that events A and B are independent.
b Find P(A I C).
li Are events A and C independent? Give a reason.
Probability
a i Since it is not possible for the sum to be 7 and 8,
P(B and C)= 0, so events Band Care mutually exclusive.
2 1
ii P(A and B)= - =-
36 18
12 1 6 1
P(A)= -=-,P(B)=-=-,
36 3 36 6
1 1 1
soP(A)xP(B)= -x-=-
3 6 18
Since P(A and B) = P(A) x P(B), events A and Bare independent.
2
b P(A I C)=-
5
1
ii From part a, you know that P(A) = -
3
Therefore P(A I C)-:;; P(A), so events A and Care not independent.
Example 25
The table shows an analysis of the tickets purchased for a performance at a
theatre. There are three types of tickets available: child (up to 15 years old);
adult ( 16-59) and senior (60 or over) and the tickets are either for the balcony
or the stalls.
Child Adult Senior Totals
Balcony 12 20 13 45
Stalls 8 15 7 30
Totals 20 35 20 75
a State, giving a reason, whether the event of selecting a balcony ticket and the
event of selecting a child's ticket are independent.
b Give an event that is mutually exclusive to the event of selecting a ticket in
the stalls.
a Let B be the event 'selecting a balcony ticket' and C the event 'selecting a
child's ticket'
Alternatively, show P( CI B) = P( C)
P(B) =
45
=0.6, P(B I C)= ~=0.6 or P(Band C) = P(B) x P(C).
75 20
Since P(B I C) = P(B), events Band Care independent.
b The event 'selecting a balcony ticket' is mutually exclusive to 'selecting a
ticket in the stalls' .
Example 26
Events A and Bare such that P(A) = 0.3, P(B) = 0.6 and P(A or B)= 0. 72.
I- State, giving a reason in each case, whether events A and Bare

a mutually exclusive
b independent.
Probability G
a P{A or B) =0.72 Note
P{A) + P{B) = 0.3 + 0.6 = 0.9
Remember to state your
Since P{A) + P{B) ~ P(A or B), events A and Bare not mutually exclusive. conclusion.
b By the addition law
P(A or B) = P{A) + P{B) - P(A and B)
0.72 = 0.3 + 0.6- P(A and B)
so P{A and B)= 0.18
Now, P{A) X P(B) =0.3 X 0.6 =0.18.
Since P(A and B) = P{A) x P(B), the events A and Bare independent.
Alternatively, you could draw up a probability table and make your

conclusions from it:
~ Fill in P{A) = 0.3 and P(B) = 0.6 and the grand total of 1. A A'
~ Use P{A or B) = 0. 72 to fill in P{neither A nor B) = 1 - 0. 72 =0.28. B 0.18 0.42 0 .6
~ Now fill in the remaining values by making totals agree. B' 0. 12 0.28 0 .4
0.3 0.7 1
From the table:
a P{A and B) = 0.18
Since P{A and B) :t 0, A and Bare not mutually exclusive.
b P(A) x P{B) =0.3 x 0.6 = 0.18 = P(A and B), so events A and Bare
independent.
Exercise 6
0 The events A and Bare such that P{A IB) = 0.4, P(B IA) = 0.25 and
P(A and B)= 0.1 2.
a Are A and B independent? Give a reason for your answer.
b Find P{A or B).
0 Events A and Bare such that P(A) =0.45, P(B) =0.35 and P(A or B)= 0.7.
a Find P(A and B).
b Show that events A and Bare not independent.
c Find P(A IB).
e Events A and Bare such that P(A) = 0.7, P{A only)= 0.49, P(B) = 0.3
A A'
B 0.3
B' 0.49
0.7 1
a Complete the probability table.
b State, with a reason whether
I events A and B are independent
II events A and Bare mutually exclusive
iii events A' and B are independent.
D Probability
0 Events X and Yare mutually exclusive where P(X) =0.3 and P(Y) =0.4.
Are events X' and Y' mutually exclusive? Give a reason for your answer.
0 A school has 100 teachers. In a survey on the use of the school car park, the
teachers were asked whether they had driven a car to school on that day.
Of the 70 full-time teachers, 45 had driven a car to school and of the
30 part-time teachers, 12 had driven a car to school.
a Copy and complete the two-way table, where C denotes c C' Total
the event 'the teacher had driven a car to school that daY, Full-time teacher
b Find the probability that a teacher chosen at random Part-time teacher
is a part-time teacher who had driven a car to school Total 100
ii is a full-time teacher who had not driven a car to school
iii is a full-time teacher or had driven a car to school
iv is a part-time teacher, given that the teacher had driven a car to
school.
c Are the events 'the teacher had driven a car to school' and 'the teacher
is full-time' independent? Give a reason for your answer.
d Describe two events that are mutually exclusive.
13.5 Further applications

Example 27
1 A basket in a stationery store contains a total of 400 marker and
highlighter pens. Of the marker pens, some are permanent and the rest are
non-permanent. The colours and types of pen are shown in the table.
Colour
Type Black Blue Red Green
Permanent marker 44 66 32 18
Non-permanent marker 36 53 21 10
Highlighter 0 41 37 42
A pen is selected at random from the basket. Calculate the probability
that it is:
a a blue pen;
b a marker pen;
c a blue pen or a marker pen;
d a green pen, given that it is a highlighter pen;
e a non-permanent marker pen, given that it is a red pen.
AQA MS1B June 2008
Probability a
Work out the totals, checking that the row totals and column totals add
up to 400:
Colour
Type Black Blue Red Green
Permanent marker 44 66 32 18 160
Non-permanent marker 36 53 21 10 120
Hlghllghter 0 41 37 42 120
80 160 90 70 400
160 2
a P(blue) = - =-
400 5
160+120 7
b P(markerpen) = =- First two rows.
400 10
321
c P(blue pen or marker pen)= - Count all the marker pens
400
and the blue highlighters.
42
d P(green, given highlighter pen) = = ]_ The sample space is reduced to
120 20
just highlighters.
e P(non-permanent marker, given red)= 3..!, = ]_ The sample space is reduced to

90 30
just red pens.
Example 28
Roger is an active retired lecturer. Each day after breakfast, he decides whether
the weather for that day is going to be fine (F), dull (D) or wet (W). He then
decides on only one of four activities for the day: cycling (C), gardening (G),
shopping (S) or relaxing (R). His decisions from day to day may be assumed to
be independent.
The table shows Roger's probabilities for each combination of weather and activity.
Weather
Fine (F) Dull (D) Wet(W)
Activity Cycllng(C) 0.30 0.10 0
Gardening (G) 0.25 0.05 0
Shopping (S) 0 0.10 0.05
Relaxing (R) 0 0.05 0.10
a Find the probability that, on a particular day, Roger decided:

I that it was going to be fine and that he would go cycling;
II on either gardening or shopping;
Ill to go cycling, given that he had decided it was going to be fine;
lv that it was going to be fine, given that he did not go cycling.
(continued)
D Probability
(continued)
b Calculate the probability that, on a particular Saturday and Sw1day, Roger
decided that it was going to be fine and decided on the same activity for
both days.
AQA MS 1A January 2013
a I P(F and C) = 0.30
II Since G and S are mutually exclusive,
P( G or S) = P( G) + P( S)
= (0.25 + 0.05) + (0.10 + 0.05)
= 0.45
iii P(C IF)= P(CandF) = 0.30 =~
P(F) 0.55 11
' ) _ P(F and C') _ 0.25 _ 5
iv P(F I C - (C') - -- -
p 0.6 12
b P(F and C)= 0.30, so P(F and Con both days)= 0.302
P(F and G)= 0.25, so P(F and G on both days)= 0.25 2
P(fine and sam e activity on both days)
= 0.302 + 0.252
= 0.1525
Example 29
Twins Alec and Eric are members of the same local cricket club and play
for the club's under 18 team.
The probability that Alec is selected to play in any particular gam e is 0.85.
The probability that Eric is selected to play in a ny particular game is 0.60.
The probability that both Alec and Eric are selected to play in any particular
game is 0.55.
a By using a table, or otherwise:
show that the probability that neither twin is selected for a particular
game is 0.10;
II find the probability that at least one of the twins is selected for a
particular game;
iii find the probability that exactly one of the twins is selected for a
particular game.
b The probability tllat the twins' younger brother, Cedric, is selected for a
particular game is:
0.30 given that both of the twins have been selected;
0.75 given that exactly one of the twins has been selected;
0.40 given that neither of the twins has been selected.
Calculate tlle probability that, for a particular game:
I all three brothers are selected;
II at least two of the three brothers are selected.
a
AQA MS 1A January 2012
Probability
a Draw up a probability table
A A' Total
E 0.55 0.05 0.60
E' 0.30 0.10 0.40
Total 0.85 0.15 1
From the table
P(neither) = P(A' and E' ) = 0.10
Jl P(at least one)= 1 - P(neither)
=1 - 0. 10
=0.90
ill P(exactly one)= P(A only)+ P(E only)
=0.30+0.05
=0.35
b Draw a tree, with the first layer showing the three outcomes for Alec and Eric Twins Cedric
(both, only one, neither) and the second layer showing the conditional
probabilities for Cedric (selected or not).
P(all three are selected) 0.55
= P(both and C) marked ®

= 0.55 X 0.30
=0.165
ii P( at least two) marked * 0.10
= P(all three)+ P(both an d C') + P(exactly one and C)

= 0.165 + (0.55 X 0.70) + (0.35 X 0.75)
= 0.165 + 0.385 + 0.2625
=0.8125
Summary
The probability of an event is a measure of the likelihood it will happen.
A probability of 0 indicates that the event is impossible.
A probability of 1 indicates that the event is certain to happen.
All other events have a probability between 0 and 1.
Estimating probability using relative frequency

If event A occurs r times inn trials of an experiment, the probability of A is
estimated using the long-term relative frequency, which is the limiting
r
value of-. The reliability of the estimate increases as n increases.
n
Equally likely outcomes
P(A)= n(A) number of outcomes resulting in event A
n(S) total nu mber of outcomes in the possibility space S
D Probability
Complement
The complement of A is A', where A' is the event 'A does not occur'.
P(A') = 1 - P(A)
Addition law for two events

For events A and B,
+ P(B)- P(A and B)
P(A or B)= P(A) A orB means A orB or both
In set notation P(A u B)= P(A) + P(B) - P(A n B) A and B means both A and B
Mutually exclusive events

For mutually exclusive events A and B,
P(A and B)= 0,
so P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) 'or' rule for mutually exclusive events
In set notation P(A u B)= P(A) + P(B)
For n mutually exclusive events
P(A 1 or A2 or A3 or ... or A,)= P(A 1) + P(A2) + P(A 3) + ... + P(A, )
Conditional probability
P(AandB)
P(A,givenB) = P(AIB) = P(B)
. P(BandA)
P(B,gtvenA) = P(B IA)= )
P(A
Multiplication law for two events

P(A and B) = P(B) x P(A IB)
Similarly P(B and A)= P(A) x P(B I A) Remember that P(A and B)= P(B and A)
Independent events
For independent events A and B,
P(A IB)= P(A)
Also, P(B IA) = P(B)
P(A a nd B) = P(A) x P(B) 'and' rule for independent events
In set notation P(A n B) = P(A) x P(B)
For n independent events:
P(A 1 and A2 andA 3 and ... and A,.)= P(A) X P(A) X P(A 3) X ... X P(A,).
Probability (relative frequency) tables

A A' Total When A and 8 are mutually
exclusive, the entry for P(A and 8)
B P(A and B) P(only B) P(B)
is zero.
B' P(only A) P(neither) P(B')
Total P(A) P(A') 1
Probability G
Tree diagrams
For events A and B,
> multiply the probabilities along the branches
>add the final probabilities of the successful end outcomes.
First event Second event
A<:.
P(A and B)= P(A) x P(B I A)
P(A and B') = P(A) x P(B' I A)
A'<B B'
P(A' and B)= P(A ') x P(B I A')
P(A' and B') = P(A ') x P(B' I A')
Review
0 Events Cand Dare such that P(C)=~,
30
P(D)=~ and P(C or D)=~. Find
5 5
a P( C and D) b P(D only) c P( CorD but not both).
f) In a survey of the members of an arts club, it was found that 73% had seen
the most recent play, 49% had seen the most recent ballet and 15% had not
seen the play or the ballet.
Find the probability that a person chosen at random from the arts club had
seen
a the play or the ballet b both the play and the ballet
c only the ballet.
e Two fair coins are tossed.
a Events A and Bare mutually exclusive.
A is the event 'at least one head is obtained'. Define event B.
b X is the event 'one head is obtained'. Define an event Y such th at X and
Yare not mutually exclusive.
0 A local greengrocer sells fruit, 30% of which is organically grown and 70%
is conventionally grown. Sales of apples constitute 20% of the organically
grown fruit and 45% of the conventionally grown fruit.
A customer who has purchased fruit is chosen at random to take part in a
survey.
a Find the probability that the customer bought apples.
b Given that the customer bought apples, find the probability that the
apples were organically grown.
0 On any morning, the probability that I have to wait at the traffic lights on
my way to school is 0.25.
a Find the probability that, on two consecutive m ornings, I have to wait at
the traffic lights
i on exactly one morning
ii on the second morning, given that I have to wait at the traffic lights
on exactly one m orning
b Find the probability that, on three consecutive mornings, I have to wait
at least once.
( ) Two golfers, Chris and Tayib, are attempting to qualify for a golf Chris
tournament. On past performance, the probability that Tayib will
qualify is 0.8, the probability that Chris will qualify is p and the
probability that both Tayib and Chris will qualify is 0.6. The event
'Chris qualifies' is independent of the event 'Tayib qualifies'.
Tayib
qualifies
< qualifies
Chris does
not qualify
Chris
<
(
qualifies
a Findp. Tayibdoes
b Find the probability that just one qualifies. not qualify Chr is does
not qualify
c Given that just one qualifies, find the probability tl1at it is Chris.
0 In a certain country, 52% of the population is male.
It is known that 16% of the males are left-handed and 12% of the females
are left-h anded. A person is chosen at random and found to be left-handed.
By drawing a tree diagram or otherwise, find the probability that the person
is male, given that the person is left-handed.
0 Uday and Bonnie play each other at table tennis. Each game results in
either a win for Uday or a win for Bonnie. IfUday wins a particular game,
tile probability of him winning the next game is 0.8, but, if he loses, the
probability of him winning the n ext game is 0.3. The probability of Uday
winning the first game is 0.7.
a Uday wins the first game, given that he wins exactly one of the first two
games
b Bonnie loses two games and wins one game in the first three games.
0 In an archery competition, Abhaya is allowed up to three attempts to hit the
target. If he succeeds on any attem pt, he does not make any more attempts.
The probability that he will hit the target on the first attempt is 0.6. If he
misses, the probability that he will hit the target on his second attempt is
0.7. If he misses on the second attempt, the probability that he will h it the
target on his third attempt is 0.8.
a Find the probability that Abhaya will hit the target.
b Given that Abhaya hits the target, find the probability that he made at
least two attempts.
Probability ~
~
G It was found that 56% of passengers on a train bought a drink from the
buffet car during their journey. Of those buying a drink from the buffet car,
45% were under 30 years old, 25% were between 30 and 65 years old and
the rest were over 65 years old.
Of those not buying a drink from the buffet car, 23% were under 30 years old
and 64% were over 65 years old.
Given that a randomly selected passenger is 42 years old, find the probability
that this passenger bought a drink from the buffet car during the journey.
G) A large bookcase contains two types of book: hardback and paperback. The
number of books of each type in each of four subject categories is shown in
the table.
Subject category
Crime Romance Science fiction ThriUer Total
Type Hardback 8 16 18 18 60
Paperback 16 40 14 30 100
Total 24 56 32 48 160
a A book is selected at random from the bookcase. Calculate the
probability that the book is:
I a paperback;
II not science fiction;
iii science fiction or hardback;
lv a thriller, given that it is a paperback.
b Three books are selected at random, without replacement, from the
bookcase.
Calculate, to three decimal places, the probability that one is crime, one
is romance and one is science fiction.
AQA MS1A June 2009
CD Gary and his n eighbour Larry work at the same place.
On any day when Gary travels to work, he uses one of three options: his car
only, a bus only or both his car and a bus. The probability that h e uses his
car, either on its own or with a bus, is 0.6. The probability that he uses both
his car and a bus is 0.25.
a Calculate the probability that, on any particular day when Gary travels
to work, he:
does not use his car;
II uses his car only;
ill uses a bus.
b On any day, the probabiJity that Larry travels to work with Gary is 0.9
when Gary u ses his car only, is 0. 7 when Gary uses both his car and a
bus, and is 0.3 when Gary uses a bus only.
Calculate the probability that, on any particular day when Gary travels
to work, Larry travels with him.
AQA MS1A January 2009
D Probability
G) A reliable estimate for the proportion of a population of fis~ with a certain
disease is 60 per cent. A test for the presence of the disease in fish is
possible. The test gives ones of three conclusions:
diseased, inconclusive, non-diseased.
For a diseased fish, the probabilities of these three conclusions are:
diseased 0.75
inconclusive 0.15
non-diseased 0.10
For non-diseased fish, the probabilities of these three conclusions are:
diseased 0.05
inconclusive 0.15
non-diseased 0.80
a A fish is selected at random. Using a tree diagram, or otherwise,
calculate the probability that:
i the fish has the disease and the test concludes that it is diseased;
ii the test concludes that the fish has the disease;
iii the test gives a correct conclusion.
b Three fish, all with the disease, are tested. Find the probability that the
test concludes that two fish are diseased and one fish is non-diseased.
AQA MS1A June 2005
~ Which of the following is the more likely to occur?
i a throw of six at least once in 4 throws of a single die
ii a throw of double six at least once in 24 throws of a pair of dice?
Give numerical justification for your answer.
Assessment
0 Emma visits her local supermarket every Thursday to do her weekly shopping.
The event that she buys orange juice is denoted by J and the event that she
buys bottled water is denoted by W. At each visit, Emma may buy neither,
or one, or both of these items.
a Complete the table of probabilities completed below, for these events,
where!' and W' denote the events 'not!' and 'not W' respectively.
I ]' Total
w 0.65
W' 0.15
Total 0.30 1
[3]
b Hence, or otherwise, find the probability that, on any given Thursday,
Emma buys either orange juice or bottled water, but not both. [2]
c Showthat:
the events J and Ware not mutually exclusive;
li the events J and Ware not independent. [3]
AQA MS1A June 2011
Probability G
0 Events A and Bare such that P(A) = 0.5, P(A and B)= 0.2 and P(A or B) = p.
Find, in terms of p,
a P(B) [2]
b P(A given B) [2]
c If A and B a re independent events find the value of p. [2]
0 Xavier, Yuri and Zara attend a sports centre for their judo club's practice
sessions. The probabilities of them arriving late are, independently, 0 .3, 0.4
and 0.2 respectively.
a Calculate the probability that for a particular practice session:
i all three arrive late; [1]
ii none of the three arrives late; [2]
iii only Zara arrives late. [2]
b Zara's friend, Wei, also attends the club's practice sessions. The
probability that Wei arrives late is 0.9 when Zara arrives late, and is 0.25
when Zara does not arrive late.
Calculate the probability that for a particular practice session:
both Zara and Wei arrive late [2]
ii either Zara or Wei, but not both, arrives late. [3]
0 Each school-day m orning, three students, Rita, Said and Ting, travel
independently from their homes to the same school by one of three
methods: walk, cycle or bus. The table shows the probabilities of their
independent daily choices.
Walk Cycle Bus
Rita 0.65 0.10 0.25
Sald 0.40 0.45 0.15
Ting 0.25 0.55 0.20
a Calculate the probability that, on any given sch ool-day morning:
i all 3 students walk to school; [2]
ii only Rita travels by bus to school; [2]
Iii at least 2 of the 3 students cycle to school. [4]
b Ursula, a friend of Rita, never travels to school by bus. The probability that:
Ursula walks to school when Rita walks to school is 0.9;
Ursula cycles to school when Rita cycles to sch ool is 0. 7.
Calculate the probability that, on any given school-day morning, Rita
and Ursula travel to school by:
i tl1e sam e method; [3)
ii different m ethods. [1]
D Probability
0 Rea, Suki and Tara take part in a shooting competition. The final round of
the competition requires each of them to try to hit the centre of a target,
placed at 100 metres, with a single shot. The independent probabilities that
Rea, Suki and Tora hit the centre of this target with a single shot are 0.7, 0.6
and 0.8 respectively.
Find the probability that, in the final round of the competition, the centre of
the target will be hit by:
a Toraonly; [2]
b exactly one of the three competitors; [3]
c at least one of the three competitors. [3]
AQA MSlA January 2007
0 Fred and his daughter, Delia, support their town's rugby team. The
probability that Fred watches the game is 0.8. The probability that Delia
watches the game is 0.9 when her father watches the game, and is 0.4 when
her father does not watch the game.
a Calculate the probability that:
both Fred and Delia watch a particular game; [2]
ii neither Fred nor Delia watch a particular game. [2]
b Molly supports the same rugby team as Fred and Delia. The probability
that Molly watches a game is 0.7 and is independent of whether or not
Fred or Delia watches the game.
Calculate the probability that
all three supporters watch a particular game; [3]
ii exactly two of the three supporters watch a particular game. [4]
AQA MSlB June 2005
Probability
In everyday life you constantly receive factual information from all manner By the end of this chapter
of sources such as the internet, n ewspapers and television, but how do you you sh ould be able to ...
make sense of it? .,.. Find measures of
The information is a collection of observations known as data which is central tendency
often difficult to interpret in its raw form. and spread for
discrete data.
This ch apter starts by looking at ways of summarising discrete data by
.,.. Work with discrete
finding averages and also working out m easures of spread to show the
random variables
variability of the data.
and their associated
These ideas are then linked with probability to explore m odels to describe
probability
real situations. The m odels are formed using discrete random variables and
distributions.
are called probability distributions. .,.. Calculate the
m ean, variance and
standard deviation
Recap - of discrete random
You need to remember how to find the ... variables
.,.. mode, m edian, m ean - of a simple
.,.. range function of a
.,.. quartiles and interquartile range. discrete random
variable
You will also need the following, from Chapter 13
- of the sum or
.,.. probability m ethods.
difference of two
independent
••• •••••• • • • •••• • • • • ••• •••• • •• •• •• • ••• discrete random
variables
14.1 Discrete variables - of the sum of
A variable is a quantity that may take more than one value. When it is possible to independent
m ake a list of its individual nwnerical values, the variable is said to be discrete. observations of a
Discrete variables can take only exact values such as discrete random
.,.. the number of rally cars passing a checkpoint in a ten -minute interval variable .
.,.. the number of hits on an internet website in an hour
.,.. the shoe sizes of children in a class
.,.. the number of goals scored in a football match.
By contrast, a continuous variable, such as a length, mass or time, cannot be
stated p recisely bu t can be given only to a specified degree of accuracy.
For example, a height recorded as 144 em, to the nearest em, could have
arisen from any valu e in the interval143.5 $; height < 144.5 em.
In this chapter only discrete variables will be considered.
Measures of central tendency
Measures of central tendency are averages, which are typical or representative
values of a set of data. The three main averages are the mode, mean and median.
Mode
lhe mode is the value that occurs most often.
The mode is useful when you want to know the m ost popular value but not all
sets of data have a mode and some may have more than one, so it is often not a
helpful average.
Mean
The mean uses all the observations and so represents every item. It is the most useful
average as it is the basis for much further work in statistics. However, a disadvantage
is that it can be affected Wlduly by one or two extreme values (outliers).
The mean is denoted by x, (read as "x bar") and is calculated by dividing the
Note
sum of all the observations by the number of observations.
The symbol :E is used to
For n observations,
denote "the sum of". It is a
_L.x,
__ x. +x2+ •.• +x,. _ tior i -1 Greek upper case letter and is
x- _ - , 2 , 3 , ••. ,n
n n read as "sigma".
For data in a frequency distribution
- 'Lx,J,
x =-- for i =1,2,3, ..• ,n Often the subscript i is omitted.
I f,
Example 1
The members of an orchestra were asked how many instruments each could
play. Their replies are summarised in the frequency distribution.
Number of instruments, x 1 2 3 4 5
Freque ncy,f 11 10 5 3 1
Calculate the mean number of instruments played.
X f x xj
- L,xf
1 11 11 x =-- Note that the mean is not
L,f
2 10 20 necessarily an integer, even if the
63
3 5 15 =30 data set consists only of integers.
4 3 12 =2.1
5 1 5
'L/=30 L,xf=63
I
Total number of
\Total number of
people instruments played
Discrete Random Variables ~~

Median
The median is not influenced by extreme values, so it is a good average to use
when there are one or two outliers in the data.
For a set of" numbers arranged in ascending order:
.,.. when r&is odd, the median Is the middle value
.,.. when "is even, the median is the mean of the two middle values.
1
This is summarised by saying that the median Is the - (r& + 1)0' value.
2
Example 2
I Find the median of these sets of numbers:

a 7,7,2,3,4,2, 7,9, 31
Write the values in numerical order.

b 36,41,27,32,29,39,39,43
a 2 2 3 4 [7] 7 7 9 31 The median is not influenced by the

Since there are 9 values, the median is the ..!.(9 + 1)th = 51h value, extreme value of 31 .
2
so median =7
b 27 29 32 136 391 39 41 43
Since there are 8 values, the median is the ..!.cs + 1)1h =4.5th value. This is the
2
mean of the 4th and 5th values,
. 36+39
so medtan = - - - = 37.5
2
Measures of spread
Another way of summarising data is to give an idea of the variability, or spread.
The three main measures of spread are the range, interquartile range and
standard deviation.
Range
The range gives a quick snapshot of the overall spread of the data and is based
entirely on the extreme values of the distribution.
Range= highest value -lowest value
lnterquartile range
The interquartlle range is based on the upper and lower quartiles. These are the
values that, together with the median, split a distribution into four equal parts.
For data arranged in order,

.,.. the lower qua rtile is the median of all the values before the median
.,.. the upper quartile is the median of all the values after the median.
The difference between the quartiles gives the interquartile range. It tells you
the range of the middle 50% of the data. It is unaffected by one or two extreme
values, so it is a useful measure of spread when there are outliers.
Interquartile r ange = upper quartile -lower quartile
• Discrete Random Variables

In the set of numbers below, the median is 35.
1he lower quartile is 26 and the upper quartile is 42.
23 25 25 ~ 29 30 32 ~ 36 38 40 [g) 43 45 86
t t t
lower quartile median upper quartile
So, interquartile range= 42-26 = 16.
Standard deviation and variance

Standard deviation gives a measure of the spread of the data about the mean
and it is particularly important in later work. However, as with the m ean, a
disadvantage of using the standard deviation is that it can be unduly influenced
by outliers.
When comparing distributions, the lower the standard deviation, the less
variation there is and the more con sistent the data are. Also, as a general rule, in
most distributions the bulk of the observations lie within two standard
deviations of the mean.
The standard deviation of a set of data is calculated using all the observations,
as follows:
0 For each value x, calculate the deviation from the mean by finding (x- x).
Q Square the deviation to give (x- x) 2 •
e Find the sum of these squares, written L,(x-x) 2•
0 Divide by n, the number of observations, to give the variance L.(x - x)2.
n
e Take the positive square root to give tl1e standard deviation ~L,(x~x)
2
•
Standard deviation is never negative.

This 'definition version' can be difficult to use, especially when x is not an
integer, so it is more usual to use an alternative form . This is known as the
'calculation version: The two versions are shown below.
The standard deviation of a set of n numbers with mean x is given by

Definition version Calculation ve rsion
s. d ' = ~ L.(x - x)
~
2
x2
s.d. = - - - x
-2 h - L.x
w ere x = -
n n n
The variance is the s quare of the standard deviation, where
L.(x - x ) 2 . L,x 2 _ 2 The calculation version can be memorised as "the mean of the
variance =-=-.:'----"- vanance = ----;;-- x +-- squares minus the square of the mean ".
n
Remember
varian ce= (standard deviation)2
standard deviation= "variance
Discrete Random Variables •

I
Example 3
The mean of the numbers 2, 3, 5, 6, 8 is 4.8. Calculate the standard deviation .
Method 1: Definition version Method 2: Calculation version

X x-4.8 (x - 4.8)2 X x2
2 -2.8 7.84 2 4
3 -1.8 3.24 3 9
5 0.2 0.04 5 25
6 1.2 1.44 6 36
8 3.2 10.24 8 64
I;(x-x) 2
= 22.8 L.x2 =138
~L.: x
2
s.d. =~L.(x-xY s.d. =
2
-
n
= / !8 -4.82
= 2.14 (3 sf) =2.14 (3 sf)
Sometimes you have to work with summary data, rather than individual values.
Example 4
b You need to find the mean first.

- LX 54
X=- =- =6
n 9
s.d . = ~~ {"438:;6 =3.559 ... =3.56 ( 3 s f)

2
---;;- -x- = ~g-u
When data are in a frequency distribution, the formula for the standard
deviation is as follows:
Definition vers ion Calculation version
L.(x - xY J - I; xf
wh ere x = - -
s.d. =
L. J 2: /

Example 5
I
The mean of this distribution is 2.9. Find the standard deviation.
I ; I ~ I : I : I : I : I
X xz f xzxf
1 1 3 3
s.d.= ~~~ -x 2
2 4 4 16
3 9 8 72
4 16 2 32 =~198 -2.92
20
5 25 3 75
=-JL49
\I
Do not add the xcolumn
I/=20 I,(x2 f) = 198 = 1.22 (3 sf)
or the x2 column.
Using a calculator in statistical mode

Although you can use your calculator in computation mode to find the totals
and divide, you will find it very useful to be able to find the mean and standard
deviation directly using the statistical mode.
An outline is shown below, but you may need to consult your calculator manual
for the details.
.,. Set the statistical mode, sometimes written SD or STAT.
.,. Clear the statistical registers (memories) .
.,. Input the data, either as individual values, or in a frequency table in the
order x then t
You should then have access to the following:
[I] (the mean), lxO",I(standard deviation)
If required, you can also check:
@](the number ofvalues), IIx l (the swn of the values), II XZ I(thesumofthesquares)
For data in a frequency table
I./is given by@], I,xfis given by IIx l and I,x2/is given by IIXZ I
Note that the calculator key labelled lxO",HIgives the value of s, the unbiased
estimate of a population standard deviation b ased on a sample. This is not
required until module S2.
Example 6
Sweets are packed into bags with a nominal mass of75 grams. Ten bags are
picked at random from the production line and weighed. Their masses, in
grams, are
76.0, 74.2, 75.1, 73.7, 72.0, 74.3, 75.4, 74.0, 73.1, 72.8
(continued)

(continued)
a Use your calculator to find the mean and the standard deviation.
b It is later d iscovered that the scales were reading 3.2 grams below the
correct mass.
What was the correct mean mass of the 10 bags?
li What was the correct standard deviation of the 10 bags?
a Using a calculator,
mean = 74.06 grams,
s.d. = 1.166... = 1.17 grams (3 sf)
b The correct readings are
79.2, 77.4, 78.3, 76.9, 75.2, 77.5, 78.6, 77.2, 76.3, 76.0
Again, using a calculator,
i Correct mean= 77.26 grams
li Correct s.d. = 1.166... = 1.17 grams (3 sf)
Notice that wh en each mass is increased by 3.2 grams,

~ the mean mass is increased by 3.2 grams
~ the standard deviation is unaltered.
When the two sets of data are shown on the same diagram, it is easy to see why the
standard deviation remains the same, since the spread of the original data about
the original mean is the same as the spread of the new data about the new mean.
Original mean
X
t X X X
Original data X X XX>O<
72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79
New data X X X X X >O< X X X
t
New mean
If each data value is increased by a constant a

~ the mean is increased by a
~ the standard deviation is unaltered.
Exercise 1
You may use a calculator in statistical mode unless instructed otherwise.
0 These are the test marks of 11 students.
52,61,78,49,47,79,54,58,62,73,72
Find
a the median b the lower quartile
c the u pper quartile d the interquartile range.

Q For each of the following sets of numbers, find
a the range b themedian c the interquartile range.
192,217,189,210,214, 204
II 1267, 1896,895,3457,2164,2347,2347, 2045
0 In an experiment to estimate the value of n, Jon measured the circumference
and diame ter of several tins. He then divided the circumference by the
diameter for each tin. His results are recorded below.
3.05, 3.45, 3.19, 2.98, 2.85, 3.04, 3.28, 3.45, 4.87, 3.05
a State the mode.
b Find the median.
c Calculate the mean.
d What percentage of Jon's results were higher than the true value of rt?
0 a For each of the following sets of numbers, calculate the m ean and the
standard deviation.
Set A: 2, 4, 5, 6, 8 il Set B: 6, 8, 9, 11 Iii Set C: 11, 14, 17, 23, 29
b It was later discovered that all the numbers in Set C had been overstated
by 2. State the correct mean and standard deviation for this set of numbers.
Q Find the m ean and standard deviation in this frequency distribution.
Do not use the statistical mode on your calculator and show all your working.
I; I': I': I:~ I': I

() The score for a round of golf for each of 50 club members was recorded and
the results a re summarised in the frequency table.
Score,x 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73
Frequency,/ 2 5 10 12 9 6 4 2
a State the mode.
b Calculate the m ean score.
c Calculate the standard deviation.
0 Thida plays a computer gam e where she fires at a target. Her score is 1 if she
hits the target and 0 if she misses it. She has 30 attempts and hits the target
18 times.
a Find her mean score for the 30 attempts.
b Find the variance of h er scores for the 30 attempts.
0 Thirty-one p eople completed a jigsaw in the following times (x minutes).
11 53 72 48 48 49 39 87 73 23 120 24 61 36 66 67
86 79 65 47 36 133 78 81 70 75 53 42 42 72 144
a Calculate I the m ean II the standard deviation.
b The following rule can be used to identify unusually high or low values,
called outliers.
'An outlier is more than 2 standard deviations away from the mean:
Use this rule to identify any outliers.

C) Cartons of orange juice are advertised as containing 1litre.
The actual volume of orange juice in a carton is denoted by x litres. A
sample of 100 cartons gave the following results:
L. x= 101.4 and L.x 2 = 102.83
Find the m ean and standard deviation of the volume of orange juice in the
cartons in the sample.
~ For a set of 10 numbers, L.x = 290 and L.x 2 = 8469.
Find the m ean and the standard deviation.
4) For a particular set of data, n = 100, L.x =584 and L.xl = 23 781.
Find the mean and the variance.
e For a set of9 numbers, L.(x-x)2 =234, where x is the m ean .
Find the standard deviation of the numbers.
e For a set of 12 numbers with mean X, it is given that L.(x-xY =60.
a Find the standard deviation.
b If:l.x2=285,find x.
e A machine cuts lengths of wood. A sample of20 rods gave the following
results for the length, x em.
L.xf=997 L.x2/=49 711
a Find the mean length of the 20 rods.
b Find the variance of the lengths of the 20 rods.
e For a particular set of observations,
L.!= 20, "ixlf= 16143, L.xf= 563.
Calculate the sta ndard deviation.
0 The marks of 25 students in a test had a mean of74 and a standard
deviation of 8.
a Find the total of the marks, L.x.
b Show that L. xl = 138 500.
It was later discovered that a mark of 86 had been entered incorrectly as 68.
c Calculate the mean and standard deviation of the corrected set of marks.
~ Applicants for a job were asked to carry out a task to assess their practical skills.
The times, in seconds, taken by 19 applicants were as follows:
61,229,164,76,74,49,67,86,70,82,48,74,61,59,72,81, 102,61,73
a Find the mode, the median and the mean.
b Find the range, interquartile range and standard deviation.
c State, with a reason, which of the measures you have calculated you
consider most appropriate
as a measure of central tendency
II as a measure of variability.

G) The times, in seconds, taken by 20 people to solve a simple numerical
puzzle were
17 19 22 26 28 31 34 36 38 39
41 42 43 47 50 51 53 55 57 58
a Calculate the mean and standard deviation of these times.
b In fact, 23 people solved the puzzle. However, 3 of them failed to solve
it within the allotted time of 60 seconds. Calculate the median and the
interquartile range of the times taken by all 23 people.
c For the times taken by all 23 people, explain why:
the mode is not an appropriate measure;
ii the range is not an appropriate numerical measure.
AQA MSlA January 2007
14.2 Discrete random variables

A discrete random variable is a discrete variable whose value is determined by
chance. It can take individual values, each with a given probability. The values
of the variable are usually the outcome of an experiment.
These are some examples of discrete random variables:
Possible values
1he score when you throw an ordinary fair cubical die. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
The number of heads when you toss a fair coin 3 times. 0, 1, 2, 3
Your profit in dollars when you play a game with an -1, 4, 9
entry fee of$1 and prizes of$5 and $10.
The number of times you toss a coin until a tail occurs. 1, 2, 3, 4, ... to infinity
Notation
Consider throwing a fair cubical die. For convenience, an upper case letter,
X say, is used as shorthand notation for 'the score on the die'. The values that
X can take {the possible scores) are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
The probability that X takes the value 4, for example, is written P{X = 4). Since
the die is fair, each number is equally likely to occur, so P(X = 4) = L
6
In general:
.,. Random variables are denoted by upper case letters, such as X, Y, R, ...
.,. Particular values of the variable are denoted by lower case letters,
such as x, y, r, ...
.,. The probability that the variable X takes a particular value x is written
P(X=x) .
.,. Alternatively, the x values may be denoted by x 1 , x2 , x3 , ... , x,, and their
probabilities summarised by writing p1 wh ere i = 1, 2, 3, ... , n, such that
P1 = P{X = x), p2 = P{X = x2), and so on.

Probability distribution
A list of all possible values of the discrete random variable X, together with their
associated probabilities, is called a probability distribution. It is often helpful
to show the probability distribution in a table.
The probability distribution of X, the score on a fair cubical die, is shown below
and illustrated by a vertical line graph.
X 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 1 1 1 1 1
P(X=x) - - - - - -
6 6 6 6 6 6 l 2 3 4 5 6 X
This probability distribution provides a model for the scores obtained when the
die is thrown a number of times.
Suppose the die is thrown 120 times. The expected frequency for each score
is 120 x.!.=20.
6
When the experiment was performed 120 times the number of times each score
occurred was n oted. These observed frequencies, together with the expected
frequencies according to the probability distribution, are shown below.
Scorex 1 2 3 4 5 6
Observed frequency 15 22 23 19 23 18
Expected frequency 20 20 20 20 20 20
Notice that the observed frequencies are close to the expected frequencies,
which is what you would expect if the die is fair.
Sum of probabilities
Consider the discrete random variable X with the following probability
distribution.
X XI x2 xJ ''' X II
P(X =x) PI p2 p3 "' P,

For a random variable, the sum of ail the possible probabilities is:
PI +p2+p3+ ... +p,. = 1 The subscripts are often
so f,p1 =1 fori=l,2,3, ...,n omitted and this is written
This can also be written L.p = l.
I, P(X =x) = l
all x

Example 7
Zhu plays a game with a biased five-sided spinner marked with the numbers 1,
2, 3, 4 and 5.
When she spins the spinner, her score, X, is the number on which the spinner
lands. The probability distribution of X is shown in the table.
I;(X=x) I o~s ~ 0~4 ~ : o.:s 0.:9

a Find the value of a.
b Find the probability that the score is at least 4.
c Find the probability that the score is less than 5.
d FindP(2 < X :s; 4).
e Write down the most likely score, that is the mode.
a Since IP(X = x) = 1,
0.15 + 0.24 +a+ 0.25 + 0.19 = 1
a+0.83= 1
a= 0.17
b P(X is at least 4) = P(X ~ 4)
=P(X= 4) + P(X = 5)
= 0.25+0.19
= 0.44
c P(X is less tha n 5) = P(X < 5)
=l - P(X=5)
=1 - 0.19
= 0.81
Alternatively:
P(X < 5) = P(X= 1) + P(X= 2) + P(X= 3) + P(X= 4)
= 0.15 + 0.24 + 0.17 + 0.25
= 0.81
d P(2 < X :s; 4) = P(X=3)+P(X=4) P(2 < Xs 4) means that Xis
=0.17+0.25 greater than 2 but at most 4, so
X can take the values 3 or 4 .
= 0.42
e The most likely score is the value of X with the greatest
probability, so the mode is 4.
Example 8
Jeremias takes out the two used batteries in his torch to replace them with new
ones. Unfortunately, he mixes them up with three new batteries. All five
batteries are identical in appearance.
Jeremias selects two of the batteries at random. Draw up a probability
distribution table for X, the number of new batteries that Jeremias selects.

X is the number of new batteries that Jeremias selects. He could select no new
batteries, 1 new battery or 2 new batteries, so X can take the values 0, 1, and 2.
To find the corresponding probabilities, it is helpful to draw a tree diagram.
Let N be the event 'a new battery is selected' and U the event 'a used battery is
selected'.
The outcomes and probabilities are shown in the tree diagram:
First battery Second battery Probability Outcome
selected selected
P(N, N ) =~ x { = 0.3 2 new batteries
P(N, U) = ~ x { = 0.3 1 new battery
P( U, N) = l. x ~ = 0.3 1 new battery

5 4
P(U, U) = i xi = 0.1 0 n ew batteries
From the tree diagram,

P(X= 0) =P(no new batteries)= 0.1
P(X = 1) = P(1 new battery)= 0.3 + 0.3 = 0.6
P(X = 2) = P(2 new batteries)= 0.3
Probability distribution table:
~~;_<_x_=_x_)~~---:-
.1--~-o-~--~-o-~~
Probability functions
Sometimes the probability distribution of X can be defined in terms of x by a
probabillty function.
Example 9
I
The discrete random variable R h as probability function
P(R = r) = kr, for r = 5, 10, 15, 20, 25.
Find the value of k.
The probability distribution h as been given as a formula.

Substitute the values of r to find the probabilities in terms of k an d form a
probability distribution table.
P{R= r) = kr
P(R = 5) = k x 5 = 5k, P(R = 10) = k x 10 = 10k, and so on.
Probability distribution table for R:
1 1 0 25
I;(R = r) I :k I 1;k I 1:k I :ok 25k
Now use the fact that the sum of the probabilities is l. (continued)

(continued)
Since IP(R = r) = 1,
1 =5k+ 10k+15k+20k +25k
=75k
k=J_
75
Example 10
Paavo throws two fair tetrahedral dice, each with faces labelled 1, 2, 3, 4.
The random variable X, the sum of the numbers on which the dice land,
has probability distribution given by
P(X=x)={x1~1 9-x
x=2,3,4, 5
x=6,7, B
16
a Write out the probability distribution table.
b Find the probability that the score is at least 4.
c Given that the score is at least 4, find the probability that it is less than 7.
a Substitute the x-values into the appropriate formula to get the prob abilities.
Probability distribution of X
X 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 2 3 4 3 2 1
P(X=x) - - - - - - -
16 16 16 16 16 16 16
Check the sum of the probabilities:

1
IP(X = x) = -(1 +2+ 3+ 4+3 + 2+ 1) = 1
16
b P(Xisatleast4)=P(X;::;4) You could add the probabilities
= 1- P(X < 4) for X = 4, 5, 6, 7, 8.
= 1-c~ + 1~)
13
=-
16
c P(score is less than 7, given it is at least 4)
10
= P(X is 4, 5 or 6) = 16 = 10
Recall: Conditional probabi lity
P(X ;::; 4) 13 13
16 section 13.3.
Discrete Random Variables G

Exercise 2
0 The discrete random variable X has the probability distribution shown in the
table.
1 2 3 4 5
0.2 0.25 0.4 c 0.05
Find
a the value of c b P(1 s; X s; 3)
c the probability that X is at least 3 d P(2<X<5)
e the probability that X is at most 2 f P(X is greater than the mode of X).
Q The discrete random variable Yhas the following probability distribution.
y 10 15 20 25 30
7 1 1
P(Y= y) a 5a - - -
16 32 32
b Find P(Y> 18).
c Find P(Y = 251 Y > 15).
e The discrete random variable R has the following probability distribution
function, where k is a constant:
P(R = r) = k(r-10) for r= 12, 13, 14
a Draw up a probability distribution table for R in terms of k.
b Find the value of k.
c Find the probability that R is an even number.
0 The discrete random variable X can take the values 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4 only and
P(X =x) =k(r+ 2)
a Find the value of the constant k.
b Find P(1 < X < 4).
0 The discrete random variable X has probability function
x+1
P(X=x)=-k- forx=0,1,3,4.
a Find the value of the constant k.

b FindP(Xs; 1IX> O).
Q A discrete random variable X has probability func tion
0.1 x=-1,0,5
P(X = x) = a x= 1,3
10.3 x= 4
a Write out the probability distribution table in terms of a.
b Find a.
c Find P(X ~ 3).
0 A drawer contain s 8 brown socks and 4 blue socks. Liam takes two socks at
random from the drawer, one after the other.

a Show that the probability that Liam takes one brown sock and one blue
. 16
SOCk IS - .
33
b The discrete random variable B is the number of brown socks taken.
Draw up a probability distribution table for B.
0 Elena and Toimi are playing a game in which they try to throw balls into a
bucket. The probability that the ball lands in the bucket is
0.4 for each attempt.
a Elena has two attempts.
Show that the probability that exactly one ball lands in the bucket is 0.48.
il Draw up a probability distribution table for X, the number of balls
that land in the bucket.
b Toimi has three attempts.
By drawing a tree diagram, or otherwise, show that the probability
that exactly one ball lands in the bucket is 0.432.
II Draw up a probability distribution table for Y, the number of balls
that land in the bucket.
Iii Toimi wins a prize if at least two balls land in the bucket. What is the
probability that he wins a prize?
14.3 E(X), the expectation of X

The expectation, or expected value, of a random variable X is the result that
Note
you would expect to get if you took a very large number of values of X and found
their mean. E(X) is read as "E of X" and
The expectation of X is written E(X) and is denoted by the symbol J.l. It is also Jl is the Greek letter mu, read
called the expected mean, or just the mean of X. as "mew".
Practical approach
Consider again the observed frequency distribution showing the scores on the
fair cubical die when it was thrown 120 times.
Score x 1 2 3 4 5 6
Frequencyf 15 22 23 19 23 18 Total N = 120
The m ean score is x, where

_X = -
I,xJ;
-=
1 X15+2 X22+3X23+4X19+5 X23 + 6 X18
= 3.5583 ...
N 120
You could write the formula in a different way as follows:
X=L( ~) X1 X
= X1 X f. + x 2 X j 2 +...+X,. X /,,
N N N
15 22 18
= 1X-+ 2 X-+ ... + 6 X-
120 120 120
=3.5583 ...

The fract10ns. -15, - 22, ... -18are therelatlve
. frequenc1.es ofth e scores o f
~20 120 120 . 20 1
1, 2, ... , 6. Notice that they are quite close to-=-.
120 6
If you throw the die a large number of times, each of the fractions it should be
N
very close to.!:., the limiting value of the relative frequency of a particular score
6
on the die.
In general, as N becomes very large,
Ill- the relative frequencies it tend to the probabilities p1
N
Ill- x = L. ~it =I( x, x ~) tends to the expected mean J.L = E{X) = L. x p 1
Theoretical approach
The probability distribution for X, the score on the fair cubical die, is shown below.
X 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 1 1 1 1 1
P(X =x) - - - - - -
6 6 6 6 6 6
The expectation, or expected mean, is obtained by multiplying each score by its
probability,
1 1 1 1 1 1
so J.!=E(X)=1 X-+2X-+3X-+4X-+5X-+6X-= 3.5
6 6 6 6 6 6
The expectation can be thought of as the average value when the number of
experiments increases indefinitely.
Calculating E(X)
If the discrete random variable X has the following probability distribution:
X XI x2 x3 ... x,
P(X = x) PI p2 p3 ... P,
to calculate J.L = E{X):
Ill- multiply each value x, by its corresponding probability p1
Ill- add these products together.
ll = E(X) = x 1p 1 + x~2 + x~3 + ... + xn pn

="ix1p 1 for i = 1, 2, 3, ..., n
This may also be written
p= E(X) = l,x P(X = x)

In general,
Ill- a practical approach results in a frequency distribution and an experimental
meanx
.,.. a theoretical approach uses a probability distribution and results in an

expected mean J.l.
D Discrete Random Variables

Example 11
A random variable X has mean f.1 and probability distribution as shown.
X -2 -1 0 1 2
P(X=x) 0.3 0.1 0.15 0.4 0.05
a Find the value of~~.
b Find P(X < f.l).
a p =E(X) = L.xP(X=x)
=(-2) X0.3+(-1) X 0.1 + 0 X 0.15+ 1 X 0.4+ 2 X0.05
=-0.2
b P(X< f.l)=P(X <- 0.2)
= P(X= - 1) + P(X=-2)
= 0.3+0.1
= 0.4
Example 12
p
The discrete random variable X has the probability distribution shown in the
0.4
table and illustrated in the vertical line graph. Find the mean of X.
2 3 4 5 0.3
I;(X=x) I o\ I 0 2 10 4 10 2 10 1 I 0.2
~ f.1 = E(X) = L.xP(X = x) 0.1
11
=~X 0.1 +2 X0.2+3 X0.4+4 X 0.2+5 X0.1 J 2 3 4
1
5
......
X
Note about symmetry

In Example 12 above, the distribution is symmetrical about x= 3. If you spot
this, you can write down straight away that f.1 = 3.
Another example is the distribution of the score, X, on a fair die, described on
page 231. >{6
1
II
By symmetry, f.1 = 3.5, confirming the calculation for E(X) on page 238. ~
c..
X
1 23456
Example 13
The discrete random variable X has the following probability distribution.
a Write down an equation relating a and b.

b Given that the mean of X is 3.1, find the values of a and b.
Discrete Random Variables 0

a Use the fact that the sum of the probabilities is 1.
LP(X=x)= 1
So a+ 0.4 + b = 1
a+b=0.6 (1)
b Use the fact that the mean is 3.1 to form a second equation in a and b.
Jl=LxP(X=x)
3.1 = 2 X a+ 3 X 0.4 + 4 X b
3.1=2a+l.2+4b
2a+4b= 1.9 (2)
Now solve the simultaneous equations.
a+b=0.6 (1)
2a+4b= 1.9 (2)
(1) X 2 2a+2b= 1.2 (3)
(2)- (3) 2b=0.7
b = 0.35
Substitute in (1) a+ 0.35 =0.6
a=0.25
So, a= 0.25, b = 0.35.
E(g(X)), the expectation of g(X)

The definition of expectation (expected value or m ean) can be extended to any
function of X, such as l OX, X2, _.!._,X- 4.

X
If g(X) is any function of the discrete random variable X, then
E(g(X)) =L g(x,)p 1
For example
E(X - 3)= L(x - 3)P(X =x)
E(X2 ) = LX2 P(X = x) +--- Notice that the xvalues are squared but the probabilities are not.
1
E(X- 2) = E(- = L_!_P(X=x)
x2) x2
Example 14
The table below shows the probability distribution of the discrete random
variable X.
X 1 2 3 4
P(X=x) 0.05 0.15 0.6 0.2
Calculate a E(X) c E(X -3)

a E(X)=IxP(X=x)
= 1 X0.05+2X0.15 + 3X 0.6+ 4 X0.2

=2.95
b E(~ )=I~P(X =x)

1 1 1 1
= -X 0.05+ -X0.15+-X 0.6+ -X 0.2 E( ~) is not equal to E(~)
l 2 3 4
=0.375
c E(X-3)=I(x -3)P(X = x)
= (-2) X 0.05 + (- 1) X 0.15 + 0 X 0.6 + 1 X 0.2
=-0.05
Example 15
A cube has side of length X, where X has probability distribution as shown.
2 3
I:(x ~x)
1
I 0 3 1 0 5 10 2 1
a Find the mean of S, the surface area of the cube.
b Find the mean of V, the volume of the cube.
a If Sis the surface area of the cube, then S =6X2.
X 1 2 3
6x 2 6 24 54
P(X= x) 0.3 0.5 0.2
E(S) = E(6.X'!)
2
= I6x P(X = x)
= 6 X0.3 + 24 X 0.5 +54 X0.2
=24.6
b If Vis the volume of the cube, then V = X3•
X 1 2 3
xs 1 8 27
P(X= x ) 0.3 0.5 0.2
= 1 X 0.3 + 8 X 0.5 + 27 X 0.2

=9.7

Mean of a simple function of X
Example 16
The random variable X has the following probability distribution:
Find a E(3) b E(X) c E(5X) d E(5X+3)

a E(3)=I3P(X=x)
=3IP(X=x)
=3X1
=3
b E(X)=IxP(X=x)
= 1 X0.1 + 2 X 0.6 + 3 X 0.3
=2.2
c E(5X) = I5x P(X = x)
=5I xP(X=x)
=5E(X)
= 11
d E(5X+3)=I(5x+3)P(X=x)
= I5xP(X = x) + I3P(X = x)
= 5E(X) +3
=14
In general, for random variable X and constants a and b,
E(a) =a The expected value of a constant is the constant itself.
E(aX +b)= aE(X) + b
E(aX-b) =aE(X)- b
For example
E(2X + 3) = 2E(X) + 3
E( 4 - 3X) = 4 - 3E(X)
The rule also applies to functions such as
E(5X2) = 5E(X 2)
E((X + 4)2 ) = E(X2 + BX + 16) = E(X 2) + 8E(X) + 16
Take special care with the following
E -10) IS
. not equal ta-10-
~ )=10 E( ~)
1
( X E(X)
E(loX- ) = E(
E(loox-2) = E( ~n = 100 E( ; 2 )
r
E( ~~) is not equal to [ E(~ )

Example 17
A bag contains som e green and yellow counters. In a game, a
player takes out two counters. The probability distribution of Y,
the number of yellow counters taken out, is shown in the table.
y 0 1 2
2 8 1
P( Y=y) - - -
15 15 3
The player's score is calculated by multiplying the number of yellow counters
taken out of the bag by 10, then adding 4.
a Find E(Y).
b Find the player's expected score when two counters are taken from the bag.
a E(Y) = IyP(Y=y)
2 8 1
=0X - +1X-+2X-
15 15 3
= 1.2
b If Sis the score, then S= 10Y+4
E(S) = E(10Y + 4)
= lOE(Y) + 4
= l0 Xl.2+4
= 16
The expected score is 16.
Example 18
I- A random variable X has m ean J.l. Show that

E((X- ,u)2) = E(X2) - J..tz.
Expand the func tion

E((X- J.1) 2) = E(XZ- 2XJ.1 + J.12)
= E(X 2) - E(2J.1X) + f.1.2
= E(X 2) - 2J.1. E(X) + f.1.2
= E(X2) - 2J.1.XJ.1+ f.1.2 since E(X) = Jl.
= E(X2)- f.12
Exercise 3
0 The probability distribution of the discrete random variable X is shown in
the table below.
Find a E(X) b P(X > E(X))

f) The discrete random variable, X, has the probability function given by
the following
1
P(X= x) = - x, for x = 5, 7 and 8.
20
Discrete Random Variables ~

Find
a E(X) b E(5X+ 1)
8 The probability distribution of the discrete random variable Yis shown in
the table below.
Find a E(Y) b E(4Y) c E(2Y-1)

0 A bag contains five green counters and six red counters. Two counters are
taken at random from the bag, one at a time, and not replaced.
The number of red counters taken is denoted by X.
a Draw up a probability distribution table for X.
b Calculate the m ean number of red counters taken .
() The probability distribution of the discrete random variable X is given in
the table.
X 10 20 30
P(X= x) a 0.5 b
a Write down an equation satisfied by a and b.

b Given that E(X) = 17, find a second equation in a and b.
c Find the values of a and b.
d Find E(50- 2X).
() A discrete random variable X can take the values 10 and 20 only.
The m ean of X is 16.
Write out the probability distribution of X.
0
(I
The discrete random variable X has the probability distribution given by the
following, where c is a constant.
!_)X X= 1,2,3,4,5
~
2
P(X=x) =
x=6
otherwise
a Find the value of c.
b Find the mode of X.
c Find the mean of X.
( ) The random variable Whas the probability distribution shown in the table.
I;(W= w) I 0 3 1
1
:. 13 1
9
0
Find a E(W) b E( ~) c E(W2) d E(.JW)

C) The discrete random variable X has the probability distribution
X 2 3 4
1 1
P(X=x) - - -1
4 2 4
a State the value ofE(X). b Find E(X2) .
c Find E(X2 + 6X). d Find E((X- 3) 2).
~ The random variable X has mean 12. The random variable aX+ 2 has mean
5, where a is a constant.
G The discrete random variable R has the following probability distribution:
r 1 2 4
1 1 1
P(R= r) - - -
4 2 4
a Calculate exact values for E(R) and Var(R).
1 25
b By tabulating the probability distribution for X= - -,
2
show that E(X) =
R 64
ii Find the value of the mean of the area of the rectangle which has
sides of length ! and ( R + !).

AQA MS2B June 2005
14.4 The variance and standard

deviation of X
The standard deviation of X is a measure of spread of X about the mean J..l. It is
denoted by a and calculated by first finding d, the variance of X. Note
Practical approach a is a lower case Greek letter,

read as "sigma".
For discrete data the variance of a frequency distribution with mean x is given by
I.(x, -x)zf
variance= . _.
.t...h
= I.(x,- xr X h
N
writing N for I.t;
= (x1 -x) 2 x ~ +(x2 -x) 2 x f z + ...+(x,.-x) 2 x !,,

N N N
Now, as n becomes very large,
.,. the relative frequencies h tend to the probabilities p1
N
.,. x tends to J1, the expected mean of X
.,. the variance tends to a 2, the variance of X.
Theoretical approach
TI1e variance of X, written Var(X), is the expected value of (X- J.l) 2,
so Var(X) = E((X- f.l)2)

However, this 'definition' version can be difficult to work with.
You saw in Example 18 that
E((X - J..L)2 ) = E(X2) - J12
This leads to the 'calculation' version which is more generally used
Var(X) = E(X2) - J.1 2
Summarising:
Definition version Calculation version

Var(X) = cT = E( (X -p)2 ) Var(X) = C12 = E(X2) -p2 where ll = E(X)
= I (x1 -p) 2p 1 =Ix,2p,-p2

= I (x- p) 2 P(X =x) = l',x2P(X =x ) -p2
The calculation version is sometimes written
Va r(X) = E(X 2) - (E(X) )2 . . - - - - - 'The mean of the squares minus the square of the mean'.
The standard deviation of X is denoted by a and is given by the square root of

the variance:
a =../Var (X)
Example 19
The discrete random variable X has the probability distribution shown in
the table.
X 1 2 3 4
P(X =x ) 0.1 0.3 0.45 0.15
a Calculate
I E(X) Iii Var(X)
b The mean of X is J1 and the standard deviation is a.
Find P(J.L - a < X< J1 + a).
a I E(X) = IxP(X=x)
= 1 X0.1 + 2 X0.3+3X0.45+4 X 0.15
=2.65
2
il E(X = I.x2P(X = x)
) Do not square the probabilities.
= 1 X 0.1 + 2 X 0.3 + 3 X 0.45 + 4 X 0.15
2 2 2 2
=7.75
Iii Var(X) = E(X 2) - J12
= 7.75 - (2.65) 2
= 0.7275
b J.1 = E(X) = 2.65 and a= ..)0.7275
J.l- a = 2.65- ..)0.7275 = 1.80 (3 sf) and J.l+ a = 2.65 + ..)0.7275 = 3.50 (3sf)
(continued)
e Discrete Random Variables

(continued)
P(.u - a <X < .U +a)= P(l.80 <X< 3.50) This is the probability that X lies
I = P(X= 2) + P(X= 3) within one standard deviation of the

mean.
=0.3 +0.45
= 0.75
Example 20
I- Given that E( Y) = 10 and E((Y- 10)2) = 4, find the standard deviation of the
discrete random variable Y.
Now Var(Y) =E((Y- .u)2)

Since .u = E( Y) =10,
Var(Y) = E((Y - 10)2)
So, Var(Y) = 4
standard deviation = J4 = 2
Variance of a simple function of X

In general, for the random variable X and constants a and b
Var(a)=O ~ A constant does not vary, so its variance is zero. Note

2
Var{aX) = a Var(X) ~Note cihere.
For the standard deviation,
Var( aX + b)= a 2Var{X)
find the square root of the
Var{ aX - b)= a 2Var{X) variance.
For example
Var(5X) = 52 Var(X) = 25 Var(X)
Var(3X- 7) = 32 Var(X) = 9 Var(X)
The rule applies to ftmctions such as Take special care:
Var( ; ) = v a{ 4x ~ )=42 Va{~ )=16Va{~) (4) does not equal Var16(X )

Var -
X
Note that there is no quick way of finding var( ~). You would n eed to calculate
it using
Var(~ )=E( ~2 ) - ( E(~ )J

Example 21
The discrete random variable X has probability distribution shown in the table.
Find
a E(X)
b Var(X)
c Var( ~X-9)
Discrete Random Variables 0
a E(X) = 2.5 (by symmetry)
b E(X2) =l:,.ilP(X =x)
= 12 X 0.2 + 22 X 0.3 + 32 X 0.3 + 42 X 0.2
=7.3
Var(X) = E(X2) - [E(X)F
=7.3 -(2.5)2
= 1.05
c var( ~X -9 )=(~ J Var(X)
1
= - x 1.05
16
= 0.003125
Example 22
Exam marks, X have mean 66 and standard deviation 6.
The marks are scaled using the formula
Y=aX+b
so that the scaled marks, Y, have mean 60 and standard deviation 5.
a Find the values of a and b.
b Find the scaled mark corresponding to a mark in the examination of 72.
a If Y=aX+ b
then E(Y) = aE(X) + b
=aX66+b
But E(Y) = 60,
so 60=66a+b (1)
NowVar(Y)= a 2 Var(X)
=a2 x 6 2
=36a2
But you know that Var(Y) =5 2 = 25,
so 36a2 =25
2 25
a=-
36
a=~=~
Substitute into equation (1)
5
60 =66X-+b
6
60 =55+b
b=5
5
So a =- and b = 5.
b The for~ula for the scaling is Y =~X + 5.
6
Whenx=72,
5
y=-X72+5=65
6
Example 23
The number of fish, X, caught by Pearl when sh e goes fishing can be modelled
by a discrete probability distribution:
X 1 2 3 4 5 6 ?. 7
P(X=x ) 0.01 0.05 0.14 0.30 k 0.12 0
a Find the value of k.

b Find:
l E(X);
ll Var(X).
c When Pearl sells her fish, she earns a profit, in pounds, given by Y = 5X + 2.
Find:
E{Y);
ll th e standard deviation of Y.
a Since IP(X =x) = 1,
0.01 + 0.05 + 0.14+ 0.30 + k+ 0.12 = 1
0.62+k= 1
k=0.38
b i E(X)=Ix P(X=x)
= 1 X 0.01 + 2X 0.05+ 3 X0.14 +4X 0.30 +5 X 0.38+6 X 0.12
=4.35
ll E(X 2) =Ix2 P(X =x)
= 12 X 0.01 + 22 X 0.05 +32 X 0.14 + 42 X 0.30 +5 2 X 0.38 + 62 X0.12
= 20.09
Var(X) = E(X2) - [E(X)] 2
= 20.09 - 4.35 2
= 1.1675
c Y=5X+2
E(Y) = 5E(X) + 2
=5 X 4.35+2
=23.75
ll Var( Y) = 52 Var(X)
=25 X 1.1675
= 29.1875
s.d. of Y =.J29.1875
= 5.402...
= 5.40 (3 sf)

Exercise 4
0 The discrete random variable X has the following probability distribution.
3 5
I ;(X=x) I 0 210 31 0~4 ~ 0~1 I
Calculate
a E(X) b Var(X)
e Find Var(X) for each of the following probability distributions.
X 1 3 5 7 9
1 1 1 1
P(X =x ) - - -1 - -
6 4 6 4 6
e The discrete random variable R has the following probability distribution.
r -2 -1 0 1 2
P(R= r) 0.05 c 0.43 3c 0.12
a Find the value of c.

b Find E(R).
c Find the standard deviation of R.
0 Two boxes each contain three cards. The first box contains cards labelled
1, 3 and 5. The second box contains cards labelled 2, 6 and 8. In a game, a
player picks a card at random from each box.
The score, X, is the sum of the numbers on the two cards.
a Using a possibility space, or otherwise, list the six possible values of X
and calculate the corresponding probabilities.
b Calculate the expected score.
c Calculate the standard deviation of X.
e A discrete random variable X has the following probability distribution.
The mean of X is 6.
X 1 3 6 n 12
P(X= x) 0.1 0.3 k 0.25 0.15
a Find the value of k.

b Find the value of n.
c Find the variance of X.
C) The discrete random variable X has probability distribution given by the
following, where k is a constant.
( ) (x~1)
1
x=2,3
P X=x =
2kx
x= 4,5
(x2 -1)
20
a Show that k= .
33
b Find the probability that X is less than 3 or greater than 4.
c Find E{X).
d Find Var(X).
0 The random variable R has probability distribution
0~4 ~
2 4
I;(R = l I o\ I
r 04 1 01 I
Find Var{3R + 2).
0 A computer is programmed to produce a sequence of integers, R, in the
range 0 to 5 inclusive.
R has probability function given by
l~
r=O
P(R=r)=
r = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
30
a Calculate E{R).
b Calculate
i Var(R) ii Var{4R) iii Var{3- 2R)
0 The random variable X has mean 20 and variance 4.
Find the mean and variance of the following random variables
a Y=6X+ 1 b D=3X-2 c W=.!:_X - 4 d V= - 4X
2
«:> The random variable Yhas standard deviation 3. The random variable
aY + 9 has standard deviation 7.5, where a is a constant. Find the value of a.
CD Test marks, X, have mean 60 and standard deviation 5.
The marks are scaled using the formula Y = aX+ b.
The scaled marks have mean 80 and standard deviation 7.5.
a Find the values of a and b.
b Find the scaled mark corresponding to a mark of 50.
~ The discrete random variable X has probability distribution
X 1 2 3
1 3 3
P(X= x) - - -
10 5 10
a Find E(~} b ShowthatE ( - 12 ) =17

X
-.
60
c Find var( ~}
14.5 Sum or difference of two independent
random variables
Suppose you have two independent random variables, X and Y and form a new
variable that is a linear combination of X and Y. It will be in the form aX± bY,
where a and b are constants.
1
Examples are X+ Y, X- Y, 3X + 2Y, 5X- 4Y, -X +4Y.
2
The mean and variance of aX± bY can be written in terms of the mean and
variance of X and Y as follows:
For random variables X and Y and constants a and b,
=
E(aX+ bY) aE(X) + bE( Y)
E(ax-bY) = aE(X) -bE( Y)
When X and Yare independent,
Var(aX+ bY) = a 2 Var(X) + b 2 Var( Y)
Var( aX- bY) = a 2 Var(X) + b 2 Var( Y) + - - The+ sign is very important here.
So, for example, Variances are always added.
E(2X + 3Y) = 2E(X) + 3E(Y)
E(4X- 5Y) = 4E(X)- 5E(Y)
Var(X + Y) = Var(X) + Var(Y)
Var(X- Y) = Var(X) + Var( Y)
Var(4X + 7Y) = 42 Var(X) + 72 Var(Y) =16Var(X) + 49Var(Y)
var( 3Y -~X)= 3 Var(Y) + ( ~

2
J ±
Var(X) = 9 Var(Y) + Var(X)
Example 24
A restaurant charges $17 for a 2-course meal and $20 for a 3-course meal.
On any day, the number, X, of 2-course meals served has mean 23 and standard
deviation 5 and the number, Y, of3-course meals has mean 18 and standard
deviation 3.5.
a The daily takings, in dollars, for the meals served in the restaurant is W
Write an expression for Win terms of X and Y.
b Find the mean daily takings from meals served.
c Find the standard deviation of the daily takings. Give your answer to the
nearest dollar.
a The amount taken for 2-course meals is 17X and the amount taken for
3-course meals is 20 Y, so W = 17X+ 20 Y
b E(W) = E(17X + 20Y)
= 17E(X) + 20E( Y)
= 17 X 23 + 20 X 18
=751
The mean daily takings from m eals is $751.
c Var(W) = Var(1 7X + 20Y)
= 172Var(X) + 202 Var( Y)
= 172 X 5 2 + 202 X 3.52
= 12125
s.d. of W = ../12125 = 110.11...
The standard deviation of the daily takings is $110 (nearest dollar).

Sum of independent observations
of a discrete random variable
Suppose you h ave a random va riable X with m ean Jl and variance a2.
Now take n indep endent observations of X and call them X1,X2,00 ., X,.
Since the observa tio ns are all from the same distribution of X,
E(X.) =J.1 Var(X.) = a2
E(X2 ) =f..L Var(X2) = a2
E(X,,) = Jl Var(XII ) = a2
Form a n ew variable, X1+ X2+ oo• +X,. This is sum of the n observations.
Now E(X1+ X2 + 00 0+X,.)
= E(X1) + E(~) + oo • + E(X,,)
= Jl + J.1.+oo.Jl
= nf.1
Var(X1+ ~ + 000+ X12)
= Var(X1) + Var(X2) + oo • + Va r(X, )
= 0'2+ 0'2+ ... + 0'2
= na 2
Note
In general
These can be written
E(X1 + X 2 + ... + x,) = nE(X)
E(LXI) = I E(XI )
Var(X1 +X2 + ..• +X,)= nVar(X) Var(LX1) = I Var(X1)
Example 25
Paper clips are packed by a m achine into boxes. The m ean number of pap er
I clips in a box is 54 and the standard d eviation is 3.

Ten boxes are selected at random from the production line. Find the m ean and
standard deviatio n of the total number of pap er clips in the 10 boxes.
Let X be the number of p aper clips in a box.
E(X) = 54, Var(X) = 32= 9
Let Tbe the total number of p ap er clips in 10 boxes.
T = X. + X2+ X3+ ... + XIO
E(T) = lOE(X) = 10 x 54 = 540
Var(1) = 10Var(X) = 10 x 9 = 90
s.d of T= J90 = 9.486 ...
So, for the total number of pap er clips in 10 boxes,
m ean = 540, standa rd deviatio n = 9.49 (3 sf) .

Example 26
On a multiple choice examination paper, each question has five multiple choice
answers given, only one of which is correct. For each question, candidates gain
4 marks for a correct answer and lose 1 mark for an incorrect answer.
a James guesses the answer to each question.
Complete the following table for the probability distribution of X, the
number of marks obtained by James for each question.
4
I;(X= X) I I -I I
ii Hence find E(X).
b Karen is able to eliminate two of the incorrect answers from the five
alternative answers given for each question before guessing the answer from
those remaining.
Given that the examination paper consists of24 questions, calculate Karen's
expected total m ark.
AQA MS2B June 2007
1
a I P(X = 4) = P(correct answer) =-
5
P(X=-1) = P(incorrect answer)=~
5
X 4 -1
1 4
P(X=x) - -
5 5
ii E(X) = L.x P(X= x)
= 4x.!.+(-1)x~
5 5
=0
b Let Ybe the number of marks obtained by Karen for each question.
Since she is choosing from 3 alternatives,
1 2
P(Y=4) =- andP(Y= - 1) =-
3 3
First find Karen's expected mark for a question.
1 2 2
E(Y) = L.yP(Y= y) = 4 X- +(-1)x -=-
3 3 3
Let T be Karen's total mark for the questions on the examination paper.
So T= yt + y2 + ... + y24 Note
E(T) = 24E(Y)
2 Tis the sum of 24 independent
=24X- observations
3
= 16
Karen's expected mark is 16.

Comparing the distributions of 2X and x, + X 2
Confusion sometimes arises between the random variables 2XandX 1 +X2,
where 2X is a m ultiple of a single observation of X, and X1 + X2, is the sum of two
independent observations of X. You will see from the following example that
their distributions are different.
A fair tetrahedral die is thrown. Let X be the nwnber on which it lands.
X 1 2 3 4
1 1 1 1
P(X=x) - - - -
4 4 4 4
E(X) = 2.5 (by symmetry)

Var(X) = E(X) - [E(X)j2
= 12 x .!. + 22 x .!.+32 x .!.+4 2 x.!.-2.5 2

4 4 4 4
= 1.25
Throw the die once and consider D = 2X, where Dis 'double the nwnber on
which the die lands:
2X is a multiple.
d 2 4 6 8
1 1 1 1
P(D=d) - - - -
4 4 4 4 I
~4
II
E(D) = 5 (by symmetry) s~
1 1 1 1
Var(D) = 22 X-+4 2 X- +6 2 X- +8 2 X- - 52 =5
4 4 4 4 0-'---+--+--+--+-•
2 4 6 8 d
So, as expected,
E(D) = E(2X) = 2E(X)
Var(D) = Var(2X) = 22 Var(X) = 4 Var(X)
Now throw the die twice and consider S = X1 + ~. where S is 'the sum of the two
nwnbers on which the die lands:
s 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 2 3 4 3 2 1
P(S = s) - - - - - - -
16 16 16 16 16 16 16
E(S) = 5 (by symmetry)
Var(S)=(2 2 X_!_+3 2 X~+ ... +8 2

x_..!:_)-52 = 2.5
16 16 16
So, as expected, 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 s
E(S) = E(X1 + X2 ) = 2E(X)

Var(S) = Var(X1 + X2) = 2Var(X)
Notice that the m eans of the two distributions are the same, but the variances
are not. The random variable 'double the number' has a larger variance than the
random variable 'the sum of the two numbers:
Discrete Random Variables I

In general, take care to distinguish between situations when a single
observation has been multiplied by a constant (this is a multiple, as in 2X or 3X
or lOX) and when several independent observations of the same random
variable are added (this is a sum, as in X,+ X2 or X1 + ~ + X3 or X,+ X2+ . .. + X10).
The general results are summarised below.
Multiple Sum
Mean E(nX) =n E(X) E(X1 + X2 + ... +X,.) =n E(X)
Variance Var(nX) =n2 Var(X) Var(X, + X2 + ... +X,) =n Var(X)
Exercise 5
Q X and Yare independent random variables such that
E(X) =8 and E(Y) = 10
Var(X) =2 and Var(Y) =3
Find
a E(~X+6Y)
b Var(2X + 7Y)
c the standard deviation of W, where W = 4X- 3 Y.
0 Independent random variables X and Yhave probability distributions as
shown in the tables below.
1 2 3 4
I:(X=x) I 0.1 I 0.2 I 0.4 I 0.3 I
0 1 2
I;(Y=y) I 0.5 I 0.4 I 0.1 I
a Find E(X) and Var(X) ii E(Y) and Var(Y)
b Anew variable, Tis formed, where T= 2X+ SY.
Find the mean and standard deviation of T.
c Five independent observations are taken from Y. The sum of these
observations is denoted by S.
I Find E(S). ii Find Var(S).
0 Nikhil is playing a game with unusual shaped fair dice. He has a dodecahedron
which has 12 faces numbered from 1 to 12 and an octahedron with 8 faces,
nwnbered 1 to 8. His turn consists of rolling the two dice together.
The score on the dodecahedron is D and the score on the octahedron is C.
a State the values of E(D) and E( C).
Nikhil is awarded Tpoints for his turn, where T= 6D + 4C.
b Find the expected number of points he obtains for his turn.

0 On a particular motorway, the number of vehicles passing an electronic
counter each minute is recorded. The number travelling north, N, has a mean
of 5 and a standard deviation of 2. The number of vehicles travelling south, S,
h as a mean of 6 and a standard deviation of 1.5. Find the mean and standard
deviation ofT, the total number of vehicles passing the counter in a minute.
0 The random variable X h as mean 20 and varian ce 4.
The variable Y is the sum of 5 independent observations of X.
Find the mean and standard deviation of Y.
0 The random variable X has mean 20 and standard deviation 3.
a Find the mean a nd standard deviation of 4X.
b XI, x2, x3and x4are independent observations of X.
Find the mean a nd standard deviation of XI + x2+ x3+ x4.
Q The random variable X has mean 12 and standard deviation 4.
a Find the mean and standard deviation of Y where Y = 6X.
b Find the mean and standard deviation of S wh ere Sis the sum
of 6 independent observations of X.

Example 27
Johann supplies free-ra nge eggs to a health food shop. The eggs are supplied in
boxes of six. Simone, the shop owner, checks a sample of these boxes for
cracked eggs. She finds that the number, X, of cracked eggs in a box may b e
modelled by the following probability distribution.
X P(X= x)
0 0.925
1 0.061
2 0.010
3 0.000
4 0.000
5 0.000
6 0.004
a i Find the m ean number of cracked eggs in a box.
ii Verify that the standard deviation of the number of cracked eggs in a box
is 0.484, correct to three significant figures.
b Christos also samples free-range eggs in boxes of six. TI1e mean number of
cracked eggs in his boxes is 0.25 with a standard deviation of 0.21.
Com pare the distributions of the numbers of cracked eggs in boxes supplied
by Johann and Ch ristos. AQA SS02 January 2009

a i E(X) = L.x P(X= x)
=Ox 0.925 +1 x 0.061+2x O.Ol0+3x 0.000+4x 0.000+5 x 0.000+6x 0.004 The highlighted products are
= 0.105 zero, but have been included for
Mean number of cracked eggs in a box = 0.105. completeness.
ii E(Xl) = L.rP(X =x)
= 12 X 0.061 + 22 X 0.010 + 62 X 0.004 Zero products have been omitted.
= 0.245
Var(X) = E(X 2) - [E(X)J2
= 0.245 - 0.1052
= 0.2339 ...
Now find the square root of the variance.
s. d. of X= .Jo.2339... = 0.4837 ... = 0.484 (3 sf)
Standard deviation of the number of cracked eggs in a box= 0.484.
b Johann: Mean= 0.105 Standard deviation= 0.484
Christos: Mean = 0.25 Standard deviation= 0.21
Christos's boxes have, on average, more cracked eggs than Johann's, but the
number of cracked eggs in Christos's boxes is less variable.
Example 28
A house has a total of five bedrooms, at least one of which is always rented.
The probability distribution for R, the number of bedrooms that are rented at
any given time, is given by
0.5 r =1
1
P(R =r) = 0.4(0.6)'- r =2,3,4
{
0.0296 r=5
a Complete the table
I:(R~r) I
1 2 3 4 5
0.5 0.0296
b Find the probability that fewer than 3 bedrooms are not rented at any
given time.
c i Find the value ofE(R).
ii Show that E(R2) = 4.8784 and hence find the value ofVar(R).
d Bedrooms are rented on a monthly basis.
The monthly income, £M, from renting bedrooms in the house may be
modelled by
M = 1250R- 282
Find the mean and standard deviation of M.
AQA MS2B June 2012
(continued)

(continued)
a R is the number of bedrooms that are rented.
When r= 2, P(R = 2) = 0.4(0.6) 1 = 0.24
When r= 3, P(R = 3) = 0.4(0.6)2 = 0.144
When r= 3, P(R = 4) = 0.4(0.6)3 = 0.0864
r 1 2 3 4 5
P(R = r ) 0.5 0.24 0.144 0.0864 0.0296
b P(fewer than 3 bedrooms are not rented)

= P(O, 1 or 2 are not rented)
= P(3, 4 or 5 are rented)
= 0.144 + 0.0864 + 0.0296
=0.26
c i mean=E(R)= [ rP(R = r)
= 1 X 0.5 + 2 X 0.24 + 3 X 0.144+ 4 X 0.0864 + 5 X 0.0296
= 1.9056
ii First find E(R2).
E(R2) =[ r2 P(R =r)
= 12 X 0.5 + 22 X 0.24 + 32 X 0.144 + 42 X 0.0864 +52 X 0.0296
= 4.8784
Var(R) = E(R2) - [E(R)j2
= 4.8784- 1.90562
=1.2470... =1.25 (3 sf)
d E(M) = E(1250R - 282)
= 1250 E(R) - 282
= 1250 X 1.9056 - 282
=2100
So, mean of M is 2100.
Var(M) = Var(1250R - 282)
=12502 Var(R)
=12502 X 1.2470...
=1948576
s.d.of M = .../1948576 =1395.9... = 1400 (3 sf)
Example 29
The discrete random variable X has
E(X) = 4 and E(X 2) = 17.2.
a Find the value ofVar(X).
b A circle has radius (X+ 8).
Find, in terms of Tr, values for the mean and variance of the circumference,
C, of the circle.
(continued)

(continued)
c The area, S, of the circle, with radius (X+ 8) is to be expressed in the form
n(XZ+aX+b),
where a and b are positive constants.
Find the values of a and b.
li Hence find, in terms of n, the value of E(S).
AQA MAS1 January 2005
a Var(X) = E(X2)- [E(X)J2
= 17.2-42
=1.2
b C = 2n(X + 8), so C = 2nX + 16n
So E( C)= E(2nX + 16n)
= 2nE(X) + 16n
=2n x 4+ 16n
=24n
Var( C)= Var(2nX + 16n)
= (2n)2Var(X)
=4nlx 1.2
= 4.8n2
c S=n(X+8) 2
= n(X 2 + 16X + 64),
so a = 16 and b = 64.
E(S) = E[n{X 2 + 16X + 64)]

= 1t(E(X2) + 16E(X) + 64)
= n{l7.2 + 16 X 4 + 64)
= 145.2n
Summary
Discrete data
Mode
The mode is the value that occurs most often.
Mean
- LX Note
Forraw d atax =-
n
These formulae are not given
For data in a frequency table x= iX: in the examination.

Median
For a set of n numbers arranged in ascending order:
..,. when n is odd, the median is the middle value
..,. when n is even, the median is the m ean of the two middle values.
This is summarised by saying that the m edian is the ~(n+ 1)111 value.
2
Quartlles
..,. The lower quartile is the median of all the values before the median .
..,. The upper quartile is the median of all the values after the median.
List the values in order and count through the data values to find the median
and quartiles.
Ranges
Range= highest value - lowest value
Interquartile range (IQR) = upper quartile - lower quartile
Standard deviation (s.d.)

Note
For raw data
Definition version Calculation versio n These formulae are not given
in the examination.
s.d.=~'L(x~x)2 s .d. =
~
y-;;--x
For data in a frequency distribution
2
'L(x -x) f
s.d.= I!
Variance
Variance= (standard deviation)2
Discrete random variables

A list of all possible values of the discrete random variable X, together with their
associated probabilities, is called a probability distribution.
The sum of the probabilities of all possible values of X is l.
so 'LP(X= x)=l or 'l,p 1=1 i=1,2, .. .,n
E(X), the expectation of X

}.L = E(X) = 'Lx1p1 = 'l,xP(X = x)
E(g(X) ), the expectation of g(X)
E(g(X)) = L,g(x1)p1 = I,g(x)P(X = x)

Var(X), the variance of X
Definitio n version Calculation version
Var(X) = cf = E[(X - ,u)2] Var(X) = & = E(X2) - ,u2
=I(xt- .U)2 Pt = Ix/ pi- .u2
= L,(x- ,u) P(X x)
2
= =U P(X= x) - ,U2
Sta ndard deviation of X

a =standard deviation = .J,....V-a-r(:-X-:-)
Simple functions of a random variable X

For any random variable X a nd constants a a nd b,
E(aX) = aE(X) Var(aX) = a2Var(X)
E(aX + b)= aE(X) + b Var(aX + b) = a2Var(X)
E(aX- b) = aE(X) - b Var(aX - b) = a2Var(X)
Sum and difference of two independent random variables

For two variables X and Y,
E(aX +bY)= aE(X) + bE(Y)
E(aX- bY)= aE(X) - bE(Y)
If X and Yare indep endent,
Var(aX +bY) = a 2Var(.X) + W ar(Y)
Var(aX - bY) = a2Var(X) + b2Var( Y) ~ Remember the + sign here
Sum of n independent observations of a random variable

For n independent o bservations of the rando m variable X,
E(X1 + ~ + ··· +X,) = n E(X)
Var(X1 + X2 + · · · +X,) = nVar(X)
Review
0 Lizzie, the receptionist at a dental practice, was asked to keep a weekly
record of the number of patients who failed to turn up for an appointment.
Her records for the first 15 weeks were as follows.
20 26 32 a 37 14 27 34 15 18 b 25 37 29 25
Unfo rtunately, Lizzie fo rgot to record the actual values for two of th e
15 weeks, so sh e recorded them as a and b. However, she did rem ember
that a < 10 and that b > 40.
a Calculate the m edia n and the interquartile range of these 15 values.
b Give reasons why, for these data:
i the mode is not a n appropriate m easure of average;
ll the standard deviation cannot be used as a m easure of spread.
c Subsequent investigations revealed that the missing values were 8 an d 43.
Calculate the m ean and standard deviation of the 15 values.

e A fair tetrahedral die has four faces numbered 1, 2, 3 and 6. The die and a
fair coin are tossed together. If the coin shows heads the score Sis equal
to double the number on the hidden face of the die. If the coin shows tails
then the score Sis equal to the number on the hidden face of the die.
a Copy and complete the possibility space showing the possible outcomes.
Die
1 2 3 6
H 6
Coin
T 2
b Show that P(S=6) = i·

c Draw up the probability distribution table for S.
d Show that the expected value of Sis 4.5.
e Calculate the variance of S.
0 The discrete random variable D is the number of parcels delivered in a day
to a particular house. The probability distribution forD is shown below.
~1:-(-D_=_d_)~~--o-~-1~~-:-.4--~-o.-:-5~--o-~-5~~-:--~1
b Write down the most likely number of parcels delivered.
c Find the mean number of parcels delivered.
d Find the probability that the number of parcels delivered is fewer than
the mean.
e Find the variance of D.
0 The number of spelling mistakes, X, that Jo makes when writing an essay
can be modelled by the following probability distribution.
I 0~3
1 2 3 4
I
:(X=x) 0.31 0.27 0.14 0.05
The mean number of spelling mistakes is Jl and the standard deviation is a.
a Find the values of Jl and a.
b Find P(X> Jl +a).
0 The random variable X takes values 2, 4, 6 and 8. p
0.5
The probability distribution of X is illustrated in the vertical line graph.
0.4
Find Var(X). 0.3
0.2
0.1
0 -'---'--+-t--l~
2 4 6 8 X
Discrete Random Variables Gl

G A discrete random variable X has the following probability distribution.
0 1 2 3
c 2c 3c 4c
a Find the value of the constant c.
b Find E(X) and Var(X).
c Find P(X> E(X)).
Q The probability distribution of the random variable X is shown in the
following table.
The mean of X is 3.3.
1 2 3 4 5
0.1 a a b a
a Write down two equations involving a and band hence find the values
of a and b.
b Calculate the variance of X.
c Find E(4X+2).
d Find Var(4- 5X).
0 Aiden takes his car to a garage for its MOT test. The probability that his car
will need to have X tyres replaced is shown in the table.
0 1 2 3 4
0.1 0.35 0.25 0.2 0.1
a Show that the mean of X is 1.85 and calculate the variance of X.

b The charge for the MOT test is £c and the cost of each new tyre is £n. The
total amount that Aid en must pay the garage is £T.
Express T in terms of c, n and X.
ii Hence, using your results from part a, find expressions for E( T) and
Var(1).
0 a The random variable X has mean 12.
The random variable Y has mean 5, where Y = aX+ 2.
b The random variable X has standard deviation 4.
The random variable Whas standard d eviation 40, where W = 1 - eX.
Find the value of c.
«:) X is a discrete ra ndom variable, where E(X) =20 and Var(X) =4.
The variable Y is the sum of n independent observations of X,
wh ere E(Y) =160. Find
a the value of n
b Var(Y).

Assessment
0 Henrietta lives on a small farm where she keeps some h ens. For a period of
35 weeks during the hens' first laying season, she records, each week, the
total numbe r of eggs laid by the hens.
Her records are shown in the table.
Total number of eggs laid in a week (x) Number of weeks {f)

66 1
67 2
68 3
69 5
70 7
71 8
72 4
73 2
74 2
75 1
TOTAL 35
a For these data, calculate the values for the mean and the
standard deviation. [4]
b Each week, for the 35 weeks, Henrietta sells 60 eggs to a local shop,
keeping the remainder for her own use.
State values for the mean and the standard deviation of the
number of eggs that she keeps. [2]
AQA MS1A June 2014
0 The Globe Express agency organizes trips to the theatre. The cost, £X, of
these trips can be modelled by the following probability distribution:
X 40 45 55 74
P(X=x) 0.30 0.24 0.36 0.10
a Calculate the mean and standard deviation of X. [4]
b For special celebrity charity performances, Globe Express
increases the cost of the trips to £Y, where
Y= 10X+250
Determine the mean and standard deviation of Y. [2]
e A box contains a large number of pea pods. The number of peas in a pod
may be modelled by the random variable X. The probability distribution of
X is tabulate d below.
X 2 or fewer 3 4 5 6 7 8ormore
P(X = x) 0 0.1 0.2 a 0.3 b 0

a 2 pods are picked randomly from the box. Find the probability
that the number of peas in each pod is at most 4. [2]
b It is given that E(X) = 5.1.
1 Determine the values of a and b. [4]
II Hence show that Var(X) = 1.29. [2]
Ill Some children play a game with the pods, randomly picking
a pod and scoring points depending on the number of peas
in the pod. For each pod picked, the number of points scored,
N, is found by doubling the number of peas in the pod and
then subtracting 5.
Find the mean and the standard deviation of N. [3]
AQA MS2B June 2014
0 In a computer game, players try to collect five treasures. The number of
treasures that Isaac collects in one play of the game is represented by the
discrete random variable X.
The probability distribution of X is defined by
P(X=x)={ ~: 2
x=1,2,3, 4
x=5
otherwise
a i Show that k= _!_, [2]

20
II CalculatethevalueofE(X). [2]
Ill Show that Var(X) = 1.5275. [3]
lv Find the probability that Isaac collects more than 2 treasures. [2]
b The number of points that Isaac scores for collecting treasures is Y,
where Y = lOOX- 50.
Calculate the mean and standard deviation of Y. [4]
AQA MS2B June 2013
Q A discrete random variable X has the probability distribution
X
x =1,2,3,4,5
20
P(X=x) = x
x=6
24
0 otherwise
a Calculate P(X ~ 5). [2]
b Show that E ( ~)= ;4. )( [2]

1
II Hence, or otherwise, show that Var - = 0.036, correct to three
decimal places. X [3]

c Calculate the mean and variance of A, the area of rectangles having
1
sides oflength X+ 3 and X. [5]
0 The number of text messages, N, sent by Peter each month on his mobile
never exceeds 40.
When 0 $ N $ 10, he is charged for 5 messages.
When 10 < N $ 20, h e is charged for 15 messages.
When 20 < N $ 30, he is charged for 25 messages.
When 30 < N $ 40, h e is charged for 35 messages.
a The nwnber of text m essages, Y, that Peter is charged for each month
has the following probability distribution:
5 15 25 35
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Calculate the mean and standard deviation of Y. [4]

H The Goodtime phone company makes a total charge for text
messages, C pence, each month given by
C= 10 Y+5
Calculate E( C). [1]
b The nwnber oftext messages, X, sent by Joanne each month on her
mobile phone is such that
E(X) = 8.35 and E(X2) = 75.25
The Newtime phone company makes a total charge for text messages,
T pence, each m onth given by
T=0.4X+250
Calculate Var(T). [4]
AQA MS2B June 2008
0 X and Yare independent random variables such that X has mean 10 and
standard deviation 3 and Yhas mean 15 and standard deviation 2.
a Find E(3X + 2Y). [1 ]
b Find Var( Y- 4X). [2]
c Find the mean and standard deviation of the random variable W, where
W is the sum of 10 independent observations of X. [3]
0 A small hotel has a microwave oven and a combination oven.
The random variable X is the number of breakdowns in a year of the
microwave oven and the random variable Y is the number of breakdowns
in a year of the combination oven.
The mean of X is 4 and the variance is 4. The m ean of Y is 5 and the
variance is 5.
Find the mean and standa rd d eviation ofT, the total number of
breakdowns of the two ovens in a year. [5]

The Bernoulli and binomial distributions are two special discrete By the end of this chapter,
probability distributions. you should know how to ...
The Bernoulli distribution provides a model for the number of successes in .,.. Use the conditions for
a single trial of an experiment, say the number of sixes in one throw the application of a
of a die. Bernoulli distribution.
.,.. Find the mean
This has great importance in the development of the binomial distribution
and variance of a
which is the model for the number of successes when you carry out the
Bernoulli distribution.
same trial a given number of times, say the number of sixes in 10 throws of
.,.. Use the conditions
the die.
for a binomial
James (or Jacques) Bernoulli (1654-1705) was a member of a very talented
distribution.
Swiss family. He graduated in theology from Basel University when he was
.,.. Calculate binomial
21 and returned as a physics lecturer when he was 29, becoming Professor
probabilities using a
of Mathematics at the age of 33. His main work was The Art of Conjecture, a
formula.
study on probability.
.,.. Find binomial
probabilities
using cumulative
probabilities in a
Recap
table.
You need to remember that for a discrete random variable X
.,.. Find the mean,
.,.. L.P(X=x) = 1
variance and
.,.. E(X) = I,xP(X = x)
standard deviation
.,.. Var(X) = E(X2) - fi-2
of a binomial
.,.. standard deviation = ~Var(X)
distribution.
• •• •• •• •• ••••• •• •••••• •• •••••••• •••• ••

15.1 The Bernoulli distribution
The discrete random variable Y with probability distribution function
P(Y = O) = l-p 0 1
forO ~p~ 1
{ P(Y=1)=p 1- p p
is said to have a Bernoulli distribution with parameter p.
You can write
Note
Y - Bernoulli(p)
Only the value of p is needed
This special discrete distribution arises from an experiment known as a
to describe a Bernoulli
Bernoulli trial in which there are only two possible outcomes: success or
distribution fully.
failure. The probability of success is p.
Suppose you are playing a board game and you want to throw a six on a die. If y 0 1
the die is fair, P(6) = ..!:... The act of throwing the die is a Bernoulli trial with two 1
6 P(Y= y ) -5 -
possible outcomes: success (throwing a six) and failure (not throwing a six). 6 6
Let Y be the number of sixes when you throw the die.
Y can take the values 0 or 1.
P(Y = 0) = P(failure) = P(not a six)= 65
P(Y= 1) = P(success) = P(six) = .!.
So Yhas a Bernoulli distribution w¥th p =..!:...
6
This is written Y - Bernoulli ( i)
If the random variable Yis the number ofsuccessful outcomes
in a Bernoulli trial with probability p of success, then
P(Y= 0) = P(failure) = 1- p
P(Y= 1) = P(success) = p
and Yhas a Bernoulli distribution, where Y- Bernoulll(p)
Example 1
I- A coin is biased so that it is three times as likely to show tails as h eads. Write out
the probability distribution for Y, the number of tails when the coin is tossed.
P(success) = P(tail) = 0.75.

If Yis the number of tails in a single toss of the coin,
then Y - Bernoulli(0.75).
P(Y= 0) = 1 - p = 0.25 0 1
P(Y= 1) = p = 0.75 0.25 0.75
Mean and variance of a Bernoulli distribution

Often q is used for 1 - p, so q = 1 - p. 0 1
So, if Y - Bernoulli(p), q p
E(Y) = L YP(Y = y) You studied the m ean of a discrete

= (0 x q) + 1 xp ra ndom variable in section 14.3
=p
E( Y2) =LY2P(Y =y)

= (02 x q) + (1 2 x p)
=p
Var(Y) = E(Y2) - [E( Y)J2 Variance of a discrete random variable
= p _ p2 was covered in section 14.4
= p(1 -p)
= pq
Bernoulli and Binomial Distributions

If Yhas a Bernoulli distribution such that Y- Bernoulli(p), then
mean =E(Y) = p
variance= Var( Y) =pq, where q =1- p
standard deviation = JPii
Example 2
A bag contains 6 red counters, 3 blue counters and 1 yellow counter.
I
-
A counter is picked at random from the bag. Find
a the mean number of red counters picked
b the standard deviation of the number of yellow counters picked.
a There appear to be three outcomes: red, blue, yellow, but you are only
interested in whether the counter is red or not.
Define 'success' as picking a red counter and 'failure' as picking a counter
that is not red.
This is a Bernoulli trial with p = P(red) = 0.6.
If R is the number of red counters picked, then R - Bernoulli(0.6).
Mean number of red counters picked= p = 0.6.
b Now you are only interested in whether the counter is yellow or not.
Define 'success' as picking a yellow counter and 'failure' as picking a counter
that is not yellow.
This is a Bernoulli trial with p = P(yellow) = 0.1.
If Yis the number of yellow counters picked, then Y- Bernoulli(0.1).
Variance= pq = 0.1 x 0.9 = 0.09.
Standard deviation = -./0.09 = 0.3.
Exercise 1
0 The discrete random variable Yhas probability distribution
I~(Y=y} I 0.~. I ~ I
Find the mean and standard deviation of Y.
0 The discrete random variable Yhas a Bernoulli distribution with
P(Y=O) =~.Find the mean and standard deviation of Y.
12
0 A bag contains 15 discs, numbered 1, 2, 3, ... , 15. A disc is randomly
selected from the bag.
a Find the m ean number of discs that show a multiple of 5.
b Find the standard deviation of the number of discs that show an odd
number.
0 A fair cubical die has faces numbered 1, 1, 2, 3, 3, 4. The score is the face
uppermost when the die is rolled. Find the mean and variance of the
number of even scores obtained on one roll of the die.
0 Given that W - Bernoulli(p) and Var(W') = 0.16, find the two possible values
for p.
15.2 The binomial distribution
The binomial distribution is another special discrete distribution which has
many important applications in statistics. The following example illustrates how
a binomial situation arises.
Example 3
A coin is biased so that the probability of obtaining a head when it is tossed is 0.7.
I
-
Find the probability of obtaining exactly two h eads when the coin is tossed
a 3 times
b 6times.
a A tree diagram shows clearly the possible outcomes in 3 tosses.
.,.. Draw the tree with three sets of branches, one for each toss of the coin.
Note
See more about tree
.,.. Locate the end results that give exactly 2 heads, so 2 h eads and 1 tail . diagrams in section 13.4.
.,.. Find the sum of the probabilities of these end results.
First Second Third 'I he trials a re indep e nde n t so
toss toss toss you m ultiply the probabilitie s.
H~H
0.3 T P(HHT) = 0.7 X 0.7 X 0.3 = 0.72 X 0.3
H
P(HTH) = 0.7 X 0.3 X 0.7 = 0.72 0.3

~H
X
0.7
T~
0.3 T
P(THH) = 0.3 X 0.7 X 0.7 = 0.72

H~H
X 0.3
0.3
0.3 T
T~H
0.3 T
P(exactly 2 heads in 3 tosses)

=P(HHT) + P(HTH) + P(THH) There are 3 ways of arranging
= 3 X 0.7 2
X 0.3 2 h eads a nd 1 tail.
=0.441
You could show the outcomes for 6 tosses by extending the tree to 6 layers
but this would be difficult to draw and very time-consuming. Instead,
just focus on the end results giving exactly 2 heads, that is the different
arrangements of 2 heads and 4 tails.
One such arrangement is in the order HHTTTT.
Now P(HHTTTT) = 0. 7 X 0. 7 X 0.3 X 0.3 X 0.3 X 0.3
= 0.7 2 x0.34 (continued)
Bernoulli and Binomial Distributions •

(continued)
But there are several other arrangem ents, each with probability 0. 72 x 0.34,
such as
HTHTIT, TTTHTH, TTHTHT, and so on ...
The number of arrangements is the number of different ways to choose
2 spaces from 6 spaces for H and then fill the remaining spaces with T.
The number of ways to choose 2 from 6 Note
~
6
= ( ) = 6 c2 = =15 You can find 6C2 directly
2 2!4!
so there are 15 ways of arranging 2 heads and 4 tails. on your calculator: [ID[jigfJ[g]EJ
P(exactly 2 heads in 6 tosses)
" (:t.7~~·7' x0.3' "0.0595 {3 sf)

6 choose 2 2 heads 4 tails
Conditions for a binomial distribution

A binomial situation arises from repeating a Bernoulli trial a fixed number of
times.
If Y is the number of successful outcomes in a single Bernoulli trial, where
Y - Bernoulli{p ), then Y can take the values 0 and l.
Now consider X= Y 1 + Y2 + ~ + ... + Y,,, where
~= 0 if the outcome of the r'h trial is a failure
~= 1 ifthe outcome oftl1e r'h trial is a success.
1he random variable X, the number of successful outcomes inn Note
independent Bernoulll trials, is said to follow a binomial distribution Only the values of nand p
with parameters nand p. are needed to describe the
You can write binomial distribution fully.
X - B(n,p)
So, a discrete random variable X follows a binomial distribution when all of the
following conditions are satisfied:
.,. the number of trials, n, is fixed
.,. the trials are independent
.,. each trial results in one of two outcomes: success or failure
.,. the probability of success, p, is constant for each trial.
Deciding whether a binomial distribution

is appropriate
You must check that all the conditions for a binomial distribution are satisfied
in the context of the situation. If any one is not satisfied, then X does not follow a
binomial distribution.
Example 4
In a bag there are 8 green counters and 7 red counters. Leyla and Waleed take
part in an experiment in which 6 counters are to be selected at random from the
bag. Leyla is told to put the counter back into the bag after each trial and
Waleed is told to put the counter into his pocket after each trial.
The random variable X is the number of green counters selected.
Explain why X follows a binomial distribution in Leyla's experiment but not in
Waleed's experiment.
In both experiments the process is carried out 6 times, so the number of trials is
fixed. Also each trial results in a successful outcome (the cow1ter is green) or an
unsuccessful outcome (the counter is red).
Levla's experiment
Since the counter is put back into the bag after each selection, the outcome of a trial
does not depend on the outcomes of preceding trials, so the trials are independent.
Also, since P(green) = J!._ for each trial, the probability of success is constant.
15
So X follows a binomial distribution in Leyla's experiment.
Waleed's experiment
Since the counter is not put back into the bag after each selection, each
outcome depends on the outcomes of preceding trials, so the trials are not Sampling withoutreplacement.
independent. X does not follow a binomial distribution.
Note that if you are sampling without replacement from a large population, the
variation in the probability of success for each trial would be negligible, so it is
usually considered to be a binomial situation.
Example 5
I
Kwasi is playing a board game where he has to throw a six on the die in order to
start. The random variable X is the number of times he throws the die until he
throws a six. Explain why X does not follow a binomial distribution.
Kwasi might get a six on his first throw, but he might need to throw the die many
I times to get a six.

Since there is no limit to the number of trials required, the number of trials is
not fixed and so X does not follow a binomial distribution.
If you know only that a trial is repeated a fixed number of times, you will need to
make certain assumptions related to the context in order to use a binomial
distribution.
Example 6
Fred takes 12 shots at a goal. State any assumptions necessary for the number of
goals he scores to follow a binomial distribution.

The following assumptions must be made:
.,.. Scoring a goal in one shot is independent of scoring a goal in all other
shots .
.,.. The probability of scoring a goal on any shot is the same for alll2 shots,
that is, Fred's ability to score a goal does not improve with practice.
Formula for calculating binomial

probabilities
Note
The probability of x successes inn trials is given by
P(x;r:)p'q\ ~ whereq=l-p (n) - c -

x " x
n'.
x!(n- x)!
Number of ways to Probability of Proba bility of

choose x from 11 x successes (11 - x) failures
Link between binomial probabilities and the

binomial expansion of (q + p)"
Writing q = 1 - p, it is easy to see the link between the probabilities in the
binomial distribution and the terms in the binomial expansion of(q+ p)",
studied in Pl.
For example, if you calculate the probabilities for X - B(6, p) using the above Note
formula, you will find that X has the following probability distribution:
The coefficients
X 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 6 15 20 15 6 1
P(X= x) cf 6p•qs 15p2¢ 20plcf 15p4q2 6p5q1 p6 appear In Pascal's Triangle
on page 116.
Now expand (q+ p) 6 using the binomial theorem.
You saw the binomial theorem in section 8.5, where
(q + p)G= cf + 6qsp• + 15cfp2+ 20 q3p3+ 15 q2p4 + 6q•ps + PG
In statistics, the convention is to write the power of p before the power of q in
each term. If you do this and then compare the expansion of (q+ p)6 with the
probabilities in the table for X - B(6, p), you will see that they correspond exactly.
(q+ p)6= cf + 6p•qs + 15p2cf + 20plcf + l 5p4q2 + 6p5q• + p6
t
P(X = O)
t
P(X= 1)
t
P(X = 2)
t
P(X= 3)
t
P(X = 4)
t
P(X= 5)
t
P(X = 6)
Check the sum of the probabilities:
I P(X =x)= (q + p)6 = (1 - p + p)6 = 16 = l , as expected.
Example 7
s( 11, ~). Calculate
I
X follows a binomial distribution, wh ere X -
a P(X= 4)
b P(X=9)
X- B(ll, ~) n= 11, p= -,31 q= 1- p ==-23
(~ }
1
a P(X = 4) == 4
q7 The indices add up to 11.
=(~1) (~J (~Y

X X
== 0.238 (3 sf)
P(X= 9)=(~ )p9q2

1
b
=(~1) (~J (~I

X X
== 0.00124 (3 sf)
You can write down the following probabilities straight away
P(no successes)== P(X == O) == ( ~) x p q"

0
= q" ( ~ ) = 1 and p 0
=1
P(all successes)== P(X= n) == (:) x p"q 0

== p" ( : ) = 1 and q 0 = 1
Example 8
At a certain supermarket 49% of customers pay by debit card. Find the
probability that in a random sample of 12 customers,
a exactly 7 pay by debit card
b at most 2 pay by debit card
c at least 3 but fewer than 5 pay by debit card
d all pay by debit card.
Let D be the number of customers in a sample of 12 who pay by debit card.
Note
D - B(12, 0.49) n= 12, p=0.49,q=l - p=0.51 Define the variable in words
a P(exactly 7)
and say how it is distributed.
=P(D =7)
=C:)p7q5
=C:) X 0.49
7
X 0.5P
= 0.1853 ... == 0.185 (3 sf)

b P(at most 2)
=P(D $ 2)
= P(D = 0) + P(D = 1)+P(D = 2)
=q12 +
1
c
2
)p1qll + c:}2q10
= 0.5P 2 + c 1
2
) X 0.491 X 0.51 11 + c:) X 0.492 X 0.5110
= 0.02274.. . == 0.0227 (3 sf) (continued)
(continued)
c P(at least 3 but fewer than 5)
= P(3 s; D < 5)
=P(D=3)+P(D=4)
= c:)p3q9+ c:}4q8
: : c:) X 0.49 3 X 0.519 + c:) X 0.494 X 0.518
= 0.1910 ... = 0.191 (3 sf)

d P( all pay by debit card)
=P(D=12)
= 0.0001915 .. . = 0.000192 (3 sf)

It is also useful to recall that, for any discrete random variable,
~)ex= x) =1,
so the sum of all possible probabilities is 1.
Example 9
On average, three quarters of the patients who have a check-up at a particular
dental practice do not need follow-up treatment.
Find the probability that, in a random sample of 9 patients from the practice,
the number that do not need follow-up treatment is
a at most 7 b at least 3.
Let X be the number of patients in a sample of9 who do not need follow-up
treatment.
X- B(9, 0.75) n =9, p = 0.75, q= 0.25
a P( at most 7)
= P(Xs; 7)
= 1-P(X > 7)
= 1-(P(X= 8) + P(X=9))
= 1- [ ( : )p8q1 + p9)
= 1- [( : ) X 0. 75' X 0.25' + 0.75°)
= 1 - 0.3003 ...
=0.6996...
= 0.700 (3 sf)
b P(at least 3)
= P(X~ 3)
= 1 - (P(X=O) +P(X= 1) + P(X= 2))
(continued)
D Bernoulli and Binomial Distributions
(continued)
~ 1 - ( q'+ ( ~ )p'q' + ( ~ )p'q')

~ I - ( 0.25' + ( ~ ) X 0. 75' X 0.25' + ( n
X 0. 75' X 0.25' )
= 0.9986 ... = 0.999 (3 sf)
Exercise 2
0 IfX- B(10,0.3),find
a P(X= 2) b P(X=6) c P(X= 10) d P(X=O)
E) If X- B(8, 0.25) find
a P(X=5) b P(X=3) c P(Xs; 3) d P(X~ 7)
0 If X- s( 9, ~)find
a P(X=5) b P(X < 2) c P(X > 7)
0 If X- B(9, 0.45) find
a P(2s;Xs;4) b P(5 <X< 8)
C) If X- B(13, 0.7) find
a P(8<Xs;IO) b P(s s;x < 1o)
0 If X- B(11, 0.64), find
a P(X~ 8) b P(X > 2)
0 If M - B(8, 0.73), find
a P(Ms; 7) b P(M > 6)
0 A coin is biased so that the probability of obtaining a tail is 0.42. The coin is
tossed 12 tim es. Find the probability that the number of tails obtained is
a exactly 6 b at least 10 c no more than 2.
0 The probability that a patient attending a clinic has a particular health
condition is 0.4. Find the probability that in a randomly chosen group of
7 patients the number with the health condition is
a exactly 3 b more than 5
c fewer than 2 d at least 2 but no more than 4.
C':) A 5-sided spinner is equally likely to stop on any of the numbers 1, 2, 3,
4 or 5. Aaliyah spins the spinner 10 times. Find the probability that the
spinner stops on
a an even number on exactly 7 spins
b an odd number on more than 7 spins.
4D In an experiment 5 fair coins are tossed together. Find the probability that
they land showing
a exactly 3 tails
b fewer than 3 tails
c more than 3 heads
d at least 2 h eads but no more than 4 heads.

e On average, 1 in 8 people living in a particular country were not born in that
country. Determine the probability that, in a random sample of 20 people
living in the country:
a exactly 5 were not born in the country
b at least 3 were not born in the country
c more than 18 were born in the country.
G) 1he discrete random variable X is such that X~ B(4, p).
Complete the probability distribution table for X in terms of p and q, where
q= 1- p.
0 2 3 4
15.3 The cumulative binomial distribution

function
When X~ B(n, p), the cu mulative binom ial distribution function gives
cumulative probabilities P(X~x), where
P(X ~ x) = P(X= 0) + P(X= 1) + P(X= 2)+ ... + P(X =x)
In the examination you will h ave access to a table giving cumulative
probabilities. This is Table 1 in the examination booklet: Formulae and
Statistical Tables.
Different sections of the table give cumulative probabilities for n =2 ton = 15,
then for n =20, 25, 30, 40 and 50.
In the extract printed below, you will see that values of p from 0.01 to 0.5 are
written across the top and x-values are written down the side.
An extract from Table 1: Cumula tive Binomial Distribution Function

The tabulated values give P(X ~ x) when n = 7, so when X~ B(7, p).
p O.ot 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 p
X 11 =7 X
0 0.932 1 0.8681 0.8080 0.75 14 0.6983 0.6485 0.6017 0.5578 0.5168 0.4783 0.3206 0.2097 0.1335 0.0824 0.0490 0.0280 0.0152 0.0078 0
1 0.9999 0.992 1 0.9029 0.9706 0.9556 0.9382 0.9 187 0.8974 0.8745 0.8503 0.7166 0.5767 0.4449 0.3294 0.2338 0.1586 0.1024 0.0625 1
2 1.0000 0.9997 0.9991 0.9980 0.9962 0.9937 0.9903 0.9860 0.9807 0.9743 0.9262 0.8520 0.7564 0.6471 0.5323 0.4 199 0.3 164 0.2266 2
3 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9998 0.9996 0.9993 0.9988 0.9982 0.9973 0.9879 0.9667 0.9294 0.7840 0.8002 0.7102 0.6083 0.5000 3
4 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9999 0.9998 0.9988 0.9953 0.9871 0.9712 0.9444 0.9037 0.847 1 0.7734 4
5 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9996 0.9987 0.9962 0.9910 0.98 12 0.9643 0.9375 5
6 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9998 0.9994 0.9984 0.9963 0.9922 6
7 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 7
The cumulative probabilities in Table 1 are given to 4 decimal places.

Notice that, in any particular column, after the value 1.0000 (4 dp) is first
reached, s ubsequent entries (also 1.0000) are left blank.

Using Table 1 when p ~ 0 .5
Suppose you want probabilities for X- B(7, 0.2). You need the column for p
headed 0.20. The relevant values are printed again below.
n=7 p= 0.20
X
0 0.2097 P(X~O)
1 0.5767 P(X~ l)
2 0.8520 P(X ~2) P(X ~ 0) =P(X = 0)
3 0.9667 P(X ~3)
4 0.9953 P(X~4)
5 0.9996 P(X~5)
6 1.0000 P(X ~6)
7 P(X~7)
So, when X- B(7, 0.2), Possible values of X

a P(X ~ 5) = 0.9996 01 2345 67
b P(X~ 3) = 0.9667 01 23 4567
c P(X = 0) = P(X ~ 0) = 0.2097 0 12345 67
You will need to relate other probabilities to P(X ~ x) and care must be taken to
distinguish between ~ and < and between 2! and>.
d P(X < 3) = P(X ~ 2) = 0.8520 01 2 34567
e P(X>4)=l-P(X~4) 01234 567
= 1-0.9953
= 0.0047
f P(X 2! 2) = 1- P(X ~ 1) 01 234567
= 1 -0.5767
= 0.4233
g P(X=4) = P(X ~ 4)- P(X~ 3) 0123 4 567
= 0. 9953- 0.9667
= 0.0286
h P(1 ~ X ~5)= P(X ~ 5) - P(X ~O) 0 1 2345 67
= 0.9996-0.2097
=0.7899
P(1 <X~ 5)= P(X ~5)- P(X ~ 1) 01 2345 67
= 0.9996 - 0.5767
= 0.4229
P(1 ~X< 5)= P(X ~4)- P(X ~ O) 0 1 234 567
= 0.9953 - 0.2097
= 0.7856
k P(l < X < 5)= P(X ~ 4)- P(X~ 1) 01 234 567
= 0.9953-0.5767
= 0.4186
Example 10
The proportion of members of a health club who play tennis is 0.35.
A sample of 40 members of the health club is selected at random.
Determine the probability that the number of these members who play tennis is:
a at most 12;
b at least 10 but at most 15;
c exactly 15.
AQA MS1A June 2010
Let X be the number of members in a sample of 40 who play tennis.
Note
n =40 and p =0.35, so X- B(40, 0.35).
See Table 1 in Formulae and
Use cumulative binomial probability tables for n = 40 and p = 0.35
Statistical Tables.
a P(at most 12) = P(X ~ 12)
=0.3143 =0.314 (3 sf)
b P(at least 10 but at most 15)
= P(10 ~X~ 15) ... 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 ...
= P(X~ 15) - P(X ~ 9)
= 0.6946- 0.0644
= 0.6302 = 0.630 (3 sf)
c P(exactly 15) =P(X =15)
= P(X ~ 15) - P(X~ 14) ... 1314 15 1617 .. .
=0.6946 - 0.5721
= 0.1225
= 0.123 (3 sf)
Alternatively, it may b e quicker to use the formula as follows:
P(X = 15) = ( :~ ) X 0.35 15

X 0.6525
= 0.12256... = 0.123 (3 sf)

In this example, the answers agree to 3 significant figures.
Example 11
In a particular production process, the probability that an item is faulty is 0.08. In a
quality control test, a random sample of 50 items is taken. Find the probability tlmt
a exactly 4 are faulty
b more than 5 but fewer tha n 9 are faulty
c at least 40 are not faulty.
Let X be the number of faulty items in the sample of 50. Note
Then X- B(50, 0.08).
See Table 1 in Formulae and
Use cumulative binomial probability tables for n =50 and p = 0.08 Statistical Tables.
a P(exactly4arefaulty)
= P(X=4)
1!=50 p= 0.08
= P(X:::; 4)- P(X :::; 3)
= 0.6290- 0.4253 x= O 0.0155
1 0.0827
= 0.2037 = 0.204 (3 sf)
2 0.2260
b P(more than 5 but fewer than 9 are faulty) 3 0.4253
= P(5 <X< 9) ... 45 6 7 8 9 ... 4 0.6290
= P(X :::; 8)- P(X :::; 5) 5 0.7919
6 0.8981
= 0.9833 - 0.7919
7 0.9562
= 0.1914 = 0.191 (3 sf)
8 0.9833
c P(at least 40 are not faulty) 9 0.9944
= P(at most 10 are faulty) Not faulty ... 40 41 42 ... 49 50 10 0.9983
= P(X :::; 10) Faulty .. . 10 9 8 ... 1 0 11 0.9995
12 0.9999
= 0.9983 = 0.998 (3 sf)
13 1.0000
Note that this technique is helpful when using the tables when p > 0.5.
Exercise 3
Use cumulative binomial probability tables where appropriate.
0 If Y- B(14, 0.4), find
a P(Y:s; 7) b P(Y<5) c P(Y > 9)
d P(Y ~ 6) e P(Y=8)
0 If X - B(10, 0.45), find
a P(2:s;X:::;7) b P(2<X:s; 7)
c P(2:s;X< 7) d P(2 < X < 7)
0 The random variable X follows a binomial distribution with n = 25 and
p = 0.35. Find
a P(10 :s;x:::; 15) b P(X= 12) c P(X < 7)
d P(X~9) e P(4 < X < 14)
0 On average 1 in 10 of the chocolates produced in a factory are mis-shaped.
In a random sample of 40 chocolates, find the probability that the number
of mis-shaped chocolates is
a fewer than 9 b at least 3 but at most 10
c 6 or more.
0 A certain tribe is distinguished by the fact that 45% of the males have
six toes on their right foot. Stating any necessary assumptions, find the
probability that, in a selected group of 25 males from the tribe, more than
13 have six toes on their right foot.

G One-fifth of a certain population has a m inor eye defect. Find the
probability that the number of people with this eye defect is
a more than 2 in a random sample of 10 people
b exactly 2 in a random sample of 10 people
c at least 10 in a random sample of 40 people.
0 A manufacturer makes two sizes of screws: 40% are large and 60% are small.
They are packed into packs of 20. Assuming that each pack of these screws
contains a random selection, calculate the probability that, in a pack of
20 screws, there are
a equal numbers oflarge and small screws
b more than15large screws.
0 In a particular region 10% of people have blood type B.
a Find the probability that exactly 3 have blood type B in a random
sample of 5 people from the region.
b Find the probability that at most 2 have blood type B in a random
sample of9 people from the region.
c Find the probability that exactly 13 do not have blood type Bin a
random sample of 15 people from the region.
Using Table 1 when p > 0.5

When p > 0.5, use the symmetry property of the binomial distribution.
This is illustrated below in the probability distributions of X - B(5, 0.3) and
Y - B(5, 0. 7). Notice that n = 5 in both distributions, and the values of p add up to 1.
p X- B (5, 0.3) p Y-B(5,0.7)
0.4 0.4
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
I
X
I I y
0 2 3 4 5 0 2 3 4 5
By symmetry, you can see that
P(X=O)=P(Y=5)
P(X= 1) = P(Y=4)
P(X =2) =P(Y= 3) and so on.
Also note, for example, that
P(X < 2) = P(Y> 3) P(X~ 2) = P(Y~ 3)
P(X < 4) = P(Y < 1) P(X~ 4) = P(Y~ 1)

Example 12
The random variable Xis distributed 8(8, 0.6). Use cumulative binomial tables
to find
a P(X ~ 3)
b P(X ~ 2)
c P(X= 5)
1hese two probabilities add up to l.
~ ~
X - 8(8, 0.6), so consider Y - 8( 8, 0.4) and use the table for n = 8 and p = 0.4. Y - B(8, 0.4)
a P(X ~ 3) = P(Y ~ 5) = 0.9502 n =B p = 0.4
t t
1hese two numbers add up to 8.
y= O
l
0.0618
0.1064
2 0.3154
b P(X ~ 2) =P(Y~6)
3 0.5941
=1-P(Y~5)
4 0.8263
= 1-0.9502 5 0.9502
= 0.0498 6 0.9915
c P(X=5) = P(Y=3) 7 0.9993
8 1.0000
= P(Y ~ 3)- P(Y~ 2)
= 0.5941-0.3154
= 0.2787
Example 13
In a particular region, 85% of adults own a cell phone. A random sample of
30 adults is selected from the region. Determin e the probability that the number
of adults in the sample that own a cell phone is:
a more than 25
b more than 22 but fewer than 28
c at least 20 but fewer than 28.
P(owns a cell phone) = 0.85
Let X be the number of p eople in 30 wh o own a cell phone.
Note
Then X- 8(30, 0.85f
Since p > 0.5, consider Y, the number of p eople in 30 who do not own a cell See Table 1 in Formulae and
phone. Statistical Tables.
P(does not own a cell phone) = 1 -0.85 = 0.15, so Y- 8(30, 0.15).

Using cumulative binomial tables for Ywith n= 30, p = 0.15
a P(X > 25) = P(Y<5) X: Own a cell phone ... 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
=P(Y ~ 4) Y: Do not own a cell phone 7 6 5 4 3 2 l 0
= 0.5245 = 0.525 (3 sf)

(continued)

(continued)
b P(22 <X < 28) = P(23 $ X $ 27) X: Own a cell phone ... 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
= P(3 $ Y $ 7) Y: Do not own a cell phone ... 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
= P(Y $ 7)- P(Y$ 2)
= 0.9302 - 0.1514
= 0.7788 = 0.779 (3 sf)
c P(20 $ X < 28) = P(20 $ X $ 27) X: Own a cell phone ... 19 20 2122 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
= P(3 $ Y$ 10) Y: Do not own a cell phone ... 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
= P(Y$ 10) - P(Y$ 2)
= 0.9971-0.1514
= 0.8457 = 0.846 (3 sf)
Exercise 4 Note
Use cumulative binomial probability tables where appropriate.
~~> It is often quicker to use
0 If X - B(11, 0.65), find cumulative probability
a P(X= 6) b P(X<3) c P(X~9) tables but sometimes
E) The random variable X is distributed as B(50, 0. 7). Find you may have to use the
a P(X ~ 40) b P(32 $ X$ 41) formula as the tables
are not available for all
c P(X< 29) d P(X=35)
possible values of p or
0 When Alex tries to send a fax, the probability that he can successfully send of n.
it is 0.85. Each attempt is independent of all other attempts. He tries to send 11> The values given in the
50 faxes. tables usually agree, to
Find the probability that he can successfully send at least 46 faxes. 3 decimal places, with
0 An experiment consists of taking shots at a target and counting the number calculated values.
of hits. The probability of hitting the target with a single shot is 0.8. Stating
any necessary assumptions, find the probability that in 13 consecutive
attempts the target is hit at most 11 times.
0 In a survey it is found that 65% of shoppers choose Soapy Suds washing
powder.
Stating any necessary assumptions, determine the probability that, in a
group of 10 shoppers, the number who buy Soapy Suds washing powder is
a at most 8 b at least 4 c fewer than 3.
0 At a particula r hospital, records show that each day, on average, 80% of
people keep their appointment at the outpatients' clinic.
a Find the probability that in a random sample of 10 patients, more than
7 keep their appointment.
b Find the probability that in a day when 30 appointments have been
booked the number that keep their appointments is
at most21
ii at least 23
ill more than 20 but fewer than 27
iv exactly 25.

0 A certain variety of flower seed is sold in packets containing a large number
of seeds. It is claimed on the packet that 40% will bloom white and 60% will
bloom red and this may be assumed to be accurate.
a 15 seeds are planted. Find the probability that
I more than 10 will bloom red
if fewer than 7 will bloom red.
b 50 seeds are planted. Find the probability that exactly half will
bloom red.
0 There are 40 boxes of balloons in a storeroom. Each box contains 3 red
balloons and 7 green balloons. A balloon is taken at random from each box.
a no more than 25 green balloons are taken
b at least 10 red balloons are taken
c more green balloons than red balloons are taken.
15.4 Mean, variance and standard

deviation of a binomial distribution
To find the mean and variance of a binomial variable X- B(n, p), use the
fact that X is the sum of n independent observations of a Bernoulli variable Y,
where Y - Bernoulli(p),
so X= Y1 + Y2 + .. · + Y,,
Now, when Y - BernouHi(p),
E(Y) =p, and Var(Y) =pq where q =1 - p
So, E(X) = E(Y1 + Y2 + ... + Y)
= E(Y1) + E(Y2) + ... E(Y,,)
= p + p+ .. · +p
= np
Var(X) = Var(Y1 + Y2 + ... + Y,)
= Var(Y) + Var(Y2) + ... + Var(Y,,)
= pq + pq + ... + pq
= npq
IfX- B(n,p),
m ean = E(X ) = np
va riance= Var(X) = npq where q = 1- p
standard deviation = ~npq

Example 14
In a large consignment of apples, 15% are rejected for being too small.
I A random sample of 50 apples is taken from the consignment.

Determine the mean and standard deviation of the number of rejected apples
in the sample.
Let X be the number of rejected apples in a consignment of 50.
I
X- B(50, 0.15) n =50, p= 0.15, q=0.85
mean= np =50 x 0.15 = 7.5
standard deviation = Jnpq = ~50 x 0.15 x 0.85 = 2.524 ... = 2.52 (3 sf)
Example 15
The random variable X has distribution B(20, 0.25). The mean of Xis ft. and the
standard deviation is a.
a Find the values of ft. and a.
b Calculate the percentage of the distribution that lies within one standard
deviation of the mean. Give your answer to 2 significant figures.
X- B(20, 0.25) n=20, p=0.25, q=0.75
a ft. =np
=20x0.25
=5
a= Jnpq
= -J,-20_ x_ 0_.2_5-x -0-.7-5 = 1.936.. . = 1.94 (3 sf)
b ft. - a = 5- 1.94 == 3.06 and ft.+ a= 5 + 1.94 = 6.94 n = 20 p = 0.25
P(Xlies within one standard deviation of the mean) x =O 0.0032
= P(3.06 <X <6.94) 1 0.0243
=P(X= 4, 5, 6) X takes integer values only 2 0.0913
3 0.2252
= P(Xs; 6) - P(X s; 3) 0 1 23 456 78 ....
4 0.4148
= 0.7858- 0.2252 5 0.6172
= 0.5606 6 0.7858
= 56% (2 sf) etc
Example 16
I
The random variable X is distributed B(n, p ). The mean of X is 5 and the
standard deviation is 2.
Find the values of n and p.
Mean=np=S (1)
2
Variance = npq = 2 = 4 (2)
Substitute for np from (1) into (2)
Sq=4
q =0.8
p = 1 - 0.8 = 0.2
Substitute for pin (1)
nx0.2=5
5
n=-=25
0.2
Son= 25, p = 0.2 and X- B(25, 0.2).
Example 17
A fair coin is tossed 10 times and the number of tails recorded.
a The random variable X is the number of tails.
State the mean and variance of X.
b The number of tails is multiplied by 3 and denoted by the random variable Y.
State the mean and standard deviation of Y.
a Xis the number oftails in 10 tosses.
X - B(lO, 0.5) n= 10,p=O.S, q= 1-p=O.S
Mean= np= 10 x 0.5=5
Variance= npq = 10 x 0.5 x 0.5 = 2.5
b Y=3X
E(Y) = 3E(X) = 3 X 5 = 15
Var( Y) = 32 Var(X) = 9 Var(X) = 9 x 2.5 = 22.5
s.d.ofY = --/22.5 = 4.743 ... = 4.74(3sf)
Exercise 5
0 The random variable X has distribution B(14, 0.36). Find
a themean b the variance
c the standard deviation.
0 The random variable Yhas distribution B(20, 0.4). Find the probability that
Yis equal to the m ean of Y.
0 The probability that an item produced by a machine is satisfactory is 0.92.
a Find the expected number of satisfactory items in a random sample of
25 items produced by the machine.
b Find the standard deviation of the number of unsatisfactory items in a
random sample of 50 items produced by the machine.
0 The random variable Yhas distribution B(n, 0.3) and E(Y) = 2.4.
a Find n. b Find P( Y = 5).
c Find the standard deviation of Y.

0 X is the number of tails obtained when a fair coin is tossed 10 times. The
mean of X is ft and the standard deviation of X is a.
a Find ft and a.
b 1 Find P(X < ft - 2a). li Find P(X > ft + 2a).
c Find the probability that Xis more than two standard deviations away
from the mean.
( ) In a multiple choice test, for each question students have to choose the
correct answer from a choice of four answers. There are 20 questions in the
test. Jack decides not to read any of the questions, but to select an answer at
random each time.
a What is the probability that Jack answers a question correctly?
b Find the mean and standard deviation of the number of correct answers
that Jack gets.
c Find the probability that the number of correct answers that Jack gets is
within one standard deviation of the mean.
f) In a bag there are 6 red counters, 8 yellow counters and 6 green counters.
Ronami selects a counter at random from the bag, notes its colour and then
puts it back into the bag. She does this four times in all. Find
a the probability that she selects 4 red counters
b the expected number of yellow counters she selects
c the variance of the number of green counters she selects.
0 The probability that a person chosen at random wears glasses is p.
A random sample of n people is chosen and the number of people in the
sample who wear glasses is denoted by X.
It is given that E(X) =2.4 and Var(X) =1.68.
b Find the value of n.
c Find the probability that exactly 6 people in the sample wear glasses.
C) It is given that X- B(n, p). The mean of Xis 3.6 and the variance of Xis 2.16.
Find
a nandp b P(X ~ 2).
0 A calculator randomly generates the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9, so

that each digit has an equal chance of occurring.
a What is the probability that a zero is generated?
b Six digits are generated. Find the probability that there is exactly one
zero.
c Twenty digits are generated. Find the expected number of digits that are
multiples of 3.
d One hundred digits are generated. Find the variance of the number of
odd digits.

G Lilia travels to work by bus or by car. TI1e probability that she travels by bus
on any day is 0. 7. If she travels by bus, there is a probability of 0.1 that she is
late for work. If she travels by car there is a probability of 0.2 that she is late
for work.
a By drawing a tree diagram, or otherwise, find the probability that she is
late for work on a particular day.
b Find the expected number of days she is late for work in 20 working days.
c Find the variance of the number of days she travels by car in 10 working
days.
(!) The discrete random variable X is such that X- B(n, p) with n = 3 and p = 0.4.
a Complete the probability distribution table for X.
0 2
I;(X=x) I 0.:32 I I 0.:641
b Use the values in the table to calculate E(X) and Var(X).
c Calculate np and npq where q = 1 - p and confirm that E(X) = np and
Var(X) = npq.

Example 18
At a large college, an analysis of the number of distinctions each student was
awarded in assignments resulted in the following information. For example,
26% of students achieved exactly 3 distinctions in their assignments.
Number of distinctions 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Percentage of students 2 8 35 26 17 5 7
A random sample of 18 students was selected.

a Find the probability that the sample contains
fewer than 4 students with 2 distinctions
II at most 16 students with fewer than 4 distinctions.
b Find the mean and variance of the number of students in the sample with at
least 3 distinctions.
a I From the table, 35% of students had 2 distinctions,
so P(student h as 2 distinctions)= 0.35.
Let X be the number of students in the sample of 18 with 2 distinctions.
X - B(18, 0.35) n = 18, p= 0.35, q = 1 - p = 0.65
P(X < 4) = P(X= 0) + P(X= 1) + P(X= 2) + P(X = 3)
1 1
= 0.65 18 + ( : ) X 0.35 1 X 0.6517 + ( : ) X 0.35 2 X 0.65 16
+( l: ) X0.35 X0.65
3 15
=0.07826.. . = 0.0783 (3 sf) (continued)

(continued)
ii P(student has fewer than 4 distinctions)= 0.02 + 0.08 + 0.35 + 0.26 = 0.71
Let Ybe the number of students in the sample of 18 with fewer than
4 distinctions.
Y - B(18, 0.71) n = 18, p = 0.71, q = 0.29
P(Y ~ 16) = 1 - [P(Y= 17) + P(Y= 18)]
= 1- ( ( :~ )x 0.71" X 0.29' +0.71")

= 0.9824 ... = 0.982 (3 sf)
b P(student has at least 3 distinctions)= 0.26 + 0.17 + 0.05 + 0.07 = 0.55
Let A be the number of students in the sample of 18 with at least
3 distinctions.
A - B(18, 0.55) n= 18, p = 0.55, q = 0.45
Mean= np = 18 x 0.55 = 9.9
Variance= npq = 18 x 0.55 x 0.45 = 4.455
Example 19
An amateur tennis club purchases tennis balls that have been used previously
in professional tournaments.
The probability that each such ball fails a standard bounce test is 0.15.
The club purchases boxes each containing 10 of these tennis balls. Assume that
the 10 balls in any box represent a random sample.
a Determine the probability that the number of balls in a box which fail the
bow1ce test is:
at most 2; ii at least 2;
iii more than 1 but fewer than 5.
b Determine the probability that, in 5 boxes, the total number of balls which
fail the bounce test is:
more than5; ii at least 5 but at most 10.
c Calculate the mean and variance for the total number of balls in 50 boxes
which fail the bounce test.
AQA MS1A June 2011
n = 10 p=0.15
a Let X be the number of balls in a box of 10 which fail the bounce test.
Then X - B(n, p) where n = 10, p = 0.15, soX- B(10, 0.15). x=O 0.1969
i P(at most 2) = P(X ~ 2) = 0.8202 = 0.820 (3 sf) 1 0.5443
2 0.8202
ii P(at least 2) = P(X:2: 2)
3 0.9500
= 1 - P(X ~ 1) 4 0.9901
= 1 - 0.5443 5 0.9986
= 0.4557 = 0.456 (3 sf) 6 0.9999
7 1.0000
8
9
(continued) 10

(continued)
iii P(more than 1 but fewer than 5)
= P(X = 2, 3, 4)
=P(X:;; 4)- P(X:;; 1)
= 0.9901-0.5443
= 0.4458 = 0.446 (3 sf)
b Let Ybe the number of balls in 5 boxes which fail the bounce test. Define a new variable.
Then Y- B(n, p) where n =50, p = 0.15, so Y- B(50, 0.15).

i P(more than 5) = P(Y> 5)
=1-P(Y:;;5) Note
= 1-0.2194 See Table 1 in Formulae and
= 0.7086 = 0.709 (3 sf) Statistical Tables.
ii P(at least 5 but at most 10)
=P(5:;;Y:;;10)
= P(Y:;; 10)- P(Y:;; 4)
= 0.8801-0.1121
= 0.7680 = 0.768 (3 sf)
c Let Tbe the total number of balls in 50 boxes which fail the bounce test.
T- B(n, p) where n = 500, p = 0.15, so T- B(500, 0.15)
Mean= E(T) = np = 500 x 0.15 = 75
Variance =Var(T) = np(1- p) = 500 x 0.15 x 0.85 = 63.75
Example 20
A bank issues three versions of its credit card: classic, gold and platinum. A
customer's application for a credit card may be refused because of the
customer's poor credit rating.
a The proportion of customers who are refused the classic version of the
bank's credit card is 0.275.
Calculate the probability that, from a random sample of 10 customers
applying for the classic version, exactly 2 applications are refused.
b The proportion of customers who are refused the gold version of the bank's
credit card is 0.65.
Determine the probability that, from a random sample of 40 customers
applying for the gold version, the number of applications that are accepted is:
no more than 15; ii at least 10 but at most 20.
c The proportion of customers who are refused the platinum version of the
bank's credit card is 0.85.
Determine the probability that, from a random sample of 50 customers
applying for the platinum version, more than 40 applications are refused.
AQA MS1A June 2012

a Let C be the number of customers in 10 who are refused the classic version. p = 0.275 is not given in the tables,
Then C- B(n, p) where n = 10, p = 0.275 and q = 1-0.275 = 0.725, so the formula must be used.
so C - B(10, 0.275).
1
P( C = 2) = ( ; ) X 0.275 2 X 0. 725 8 = 0.2597 ... = 0.260 (3 sf)
b P(refused gold version) = 0.65,

so P(accepted for gold version)= 1 - 0.65 = 0.35
Let G be the number in 40 who are accepted for the gold version, where
G- B( 40, 0.35).
Use cumulative binomial probability tables with n = 40, p = 0.35
P(no more than 15 are accepted for the gold version)
= P(Gs;15)
= 0.6946 = 0.695 (3 sf)
II P(at least 10 but at most 20 are accepted for the gold version)
= P(10:::;; G:::;; 20)
=P( G:::;; 20) - P( G :::;; 9)
= 0.9827- 0.0644
= 0.9183 = 0.918 (3 sf)
c Let R be the number in 50 who are refused the platinum version, where
R - B(50, 0.85).
Since p > 0.5, consider A, the number in 50 who are accepted for the
platinum version.
P(accepted) = 1-0.85 = 0.15,
so A - B(50, 0.15).
Since you want P(R > 40), you need to find P(A < 10).
P(R > 40) = P(A < 10)
= P(A :::;; 9) Use Table 1 with 11 = 50 and p = 0.15.
= 0.7911 = 0.791 (3 sf)
Summary
Bernoulli distribution: Y- Bernoulli(p)
Mean, variance and standard deviation
A discrete random variable Ywith probability distribution function Probability distribution for
P(Y = 0) = 1 - p Y - Bernoulli(p):
{ P(Y = l) = p for 0 :::;; p:::;; 1
0 1
has a Bernoulli distribution with parameter p.
1-p p
If Yis the number of successes in a single Bernoulli trial with probability of
success p then Y - Bernoulli(p).

mean= E(Y) = p
variance= Var(Y) =pq where q = 1 - p
standard deviation = Jijq
Binomial distribution: X- B(n, p)

The binomial distribution results from repeating a Bernoulli trial a fixed
number of times.
For a discrete random variable to follow a binomial distribution, all of the
following conditions must be satisfied:
.,. the number of trials, n, is fixed
.,. the trials are independent
.,. each trial results in one of two outcomes: success or failure
.,. the probability of success, p, is constant for each trial.
If X is the number of successes in n independ ent Bernoulli trials, each with

probability of success p, then X follows a binomial distribution with parameters
nand p, so X- B(n, p).
Binomial probabllltles
The probability of x successes in n trials is given by
P(X=x)}: Jr~·" whereq=1-pand (n) =,Cx=

X
n!
'( n _ X.)'
X.
Number of ways to Probability of Probabili ty of

choose x from n x successes (11 - x) fa ilures

mean = E(X) = np
variance= Var(Y) = npq
standard deviation= ~npq
Review
0 The probability that a component produced by a particular machine is
unsatisfactory is 0.05.
A random sample of 12 components is selected from the production line of
the machine.
Find the probability that the number of unsatisfactory components in the
sample is
a exactly 3 b at least 2.
0 The faces on a special fair cubical die are numbered 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3.
Find the probability of obtaining fewer than 6 odd numbers in 7 throws of
the die.

0 The random variable X has a binomial distribution with parameters n= 16
and p = 0.15. Find
a E(X)
b the probability that Xis greater than E(X)
c Var(X).
0 Crocus and tulip bulbs are sold in mixed packs of 36 bulbs. On average, a
pack contains three times as many crocus bulbs as tulip bulbs.
a A pack is selected at random. Find the probability that two-thirds of the
bulbs in the pack are crocus bulbs.
b Find the mean and variance of the number of tulip bulbs in a pack.
C) The discrete random variable X has a binomial distribution with mean 2.4
and variance 1.92. Find the probability that X= 4.
0 The probability that Barry's cat, Sylvester, chooses to stay outside all night is
0.35, and the eat's choice is independent from night to night.
a Determine the probability that, during a period of2 weeks (14 nights),
Sylvester chooses to stay outside:
I on at most 7 nights; II on at least 11 nights;
Hi on more than 5 nights but fewer than 10 nights.
b Calculate the probability that, during a period of 3 weeks, Sylvester
chooses to stay outside on exactly 4 nights.
c Barry claims that, during the summer, the number of weeks, S, on
which Sylvester chooses to stay outside can be modelled by a binomial
distribution with n = 7 and p = ~.
7
Assuming that Barry's claim is correct, find the mean and variance of S.
II For a period of 13 weeks during the summer, the number of nights
per week on which Sylvester chose to stay outside had a mean of 5
and a variance of 1.5.
Comment on Barry's claim.
0 In the holiday period, the probability that Gregoire plays football on any
particular day is 0.2.
a Find the probability that Gregoire plays football on exactly 5 days in a
holiday period of 14 days.
b Find the mean number of days on which Gregoire plays football in a
holiday period of 21 days.
c If the standard deviation of the number of days Gregoire plays football
is 2, how many days are there in the holiday period?
0 Balloons are packaged in party bags. Each bag contains 20 balloons. The
colours of the balloons in a party bag are shown in the table.
Colour Red Blue Green Yellow

Frequency 8 5 4 3
Serene buys 10 party bags of balloons and selects a balloon at random from
each bag.
a Find the probability that she selects at least 2 green balloons.
b Find the mean number of blue balloons that she selects.
c Find the variance of the number of yellow balloons she selects.
C) In a certain city 35% of all shops advertise in the local newspaper.
a A random sample of 12 shops is taken. Find the probability that more
than 9 advertise in the local newspaper.
b A random sample of 50 shops is taken. Find the probability that
I at least 16 advertise in the local n ewspaper
ii fewer than 30 do not advertise in the local newspaper.
~ The records at a passport office show that, on average, 15% of photographs
that accompany applications for passport renewals are unusable.
Assume that exactly one photograph accompanies each application.
a Determine the probability that in a random sample of 40 applications:
exactly 6 photographs are unusable;
ii at most 5 photographs are unusable;
iii m ore than 5 but fewer than 10 photographs are wmsable.
b Calculate the mean and the standard deviation for the number of
photographs that are unusable in a random sample of 32 applications.
Assessment
0 The random variable X has a binomial distribution with parameters n = 30
and p = 0.5. Find
a P(12<X<15) [2]
b P(X=E(X)). (3]
f) The random variable X has the distribution B(9, 0.45). Find
a E(X) [2]
b the standard deviation of X. [3]
0 Ghyslaine passes through 6 sets of traffic lights when she walks to
work each morning. She estimates tl1at, for each set of traffic lights, the
probability that the lights show red is 0.3.
Stating any necessary assumptions, find the probability that, as she walks to
work on a particular morning,
a 3 or fewer sets show red [3]
b more than 4 sets show red (2]
c all 6 sets show red. [2]
~.l
Bernoulli and Binomial Distributions ~
0 Stopo./fowns a chain of hotels. Guests are presented with the bills for their
stays when they check out.
The number of bills that contain errors may be modelled by a binomial
distribution with parameter n and p, where p = 0.30.
Determine the probability that, in a random sample of 40 bills:
a at most 10 bills contain errors; [2]
b at least 15 bills contain errors; [2]
c at least 6 bills but at most 18 bills contain errors. [3]
0 The probability that Shayna receives at least one telephone call on any day
is 0.8. The number of telephone calls she receives is independent from day
to day.
a Calculate the probability that, during a particular fortnight, Shayna
receives at least one telephone call on exactly 9 days. [3]
b Calculate the mean number of days in April on which she does not
receive any telephone calls. [3]
0 The post office in a market town is located within a small supermarket.
The probability that an individual customer entering the supermarket
requires a service from :
the post office only is 0.48;
the supermarket only is 0.30;
both the post office and the supermarket is 0.22.
It may be assumed that the service required is independent from customer
to customer.
a For a random sample of 12 individual customers, calculate the
probability that exactly 5 of them require a service from the post office
only. [3]
b For a random sample of 40 individual customers, determine the
probability that more than 10 but fewer than 15 of them require a
service from the supermarket only. [3]
c For a random sample of 100 individual customers, calculate the mean
and standard deviation for the number of them requiring a service from
both the post office and the supermarket. [3]
0 Plastic clothes pegs are made in various colours.
The number of red pegs may be modelled by a binomial distribution with
parameter p equal to 0.2.
The contents of packets of 50 pegs of mixed colours may be considered to
be random samples.
a Determine the probability that a packet contains:
less than or equal to 15 red pegs; [2]
il exactly 10 red pegs; [2]
iii more than 5 but fewer than 15 red pegs. [3]
b Sly, a student, claims to have counted the number of red pegs in each
of 100 packets of 50 pegs. From his results the following values are
calculated.
Mean number of red pegs per packet= 10.5
Variance of number of red pegs per packet= 20.41.
Comment on the validity of Sly's claim. [4]
() The table shows, for a particular population, the proportion of people in
each of the four main blood groups.
Blood group 0 A B AB
Proportion 0.40 0.28 0.20 0.12
a A random sample of 20 people is selected from the population.
Determine the probability that the sample contains:
at most 10 people with blood group 0; [2]
il exactly 3 people with blood group A; [3]
iii more than 4 but fewer than 8 people with blood group B. [3]
b A random sample of 500 people is selected from this population.
Find values for the mean and variance of the number of people in the
sample with blood group AB. [2]

Introduction Objectives ------,
Mechanics is the study of how and why objects move in various ways, or do By the end of this chapter, I
not move at all. you should know how to ...
This chapter defines the terms used to describe motion. .,.. Define displacement,
velocity and
acceleration .
.,.. Sketch and use
Recap displacement-time
You need to remember how to... graphs and velocity-
.,.. Use the relationship between distance, speed and time: time graphs to solve
total distance problems of motion
distance =speed x time and average speed = .
total tune in a straight line .
.,.. Find the gradient of a straight line.
.,.. Sketch a parabola from its equation .
.,.. Use trapeziums to estimate the area under a curve.
.,.. Differentiate a polynomial.
Applications
When a plane lands it decelerates. Designers of new planes need to
calculate the time taken and distance traveled when the plane brakes so
they know the minimum length of runway that a plane would need to stop.
••• •• • • • •• •• •• • ••• •••• • • •• •• • • • • •• • •• •

16.1 Displacement, speed, velocity
and acceleration
Displacement
When a particle is moving in a straight line it can be moving in either direction
along the line.
The difference between the two different directions is identified by giving a
positive sign to one direction and a negative sign to the other direction.
The diagram shows a model engine that starts from a point 0 and moves in the
direction OA along a straight line.
• Displacement, Speed, Velocity and Acceleration

I I~ I
+ ve direction
~
D 0 B A
50 Clir )oj
40cm )t 30 cm
)oj
""
When the engine reaches B, it has travelled a distance of 50 em and it is also
50 em from 0. The engine then reverses direction and moves 20 em back
towards 0 to point C, then
the total distance that the engine has travelled is 70 em
but the distance of the engine from 0 is 30 em (to the right).
The engine now continues moving towards 0 and carries on to point D, beyond 0,
the total distance that it has travelled is 140 em
but the distance of the engine from 0 is 40 em (to the left).
Calling the direction from 0 to A the positive direction then
the distance from 0 in the direction from 0 to A is called the displacemen t.
Therefore, from 0, the displacement ofB is 50 em
the displacement of C is 30 em
the displacement ofD is -40 em.
Displacement is a quantity which has both magnitude (size) and

direction. Quantities of this type are called vectors.
Distance only has size- the direction doesn't matter.
Distance Is a scalar quantity.
Example 1
Starting from floor 4, a lift stops first at floor 11, then at floor 1 and finally at
floor 6. The distance between floors is 4 m. Taking the upward direction as
positive write d own, for each of the stops,
a the displacem ent, of the lift floor from floor 4
b the distance the lift floor has travelled since first leaving floor 4.
Taking the level of floor 4 as the start and the upward direction as positive: 11
a At floor 11 the displacement is+ 7 x 4 m = 28 m 10
9
the distance travelled is 28 m. 6
b At floor 1 the displacement is -3 x 4 m = - 12 m 7
6
the distance travelled is (10 + 7) x 4 m =17 x 4 m = 68 m. 5
Atfloor6 the displacement is + 2 x 4 m = 8 m s=O
iO4
3
the distance travelled is (10 + 7 + 5) x 4 m = 22 x 4 m =88 m. 2
I
Displacement, Speed, Velocity and Acceleration •

Exercise 1
0 Which of the following quantities are vectors and which are scalars?
a 5 km due south b 6 miles
c A speed of 4 ms- 1
d 200 miles north-east
e A temperature of 25°C f A force of 8 units vertically downwards
g A mass of 6 kg h A time of 7 seconds.
E) A particle starts at a point A and moves along a straight line. The point A is
1.2 m from a point 0 on the line.
This graph shows the motion of the particle.
~
g3~~~H+~---v-~+\-~~~~~~+-~~/--+--~~~44~~~~~+r.~
i5
§
~21~~~/~~~~~-\ H~~~~~/-~~~~~~--~+4]\---H~~~h+~
"'
i:5
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200

Time (seconds)
Take the upward direction as positive.

a State the displacement of the particle from A after
50 seconds if 80 seconds IIi 175 seconds.
b Find the maximum displacement of the particle from A
ii the total distance travelled by the particle.
c Find the average speed over the 175 seconds.
Velocity and speed

The velocity of an object is its speed in a particular direction.
Therefore velocity is a vector quantity. Speed is the magnitude of velocity.
When an object moves with a uniform velocity,(uniform means constant) then
the object has a constant speed and its direction is constant, so it is moving one
way along a straight line.
To define which direction the object is moves, a velocity in one direction along
the line is taken as positive; a velocity in the opposite direction is then negative.

-------------------------~ +vedirection
- ve velocity <3------ -- - - - - - - - 9 + ve velocity
For example a particle P moving with a constant speed of 5 ms-• along the line
shown in the diagram.
0 after 1 s after 2 s
_ __,__...L.__J....____._ _.__.....__.____,__...L.__J....____._ __.__ _ +ve direction
0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
PO-------------&~
When P starts from 0 and moves to the right, the positive direction, the velocity
of P is +5 ms-•.
After 1 second the displacement of P from 0 is +5 m, after 2 seconds it is+ 10m,
and so on.
The displacement is increasing at a rate of +5 ms-•.
When P starts from A and moves to the left with the same speed, its velocity
is-5 ms-• .
after 2 s aft er 1 s A
----'--....L..-...____._ __,__.....__.____,__ _.__...____._ __.__ _ +ve direction
0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
<I OP
The initial displacement of P from 0 is+11 m and after 1 second the
displacement is 6 m.
The displacement has decreased by 5 m, so it has increased by -5 m.
Also, after 2 seconds the displacement is 1m and has increased by - 10m.
The displacement is increasing at a rate of -5 ms-•
therefore velocity is the rate at which the displacement increas es.
Acceleration
Acceleration is the rate at which velocity is increasing.
Therefore when the velocity of a particle moving in a straight line increases
steadily from 3 ms-• to 11 ms-• in 4 seconds, the acceleration is +2 ms- 2 •
When the velocity decreases from 14 ms-• to 5 ms-• in 3 seconds (the velocity
has increased by -9 ms-•) the acceleration is -3 ms- 2•
Exercise 2
0 State whether each of the following statements is correct or incorrect. Give
a reason for the statements that you think are incorrect.
a A car driving due north at 40 mph has a constant velocity.
b A toy train runs round a circular track with constant velocity 2 ms-•.
c A plane flies in a straight line from London to Newcastle so its velocity is
constant.

0 A particle moves along the straight line shown in the diagram. It passes
through A, moves to B, then moves from B to C, from C to D and finally
fromD to E.
C A B E D
- +ve
-2 -1 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ll 12 13
Distance (metres)
This table gives the value oft at each point, where tis the number of
seconds that have elapsed since the particle first passed through A.
B c D E
t 5 8 15 19
Find the velocity of the particle, constant in each section, in travelling from
a A to B b B to C c C to D d D to E.
( ) The velocity of a particle changes steadily from -5 ms- to -21 ms- 1 in
1
4 seconds. What is the acceleration?

0 A particle moving in a straight line with a constant acceleration has a
velocity u ms- 1 at one instant and t seconds later the velocity is v ms- 1• Find
the acceleration of the particle when
a u=8, v=2,t=3 b u=4,v= - ll,t=5.
0 A body moving initially at 5 ms- has a constant acceleration of a ms-2 • After
1
6 seconds its velocity is v ms- 1• Find v when

a a=3 b a=-2 c a=O.
16.2 Displacement-time and velocity-time

graphs
Displacement-time graphs
When an object P moves in a straight line, a displacement-time graph shows
how the distance of P in a specified direction from a fixed point varies with time.
For example, an object P moves in a straight line and moves through points 0,
A, B and Con the line. P covers each section at a constant speed.
This table gives the displacement, s metres, of each of these points from 0, and
the time, t seconds after leaving 0, when P is at each point.
s
t
This displacement-time graph shows the information in the table.

,
!• It ~
I
I''
I'
,, It
li' ' I• tj t'" ·~'

·-
,....._
10
•
v
v 1""-
I+ ' ;-
I t~, I• ~~
•·
;
.., ~ [Jt l l~H
L 'f
~
Cl)
/ ; j
~ 5
s v ) '\ I"
,_if t··-
t
"" / ' • 1-
•'
..,
c:f
..,8 0
/ '\
u
"'
0.
0 f'\.lp *
Cl) 'ime, t (se< onds
Ci
-5
• • [\. 'I
'I I~ '\
.. J I ;j fl ;t IJ., ,. :: j '\. :
I : ; I•• \ c
- 10
I· t-
I
r ;.,_ I• l
For the section from 0 to A,

P h as travelled a distance of 10m in the positive direction in 5 seconds, so the
velocity is 2 ms-• and the gradient of the graph is 2.
For the section from A to B,
P has travelled a distance of 4 min the negative direction in 2 seconds, so the
velocity is -2 ms-• and the gradient ofthe graph is -2.
For the section from B to C,
P has travelled a distance of 15m in the n egative direction in 5 seconds, so the
velocity is -3 ms-• and the gradient of the graph is -3.
In each section the gradient of the displacement-time graph represents
the velocity.
The average velocity is the constant velocity that would produce the final
increase in displacement in the total time interval.
For example the average velocity from 0 to B is - ms-• = ~ ms-• (this is equal
6 0
to the gradient of the chord OB) 7-0 7
• (rom A to C IS
the average ve1oc1ty . --9-10 I 19 I ( h' • 1
- - ms- . = - - ms- t IS IS equa to
the gradient of the chord AC) 12 - 5 7
the average velocity from 0 to C is - -0 ms-• = -~ ms-• (this is equal to the

9
. 12-0 4
gradient of the chord OC).
When P moves from 0 to C, the total distance that P h as moved is
(10 +4+ 15) m = 29m.
So the average speed of P is ( :~ }us-• = 2.4 ms-• (correct 2 significant figures).

This shows that
the average speed Is different from the average velocity.
Displacement, Speed, Velocity and Acceleration I

For a curved displacement- time graph also, the average velocity over a time
interval is given by the gradient of the chord corresponding to that interval.
The gradient of the tangent to the curve at a particular value oft, represents the
velocity at that instant.
~ ~·~di~"·~~··~~··
velocity from 1 to 1 1 5
t gradient gives average

1
l4 ..--- velocity from t2 to 14
- - - gradient of tangent
1
3 gives velocity at 13
For any motion over a given interval of time,

distance covered in the time interval
averagespee d = - - - - -- - - - - - - - -
the time interval
increase in displacement over the time interval

average ve Iocity = - - - - - - = - - - - - - - - - - - - -
the time interval
lhe velocity at an instant Is given by the gradient of the displacement- time

graph at the corresponding point.
Example 2
A and 0 are two fixed points on a straight line. A particle P moves on the line so
that, at time t seconds its displacement, s m etres, from 0 is given by
s = (t-l)(t- 5).
When t = 0, the p article is at point A.
Sketch a displacement- time graph for values oft from 0 to 6.
a At what times does the particle pass through 0?
b What is the average speed over the 6-second time interval?
c What is the average velocity over the 6-second time interval?
d At what time is the velocity zero?
e Find the velocity when t = 5.
The curve whose equation is s= (t-l)(t- 5) is a p arabola. The curve crosses the s
t-axis where t = 1 and t = 5 so is symmetrical about the line t = 3. 6
4
The curve has a minimum value of -4 where t = 3.
2
a When the particle is at 0 its displacement from 0 is zero, that is when s = 0.
The particle passes through 0 when t = l and t =5.
-2
b P starts at A where s =+5. P then covers 5 m to 0 and continues beyond 0 for -4
a further 4 m to B where s = - 4. -6
Then P goes back to 0, that is 4 m back, and a further 5 m to A.
(] (]
I> I>
B-'---'----'~--'---'---'-----'---'---'------'-A
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 2 3 4 5
total distance covered 5 + 4 + 4 + 5 = 3 ms_ 1•

average sp ee d =--.--.----
time mterval 6
(continued)
(continued)
c The average velocity is given by the gradient of the chord joining the points
where t = 0 and t= 6.
c
There1ore th e average ve 1oc1ty
. .1s -
5-5
- = 0.
6-0
d The velocity is zero when the gradient of the tangent is zero, that is wh en the
tangent is parallel to the time axis.
The velocity is zero when t =3.
e The velocity when t = 5 is the gradient of the curve at the point where t = 5.
The gradient of a curve can be found using differentiation.
s=(t- l)(t-5) => s=f - 6t +5
ds ds
-=2t-6 and when t =5, - =4
dt dt
Therefore the velocity is 4 ms-1 when t= 5.
Exercise 3
0 A boy is kicking a ball straight towards a wall. For each kick he sees how far
the ball rebounds. This graph shows, for one kick, the displacement of the
ball from the boy in the direction towards the wall.
20
t
" ~:If •r ,m wn t It-•
~
f !"t
/ "' \
I • :I
.,,.
• t· 't .I • ~ ;If
I•
~
/ I
.• !! 1
i
i- I I
!
' ~ .·l·j f+
l lr 1.' :J
1/
""
\
0 ~ ;-....,.
- I'lme tCse·c bnds)
-10
tl r r---:--- I !
a Find the average velocity of the ball between t =0 and

t=0.5 H t= 3 Hi t=5 .
b State the velocity when t = 1.3.
ii Explain why the graph has a 'point' at this time.
c At wh at time does the ball pass the boy when rebounding?
f) A particle Pis moving along a straight line. The displacement of P from 0 , a
fixed point on the line, after t seconds iss m etres where s = t( 4 - t) .
Sketch a displacement-time graph and use it to answer the following questions.
a Find the average velocity from
i t=Otot=2 ii t = 2tot = 4 Hi t = Otot=4 iv t=2tot=6 .
b Find the average speed for each of the time intervals in part a.
c Find the velocity when t = 0.
d At what time is the velocity zero?
Displacement, Speed, Velocity and Acceleration

E) A fixed point A is on a straight line and a particle P is moving on the line.
The displacement, s metres, ofP from A after t seconds is given by s = 5t- f .
a Sketch a displacement-time graph and use it to answer the following
questions.
b At what time is the velocity zero ?
d Find, for the 6-second journey,
i the average velocity li the average speed.
0 This graph shows the motion of a ball bouncing vertically.
0 2 3 4
Time (seconds)
a State the times when the velocity of the ball is zero.

b Find the average speed during
the first second
ii the first full bounce (from t= 1 tot= 2.5)
iii the second full bounce.
c Find the average velocity during each of the time intervals in part b.
d What is the average velocity over the first 3 seconds.
Velocity-time graphs
For an object P travelling in a straight line, a velocity-time graph shows how the
speed of P in a particular direction varies with time.
The graph on the next page shows the velocity ofP during a 20-second time
interval, starting from a point 0 on the straight line.

15
10
,.....,
7Vl
5
3:::.
0
-5
In the first 5 seconds the velocity increases steadily from zero to 15 ms- 1 so the
acceleration in this section is 3 ms- 2 and the gradient of this section of the
graph is 3.
In the next 2.5 seconds the velocity is constant so the acceleration is zero, and
the gradient the graph is also zero.
Then the velocity decreases until after another 7.5 seconds the graph crosses
the time axis. This shows that the velocity has reduced to zero and that P has
momentarily com e to rest.
15
For this section the acceleration is - - ms- 2 and the gradient is -2. (The
7.5
velocity is decreasing but it is still positive, so P is still moving forward.)
When t =15 the velocity is zero and immediately after that the velocity becomes
negative, so P stops going forward and begins to move in the opposite direction
with an acceleration of-~ ms- 2 (the gradient is - 2).
2.5
For the last 2.5 seconds the velocity is becoming less negative, so. it is
increasing. The acceleration is 0 - (- 15) ms- 2 =2 ms- 2 and the gradient is 2.
2.5
The velocity is still negative so P is still m oving backwards until, when t= 20,
P comes to rest.
Each section demonstrates that, for motion with constant acceleration, the
gradient of the velocity-time graph represents the acceleration.
Now look at the distance moved by Pin each section, rem embering that
P moves forward for 15 seconds and then moves in the opposite direction.
Using average velocity x time gives the following results.
Time interval (s) 0-5 5- 7.5 7.5- 15 15-17.5 17.5-20

Distance moved (m) 37.5 37.5 56.25 6.25 6.25
Direction moved forward forward forward backward backward
P moves 131.25 m forward and then 12.5 m back so the displacement of P from
0 at the end ofthe 20 seconds is 131.25- 12.5 m =118.75 m.

15
10
~
7
5"':::.
0
-5
This shows that the distance moved in each section is represented by the area
between that section of the graph and the time axis. Take any area that is below
this axis as negative, the displacement of an object moving with constant
acceleration is represented by the area between the velocity-time graph and the
time axis.
When the acceleration of a moving object is not constant the velocity-time
graph is curved. Similar arguments show that, for any velocity-time graph,
straight or curved:
The average acceleration over a time Interval is represented by the

gradient of the corresponding chord. A negative gradient gives a
negative acceleration, showing that the velocity Is decreasing.
The acceleration at a given instant is represented by the gradient of the
tangent to the curve at that particular point on the curve.
The displacement is represented by the area between the curve and the
time axis, regions below that axis are negative. An approximation to this
area can be found using the area of trapeziums.
Exercise 4
0
........
'"'3
0
·o0 10
~
o+---~--~~---+---L--1---~--~~---+~~
0 lO 20 30 40 50
Time (s)
The graph shows the velocity of a car as it moves along a straight road,
starting from a point A.

Find
a the acceleration during the first 4 seconds
b the deceleration during the finallO seconds
c the distance travelled
while accelerating
ii at constant speed
iii while decelerating.

Explain why the displacement of the car from A at the end of the 52-second
journey is equal to the total distance travelled from A.
0 A train is brought to rest from a velocity of24 ms- 1 with a constant

acceleration of -0.8 ms-2•
Sketch a velocity-time graph and find the distance covered by the train
while it is decelerating.
0 A particle is moving in a straight line with a velocity of 10 ms- 1 when it is

given an acceleration of -2 ms-2 for 8 seconds. Draw a velocity-time graph
for the eight-second time interval and use it to find
a the time when the direction of motion of the particle is reversed
b the increase in displacement during the 8 seconds
c the total distance travelled in this time.
0 The velocity of a runner was recorded at different times and is illustrated by

the velocity-time graph .
. ·t· ..
,....... I f::• .l
I• I• • i ! 1: l
~
·-r---:--
'"'
_§, 6 B/.. . - I
~4 t
·o r
0
~ 2
_/
I
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (s)
Note
Use a triangle between 0 and
a Explain what is happening between
A, a rectangle between A and
OandA B and a trapezium between
ii A and B Band C.
iii Band C.
b Estimate the length of the race explaining whether your answer is more
or less than the actual length.

0 A girl runs forwards to a point A and then runs back
to a point B which is at a distance behind A.
This is the graph of her velocity plotted against time.
a At what time does the girl
reach point A ii reach point B?
b At what times is the acceleration zero?
c Explain what happens after about 6 seconds.
d Use ordinates at t= 5, t = 8.5 and t = 15 to
estimate the distance that the girl runs.
0 An aircraft starts from rest at the end of a
straight runway. The aircraft accelerates uniformly 2
for 30 seconds until it reaches its take-off speed of

90 ms-1•
a Find the acceleration of the aircraft.
b Sketch a velocity-time graph.
c Find the length of the runway used by the aircraft to reach its takeoff
speed.
0 A lift travels vertically up from rest at A to rest at B, which is 20m above
A. The lift accelerates from A at 1.5 ms- 2 for 2 s then it travels at a constant
speed before decelerating uniformly at 4 ms- 2 to stop at B.
a Sketch a velocity-time graph.
b Find the time the lift takes to decelerate.
c Hence find the time that the lift takes to move from A to B.
Summary
For motion with constant speed:
total distance
distance = speed x time average speed
total time
Velocity is the rate of increase of displacem ent.
Acceleration is the rate of increase of velocity.
In a displacement-time graph the velocity at a particular time, t, is given by the
gradient of the tange nt to the graph at that value oft.
In a velocity-time graph the acceleration a t a particular time, t, is given by the
gradient of the tangent to the graph at that value oft,
the displacement after time tis given by the area under the graph for that time
interval.
0 Displacement, Speed, Velocity and Acceleration

Review
For Questions 1 to 4 state the letter that gives the correct answer.
0 The diagram shows the displacement-time graph for a particle moving in a
straight line.
The average velocity for the interval from t =0 to t =5 is

a 0 b 6 ms- 1 c -1 ms- 1 d 2 ms- 1•
e The diagram shows the displacement-time graph for a particle moving in a
straight line.
The distance covered by the particle in the interval from t = 0 tot = 5 is

a 20 m b 50 m c 15m d 5 m.
The diagram shows the velocity-time graph for a particle moving in a

straight line. The sum of the two shaded areas represents
a the increase in displacement of the particle
b the average velocity of the particle
c the distance moved by the particle
d the average speed of the particle.
0 A particle moves in a straight line with a constant acceleration of 3 ms-2
with an initial velocity of - 1 ms- 1• Its velocity 2 seconds later is
a 5 m s- 1 b 6ms- 1 c 4ms- 1 d -7 ms- 1•
C) A test car starts from rest at time t = 0 seconds and moves with a uniform
acceleration of 3 ms-2 along a straight horizontal path. After Tseconds,
when its speed is V ms- 1, it stops accelerating and maintains this steady
Displacement, Speed, Velocity and Acceleration 0

speed nntil it hits a wall when it comes instantly to rest. The car has then
travelled a distance of 800 m in 30 s.
a Sketch a speed-time graph to illustrate this information.
1600
b show V=-- -T.
60
Assessment
0 A car travels along a straight horizontal road with constant acceleration
from a speed of 10 ms- 1 to a speed of20 ms- 1 and covers a distance
of200 m.
a Sketch a velocity-time graph showing this motion.
b Find the time taken by the car to travel the 200 m.
c Find the time taken by the car to travel the first 100m.
e The graph shows how the velocity of a train changes as it travels along a
straight horizo ntal track.
20-t-------.,._,_
I
15 - --------- -- 1~--
10 ------------i-------
1
I
I
0-t------r---T--~~
0 15 24 33 t seconds
a Find the distance travelled by the train in this 33 seconds.

b Find the average velocity of the train in this 33 seconds.
e The graph shows the journey of a train as it travels along a horizontal track.
The train accelerates from rest at a station A to a speed of 27 ms- 1 and then
decelerates to rest again at a station B. The stations are 5400 m apart.
27 -- --- - -- --- - ---- -
T t seconds
a Find the time taken for the journey between the two stations.
The acceleration of the train is 0.3 m s- 2 •
b Find the distance the train travels while it is accelerating.
0 The diagram shows the displacement-time graph for a particle moving in a
straight line.
sm
10
8 - ---- -------------
-5

a Find the distance travelled by the particle.
b Find the average speed of the particle.
c Find the average velocity of the particle.
e A particle Pis moving on a straight line. After t seconds the displacement,
s metres, of P from A, a fixed point on the line, is given by s = (1 - t)(3- t).
a Sketch a displacement -time graph for 0 ~ t ~ 6.
b At what time is the velocity zero?
d Find, for the first 6 seconds,
i the average velocity ii the average speed.
C) Two trains, A and B, are moving on straight horizontal tracks which run
alongside each other and are parallel. The trains both move with constant
acceleration. At timet= 0, the fronts of the trains pass a signal. The
velocities of the trains are shown in the graph below.
Velocity (ms- 1)
A
B
5.8
5
I
0+----------------r-------------.
Time (s)
0 8
a Find the distance between the fronts of the two trains when they have
the same velocity and state which train has travelled further from the
signal.
b Find the time when A has travelled 9 metres further than B.
AQA MM1B June 2015
0 The graph shows how the speed of a cyclist, Hannah, varies as she travels
for 21 seconds along a straight horizontal road.
a Find the distance travelled by Hannah in the 21 seconds.

b Find Hannah's average speed during the 21 seconds.
AQA MM1B June 2013

When an object moves with constant acceleration, the relationships By the end of this chapter,
between displacement, velocity and acceleration give some simple you should know how to ...
formulae. These formulae together with velocity-time graphs can be used .,.. Derive and use
to solve problems when the acceleration is constant. This chapter also the equations of
covers motion in a straight line with variable acceleration. motion with constant
acceleration.
.,.. Solve problems
involving objects
Recap falling freely under
You need to remember... gravity.
.,.. The gradient of a velocity-time graph gives the acceleration. .,.. Work with equations
.,.. The area under a velocity-time graph gives the displacement. of motion with
.,.. The formula for solving a quadratic equation. variable acceleration.
.,.. How to solve a pair of simultaneous equations when one of them
is quadratic .
.,.. How to differentiate and integrate x'.
.,.. That : means the rate at which y is changing with respect to x.
Applications
When a firework rocket is launched, it accelerates rapidly but gravity will
act to slow it down as the fuel runs out.
Designers of fireworks need to know the distance it travels upwards before
the explosion is triggered and the time taken to reach that point.
\.
• •• • • • • •• • • • •• •• •• •• •• • ••• •• •• • • •• •• • •
17.1 Equations of motion with constant
acceleration
The velocity-time graph illustrates an object Velocity
moving for t seconds with constant acceleration a
units.
At the start of the time interval the velocity
u
is u units and the end of the time interval it is v
units.
QL-------------------------~~----------
Time
0 Motion in a Straight Line

The velocity increases by a units each second so after t seconds the increase in
velocity is at units. Therefore
v=u+at [1]
The area under the velocity-time graph represents the displacem ent. The area of
this trapezium is .!.(u+ v) x t. Therefore
2
1
s= - (rt+ v)t [2]
2
Eliminating v from [1] and [2] by substituting u+ at for v in [2] gives
s=.!.(u + u + at)t. Therefore
2
1
s= ut+- af [3]
2
Eliminating u from [1] and [2] gives
1
s=vt- - af [4]
2
Eliminating t from [1] and [2] gives
v-u
From [1] t =- -
a
Substituting in [2] gives s =.!.(v+u) (v-u) = _!_(v 2 -u 2 ) ~ 2as= u2- u2
2 a 2a
Rearranging gives
v2=zt2 +2as [5]
These five formulae can now be used to solve by calculation any problem on
motion with consta nt acceleration.
Each formula contains four quantities from u, v, a, sand t but n ot the fifth
quantity. The formula to use can be found by looking for the quantity that is not
involved.
However, many problems can be solved using a sketch of a velocity-time graph.
Also a velocity-time sketch graph often makes the solution clearer when using
the formulae.
When acceleration is constant (acceleration is a vector so its direction is
constant as well as its magnitude), it follows that all the motion takes place
along a straight line but the object can move in either direction along the line,
Therefore start a problem by deciding which direction is positive; the opposite
direction is then negative.
Then make a list of the given information, and what is needed, using u for the
initial velocity and v for the final velocity. Many motion problems are clearer
when a simple diagram is drawn, using different arrow h eads to indicate
different quantities.
This book uses:
I> ))
for velocity, for acceleration, for a length
Motion in a Straight Line G

Example 1
A particle starts from a point A with velocity 3 ms-• and moves with a constant
1
acceleration of 2 ms-2 along a straight line AB. It reaches B with a velocity
of 5 ms-•. Find
a the displacement of B from A
b the time taken from A to B.
~ tm/s2
A e---- - - ----"- ---. B - +Ve
~ 3m/s 5
~ 5m/s
Given: u=3, v=5, a =.!..

2
a Wanted: s
(tis not involved so use formula if- u2 = 2as)
52-32=2(~)s
~ s=16
The displacement of B from A is 16 m.
b Wanted: t
(sis not involved so use the formula v = u +at)
1
5=3+-t ~ t= 4
2
The time taken from A to B is 4 seconds.
Alternatively, use a velocity-time graph sketched from the given information.
u
The gradient gives the acceleration.
5 5-3 1
Gradient=-- = -
t 2
3 Therefore t = 4 so the time is 4 seconds.
s
The area gives the displacement.
1 1
o_ ___:____ Area=- (3+5) x t =- (8)(4) = 16
X 2 2
Therefore s = 16 so the displacement is 16m.
Example 2
I
A cyclist starts to ride up a straight steep hill with a velocity of 8 ms-•. At the top
of the hill, which is 96 m long, the velocity is 4 ms-•. Find the value of the
constant acceleration.
Given: u = 8, v = 4, s = 96
Wanted: a, so use the formula without tin it,
if- u2 =2as
42 -82 = 2a(96)
- 48 - 1
~ a =-=-
192 4
The acceleration is _.!_ ms-2 •
4
0 Motion In a Straight Line

Example 3
The driver of a train decelerates at steady rate of 0.2 ms- 2 and brings the train to
rest in 1 minute 30 seconds.
Find a the speed of the train in kmh-1 at the instant when the brakes
are applied,
b the distance the train then travels before it stops.
Velocity (ms- 1)
Working in metres and seconds:
Given: a= -0.2, v = 0, t = 90
Wanted: (a) u (b) s
a Using v = u + at gives
0 = u+ (- 0.2)(90)
Therefore u = 18.
The speed of the train was 18 ms-1 = ~ x 60 x 60 kmh- 1 = 64.8 kmh-1•
1000
1 .2 •
b Using s = vt - -ar g1ves
2
s = (0)(90)-.!. (-0.2)(90)2 = 810
2
This is the displacement of the point where the train stops from the point
where the brakes were applied. Therefore the distance the train travels
is 810m.
Example 4
A particle A starts from rest at a point 0 and moves on a straight line with
I constant acceleration 2 ms-2• At the same instant another particle B, 12m

behind 0, is moving with velocity 5 ms-1 and has a constant acceleration of
3 ms-2• How far from 0 are the particles when B overtakes A?
A and B travel different distances. Using s to represent the shorter distance, that
is the distance that A travels; B then travels a distance (s + 12) m. A and B move
for the same time.
ForA
Given: u=O, a=2 wanted: distances, time tis the same for both particles
1 1
s=ut+- at2 ~ s=- (2)[2 [1]
2 2
ForB
Given: u =5, a = 3 wanted: distance (s + 12) m, timet is the same for both
particles
1 1
s= ut+- at2 ~ s+ 12=5t+- (3)[2 [2)
2 2
(continued)
Motion in a Straight Line 0

(continued)
These two equations can be solved simultaneously. sis wanted but it is easier to
first find t.
[2] - [1] gives12=5t+.!.f => f+10t - 24=0
2
=> (t+ 12)(t- 2) = 0
=> t=2 or-12
Using the positive value oft in [1] gives s = 4.
B overtakes A at a distance 4 m from 0.
Exercise 1
Give answers that are not exact correct to 3 significant figures.
In Questions 1 to 10 an object is moving with constant acceleration a ms-2 along
a straight line. The velocity at the initial point 0 is u ms-1 and t seconds after
passing 0 the velocity is v ms- 1 and the displacement from 0 iss m.
0 u=O, a=3, v = 15; find t.
0 t = 10, s=24, u=6; findv.
0 a= 5, u = 4, s = 2; find v.
0 u = 16, v=B, t=5; finds.
C) t=7, u=3, v=17; finda.
0 t=7, u=l7, v=3; finda.
0 u= 5, t= 3, a=-2; finds.
0 a=-4, u =6, v=O; find t.
C) v=3, t= 9, a= 2; finds.
«:) v=7, t= 5, a= 3; find u.
G A particle starts from rest and moves in a straight line with a constant
acceleration of2 ms-2• Find the distance covered
a in the first four seconds
b in the fourth second of its motion.
CD A particle moves in a straight line with a constant acceleration of - 3 ms- 2
•
1
The particle has an initial velocity at point A of 10.5 ms- •
a Show that the times when the displacement from A is 15m are given by
f-7t+l0=0 .
b Find the time when the displacement from A is -15 m.
4!) A car is travelling at 10 ms- when the driver sees a broken-down car on the
1
road 100 m ahead. The driver brakes, decelerating at 18 ms-2• How far from
the broken-down car does the driver stop?
~ A body moving in a straight line with constant acceleration takes Note
3 seconds and 5 seconds to cover two successive distances of 1 m.
Find the acceleration. Hint: use distances of 1 m
and 2 m from the start of
the motion.
• Motion in a Straight Line

G) The displacements from a fixed point 0, of a n object moving in a straight
line with constant acceleration, are 10m and 14 m at times of2 seconds
and 4 seconds respectively after leaving 0. Find
a the initial velocity
b the acceleration
c the time interval between leaving 0 and returning to 0.
0 A particle accelerates from rest from a point A to a velocity of 12 ms-1• It
then moves with constant velocity for 42 seconds before decelerating to
rest at a point B. The time taken to travel from A to B is 60 seconds. The
acceleration and deceleration are equal. Find the distance between A and B.
17.2 Free fall motion under gravity

Experiments show that, however heavy, all objects with negligible air resistance
have the same acceleration vertically downward when falling freely.
This acceleration due to gravitational attraction is represented by the letter g. Its
value on the surface of the earth is approximately 9.8 ms-2•
An object falling freely travels in a vertical line, so problems on its motion can
be solved by using the equations for uniform acceleration in a straight line.
For objects that are dropped, the downward direction is usually taken as
positive, so g is positive.
For objects that are thrown vertically upwards, the upward direction is usually
taken as positive so the acceleration is -g.
Example 5
An object is dropped from a point A and hits the ground 3 seconds later. Find
the height of A above ground.
Anything that is 'dropped' from a stationary point is not thrown but released
from rest, so its initial velocity is zero.
Taking the downward direction as positive:
A Known: u=O wanted: s
a=9.8
i9.8 t=3
Using 1 a f gtves
s= ut+- .
2
1
s = 0 +- (9.8)(32)
2
Therefore s = 44. 1.
The h eight of point A is 44.1 m.
Motion in a Straight Line G

Example 6
A ball is thrown vertically upwards from a point A, 7 m above the ground.
a The ball passes A on its way down 2 seconds later. What speed was the ball
thrown at?
b Find the velocity of the ball when it passes A on the way down.
c At what speed does the ball hit the ground?
Taking the upward direction as positive:

a Known: t= 2 Required: u
a=-9.8
s=O
1 .2 •
Using s= ut+- ar gtves
2
1
0=2u+- (-9.8)(4)
2
Therefore u = 9.8.
The ball was thrown with a speed of9.8 ms-•.
Known: t = 2 Required: v
Note
a=-9.8.
s=O Parts a and b show that a
1 .2 •
particle thrown upwards with
Using s = vt-- ar gtves a velocity u, returns to the
2
same level with a velocity -u,
0=2v-.!_ (-9.8)(4) that is with equal speed in
2
Therefore v = -9.8. the downward direction.
The ball is falling at 9.8 ms-•.

c The ground is 7 m below A so the final displacement of the ball is -7 m.
Working from the time when the ball was thrown we have:
Known: u = 9.8 wanted: v
s =-7
rr:77":l....n- __ _s_:;Q__ a = -9.8
Using ,; - u2 = 2as gives
!l-(9.8)2 =2(-9.8)(-7)
~ v2 = 96.04 + 137.2 = 233.24
Therefore v = 15.27.
The ball hits the ground at 15.3 ms-• correct to 3
significant figures.
0 Motion In a Straight Line

Example 7
An object A is fired vertically upwards with a speed of 40 ms- 1 and 1 second later
another object B is fired from the same point with the same velocity. In this
question take gas 10.
a Find the time taken before they collide.
b Find the h eight above the point of projection at which they collide.
When B has been in the air for t seconds, A has been in the air for Note
(t + 1) seconds.
Using t for the shorter time
Taking the upward direction as positive we have:
interval and (t + 1) for the
ForA ForB longer one, rather than tfor
Known: u=40 Known: u =40 the first and (t- 1) for the
a=-10 a =-10 second, avoids mistakes that
time = (t+ 1) time =t can happen when minus
wanted: s wanted: s signs are involved.
. 1 .2 •
a U smg s = ut + - ar gtves:
2 1
ForA s=40(t+1)+-(-10)(t+1)2
1 2
ForB s=40t+- (- 10)f
2
Therefore 40(t+ 1)- 5(t+ 1) 2 = 40t- 5f
=> 40 - 10t-5 =0
=> t=3.5
The projectiles collide 3.5 s after B is fired.
b As A and B are at the same h eight when they collide we can find s for either
of them.
ForB,
s = 40(3.5) - 5(3.5) 2 = 78.75
A and B collide 78.8 m above the point of projection.
Example 8
I
A boy kicks a ball vertically up next to a wall that is 2.5 m high. He kicks the ball
from a height of 0.4 m with a speed of 14 ms- 1• How long is the ball above the
top of the wall?
Known: u = 14 wanted: t
a= - 9.8
s= 2.1 (measuring displacement upward
from a point 0.4 m above the ground)
1 .2 •
Using s = ut+- ar gtves
2
2.1 = 14t- 4.9f
----~-==-Q_ => 0.3 =2t- 0.7f
=> 7f-20t+ 3= 0
2 400 84
=> t = o±.J - =2.698or 0.159 (continued)
14
Motion In a Straight Line 0
(continued)
The ball is at the height of the top of the wall at two different times. Therefore it
takes 0.159 seconds to reach the top of the wall when going up, and returns to
that height 2.698 seconds from the start.
So the ball is above the wall for (2.698- 0.159) s = 2.54 s, correct to 3 significant
figures.
Exercise 2
Take gas 9.8 ms-2 and give answers correct to 2 significant figures.
0 a A stone dropped from the top of a cliff takes 5 seconds to reach the
ground below. Find the height of the cliff.
b A stone is thrown vertically down with from the top of the cliff. Find the
velocity needed for the stone to land on the ground 4 seconds later.
f) A particle is projected vertically upward from ground level with a speed of
24.5 ms-•. Find
a the greatest height reached
b the time taken for the particle to return to the ground.
0 A brick falls from the top of a building. Find how far it falls
a in the first second
b in the first two seconds
c during the third second.
0 A ball is thrown vertically upward and is caught at the same height
3 seconds later. Find
a the distance it rose
b the speed with which it was thrown.
0 A brick is dropped down a shaft, 50 m deep.
a For how long does it fall?
b With what speed does it hit the bottom?
C) A parachutist is descending vertically at a steady speed of 2 ms-• when he
drops a watch. If the watch hits the ground 3 seconds later at what height
was the parachutist when he dropped it?
0 A flare is projected straight up from the bottom of a shaft that is 30 m deep.
To be seen, the flare must reach at least 10m above the ground. What is the
least speed with which it must be fired?
0 A ball is thrown vertically, with a speed of7 ms-• from a balcony 14m above
the ground. Find how long it takes to reach the ground if it is thrown
a downwards b upwards.
Find also the speed with which it reaches the ground in each of these cases.
0 A stone is dropped from the top of a building and at the same instant
another stone is thrown vertically upward from the ground below at a
speed of 15 ms-•. The stones pass each other after 1.2 seconds. Find the
height of the building.

~ A boy kicks a ball vertically upward with initial speed 15 ms- 1 next to a wall
that is 3 m high.
a What is the greatest height reached by the ball?
b For how long can it be seen by someone on the other side of the wall?
~ A ball is dropped from a point 1.6 m above the floor.
a Find the speed of the ball when it hits the floor.
b When it hits the floor its speed is halved by the impact. How high does it
bounce?
G) A stone is dropped from the top of a building to the ground. During the last
l
second of its fall it moves through a distance which is 5 of the height of the
building. How high is the building?
17.3 Motion in a straight line with variable

acceleration
Velocity, v, is the l'ate at which displacement, s, varies with time, t, so v = ds
dt
dv
and accelel'ation, a, is the rate at which velocity, v, varies with time, t, so a = - .
dv ds d (ds) d 2 s dt
Also as a = dt and v = dt then a = dt dt = dt 2 •
These relationships can be used to solve problems in which the motion varies
with time.
Starting with the acceleration, then
a = dv => v=fadt
dt
and v = - =>s= fvdt
ds
dt
Therefore when the acceleration of a moving body is a function of time,
velocity can be found by integrating a with respect to t
and
displacement can be found by integrating v with respect to t.
Example 9
A body moves along a straight line so that its displacement, s metres, from a
fixed point 0 on the line after t seconds, is given by s = f3- 3f- 9t.
a Find the velocity after t seconds.
b Find the time(s) when the velocity is zero.
c Sketch the velocity-time graph.
a s = fl- 3f- 9t
ds
v= -=3f- 6t - 9
dt
b Whenv=O, 3f-6t-9=0
3(f-2t-3)-0 => 3(t-3)(t+ l) =O => t=3or-l
Therefore the velocity is zero after 3 seconds; it was also zero 1 second before
the body reached 0. (continued)
Motion in a Straight Line
(continued)
c The expression for the velocity is a quadratic function for which the graph is
a p arabola crossing the t-axis where t = 3 and t = - 1.
II
- ·-I - 9
I
- I 6
/_
-
I
I
I i-3 I
I
I
1/
0 t
2 i'i_3 f
,.-
v-
I
I
·- - -
~\
1--
- r-9 [\ 12 /
- ·15
Example 10
A particle P moves in a straight line and has an initial velocity of 2 ms-1 at a point 0
on the line. The acceleration of the particle t seconds later is given by (2t - 6) ms- 2•
When t = 5 find expressions for
a the velocity
b the displacement of P from 0.
a v =Ja dt = J(2t- 6)dt= f- 6t+ c1

v = 2 when t = 0 therefore c1 = 2
Therefore v = t2- 6t+ 2
When t=5, v = 25 - 30+2= - 3
The velocity when t = 5 is -3 ms-1
so Pis moving with speed 3 ms- 1 towards 0.
1
b s = Jv dt = J( f - 6t+ 2)dt=- fl-3f + 2t+ c2
3
s = 0 when t = 0 therefore c2 = 0
1
.. s= - fl-3t2+2t
3
125 1
Whent =5, s = - -75+ 10 = -23-
3 3
When t = 5 the displacement of P from 0 is -23~ m soP has changed direction,
3
moving back towards 0, and then passes through 0 in the opposite direction.
Example 11
I
A particle moves in a straight line. The velocity, t seconds after the particle
passes through a point 0 on the line, is given by v = 3f - 12t + 9. Find the
times(s) when the p article changes direction.
The direction of m otion is defined by the sign of the velocity (not by the sign of
the displacement). Hence, whenever the direction of motion is reversed, the
velocity is instantaneously zero.
When v=O, 3t2 - 12t+ 9= 0 ~ 3(t2-4t+3) =0 ~ 3(t-1)(t- 3) = 0
Therefore v = 0 when t = 1 or 3. (continued)
• Motion In a Straight Line
(continued)
Therefore the particle changes d irection after 1 second and again after
3 seconds.
A sketch of the velocity-time graph confirms that v changes sign at t = 1 and t = 3.
Y.
10 -l--.--r----r-
8-n-+--1-
6
4
2 -l- \+--t----11-/
Example 12
I
A particle P moves in a straight line. The acceleration ofP is given by a= 2(t+ 1)
at any time t seconds. Initially P has a velocity of 2m s-1• Express the velocity of
P as a function oft.
a=2(t+1) => v=]adt
I Therefore
When
Therefore
Exercise 3
v= ]2(t+ 1)dt= (f + 2t) + c
t=O, v=2
v= f+2t+2
=> c=2
In each Question from 1 to 10, a particle P moves on a straight line and 0 is a

fixed point on that line. After a time oft seconds the displacement of the
particle from 0 iss metres, the velocity is v ms-1 and the acceleration is a ms-2•
0 Given that s= 4fl- 5t2 + 7t + 6, find vwhen t=3.
0 Given that v= 9t2+14t+ 6, find a when t= 2.
e When s = fl- 2f + 9t, find a when t = 5.
0 Given that P is at 0 when t = 0, and that v = 2f + 3t + 4, finds when t = 4.
e A particle P starts from 0 with velocity 3 m s- 1 with acceleration given by
a= 12t- 5. Find v and swhen t= 2.
() When s =fl- 9f + 24t- 11, find the time(s) when v = 0.
0 Find the times when the direction of motion of P changes given that
s = 6fl- 9f + 4t.
() A particle P starts from rest at 0 and moves with an acceleration given by
2t ms-2 • Find v and s in terms oft.
0 When t = 0, a particle P passes through a point with a displacement of 2m
from 0 with a velocity of 4 ms- 1• Given that a= f + 1, find the velocity and
displacement when t = 4.
«:> When t = 0, P passes through 0 with velocity -4 ms- 1
• Given a = 8 - 6t, find
a the times when P is instantaneously at rest
b the displacement of P from 0 at these times.
Motion in a Straight Line •
CD A particle P moves in a straight line and 0 is a fixed point on the line. The
displacement, s metres, of P from 0 at any time t seconds is given by
s = fl + f + 12t- 23. Show that the motion is always in the sam e direction.
(f) A particle moves in a straight line with an acceleration at any time given by
(3t-1) ms-2 •
The particle has a velocity of 3 ms- 1 and is 7 m from a fixed point 0 on the
line when t = 2. Find
a its velocity when t =5
b its displacement from 0 when t = 4.
G) Given that a=- _.t3!. _ and that v = 3 when t = 1,
a find the velocity when t = 4
b show that, as the value oft becom es large, the velocity approaches a
particular value (called the terminal velocity) and state this value.
~ A particle starts from rest at a fixed point A and moves in a straight line with
an acceleration t seconds after leaving A, that is given by a= 4t.
After 2 seconds the p article reaches a point B and the acceleration is then
zero. Find
a the velocity when the particle reaches B
b the distance AB.
G) The displacement, s m etres, of a body from a point 0 after t seconds is given
by s =f+ ~. Find in terms oft an expression for the acceleration of the body.
t
Summary
Equations of motion in a straight line with constant acceleration
v= u+at
1
s =-(u + v)t
2
1 1
s=ut + -at 2 and s=vt - -at 2
2 2
v2- u2 =2as
where u =initial velocity, v =final velocity, a= acceleration, t = time and
s = displacement.
The acceleration due to gravity is denoted by g and on the su rface of the earth,
g=9.8 m s-2•
Motion in a straight line with variable acceleration
ds dv
v =- and a =-
dt dt
v =fadt and s=fvdt

Review
Give answers that are not exact correct to 3 significant figures.
0 A ball is dropped from a point 10m above the ground.
a Find the speed at which the ball hits the grow1d.
b The ball rebounds upwards with a speed of 5 ms- 1• Find the time taken
for the ball to hit the ground again.
0 A train has a maximum speed of 50 ms-1 which it reaches with an

acceleration of 0.25 ms-2 •
a Find the time the train takes to reach its maximum speed and the
distance travelled in this time.
The train has a maximum deceleration of0.5 ms- 2•
b Find the shortest time it takes the train to stop from its maximum speed
and the distance travelled in this time.
The train stops at two stations that are 10 km apart.
c What is the shortest time for the train to travel between these two
stations?
0 A car is moving along a straight road with uniform acceleration. The car
passes a point A with a speed of 12 ms- 1 and another point C with a speed of
32 ms-1• The distance between A and C is 2000 m.
Find the time taken by the car to move from A to C.
0 A particle is projected vertically upwards at time t = 0 from a point A with

speed 20 ms- 1• Two seconds later a second particle is projected vertically
upwards from A with the same speed.
a Express the heights above A of both particles in terms oft.
b Hence, find the value of twhen the particles collide.
0 A particle P moves in a straight line and passes a fixed point 0 on the line at time
t =0. After t seconds, P is moving with a velocity v m s-1 where v =2fl + 2t + 1.
a Find the acceleration of P when t = 2.
b Find the distance covered by P between t = 1 and t = 4.
() A particle P moves in a straight line and passes a fixed point 0 on the line at
timet= 0. For values oft> 2, the velocity of the particle is given by v = ~.
t2
a Explain why the particle is decelerating for all values oft greater than 2.
b Find the distance covered by P in the interval between t = 4 and t = 5.
Motion In a Straight Line IJ

Assessment
0 A ball is thrown vertically downwards with an initial speed of 3 ms- 1 from a
point 10m above horizontal ground. The ball moves freely under gravity.
a Find the speed of the ball as it hits the ground.
b The ball rebounds vertically upwards with an initial speed of 6 ms- 1•
Find the time taken for the ball to reach the ground again.
E) A ball is dropped from rest at a point which is 3 m above horizontal ground

and moves freely under gravity.
When the ball hits the ground it rebounds vertically upwards to a height of
1.5 m above the ground.
The ball then falls back to the ground.
a Find the speed of the ball when it firs t hits the ground.
b Find the speed of the ball the instant after it first rebounds from the ground.
c Find the time between the first and second impacts of the ball with
the ground.
0 A particle moves in a straight line. Initially the particle is at a fixed point P

and tseconds after leaving Pit has velocity( 4t2 +t - 5)ms-1•
a Find the acceleration of the particle when it comes instantaneously to rest.
b Find the displacement of the particle from 0 when it comes
instantaneously to rest.
0 A car travels on a straight horizontal race track. The car slows down with
constant deceleration from a speed of 18 ms-1 to a speed of 10 ms-1 as it
travels a distance of700 metres.
a Find the time that it takes the car to travel the first 640 metres.
b Find the deceleration of the car during the first 640 m etres.
0 A particle P moves in a straight line. The acceleration of Pat time t seconds

is (t- 6) ms-2 • The velocity of P at timet seconds is v ms- 1• When t= 0, v = 10.
a Find v in terms oft.
b Find the values oft when Pis instantaneously at rest.
c Find the distance between the two points at which Pis instantaneously
at rest.
G A car travels on a straight horizontal race track. The car decelerates

uniformly from a speed of20 ms- 1 to a speed of 12 ms-1 as it travels a
distance of 640 metres.
The car then accelerates uniformly, travelling a further 1820 metres in
70 seconds.
a l Find the time that it takes the car to travel the first 640 metres.
ll Find the deceleration of the car during the first 640 metres.

b Find the acceleration of the car as it travels the further 1820 metres.
ii Find the speed of the car when it has completed the further
1820 metres.
c Find the average speed of the car as it travels the 2460 metres.
AQA MMlB January 2013
f) A car is travelling at a speed of20 ms-• along a straight horizontal road. The
driver applies the brakes and a constant braking force acts on the car until
it comes to rest.
a Assume that no other horizontal forces act on the car.
After the car has travelled 75 metres, its speed has reduced to 10 ms-•.
Find the acceleration of the car.
ii Find the time taken for the speed of the car to reduce from 20 ms-•
to zero.
AQA MM1B June 2012 (part question)
Motion in a Straight Line •

Force is a familiar quantity. To move a heavy object across a floor we need By the end of this chapte r,
push it; to raise a heavy object from the floor onto a table we need to pull it you should know how to .. .
up. Pushes and pulls are both forces and these simple examples show that .,. Identify different
force is n eeded to make an object start to move. types of force.
To stop a shopping trolley rolling down a hill we can get in front of it and .,. Use Newton's Laws of
push or hold it from behind and pull. So a force can also make a moving Motion.
object slow down. .,. Investigate the
motion of connected
It was not untill687, whe n Newton's Laws of Motion were publish ed, that
particles.
it was explained how force and motion are connected.
.,. Understand and use
the coefficient of
friction.
Recap
You need to remember...
.,. The equations of motion with constant acceleration.
Applications
When an object is moving some people think there must be a force acting
on it to keep it moving.
A p uck is struck with a stick and sent moving across an ice rink (a force
starts the motion), but the puck continues to move although there is
nothing to push it once it h as left the stick. This shows that a force is not
necessary to keep the keep the puck moving. However the puck will
gradually slow down so a force is acting to slow it down but not to keep it
moving.
• ••• • • • •• •• •• • •••• • •• • ••• • •• • • •• •• • • • •

18.1 Types of force
Weight
When a stone is drop ped it begins to m ove down so a force must be pulling it
down.
The force that attrac ts an object to the earth is the force due to gravity. It is
called the weight of the object.
The effect of weight can be seen when an object falls a nd it can be felt when an
object is h eld, so the weight of an object acts on it at all times whether the
Normal reaction
A book at rest on a horizontal table does not fall down, so a force must be
stopping it from falling. This is the force exerted by the table to hold the book
up. As the book does not move then the upward force and the weight of the
book down must balance. When an object does not move, the object, and the
forces that act on it, are in equilibrium.
The force exerted upward on the book by the surface is called a normal
reaction. Normal means perpendicular so a normal reaction acts
perpendicula r to the surface of contact and away from that surface. Therefore
the normal reaction acts vertically upward on the book.
The two forces acting on the book, the normal reaction, R, and the weight, W,
are shown in the diagram.
Friction
When a small push Pis applie d horizo ntally to the book then, if the book and
the surface a re not slippery, the book probably will not move. Therefore there
must be another force equal and opposite to the push to balance it. This is a
friction force. Friction happens only when objects are in rough contact.
A friction force acts on a body along the surface of contact and in a direction
which opposes the potential movement of that body.
This diagram shows all the forces acting on the book.
It is unusual for there to be no friction at all between an object and a surface but
there can be so little that its effect can be ignored. In this case the contact is
called smooth.
Tension
A stone at rest hangs by a string from a fixed p oint. The ston e does not m ove so
its weight acting down must be balanced by an upward force. This force is the
tension in the string.
A string can n ever push and it can pull only if it is taut.
A string cannot be taut at one end and slack at the other, so a taut string exerts
an inward pull at each end on the object which is attached at that end. The
tension in a string acts along the string.
A rod can be in tension or in thrust.
For example wh en a rod is attached to a beam and a heavy object is susp ended
vertically attached to the rod at the other end, the rod is in tension.
When a rod is clamped at both ends and the clamps are tightened, the rod is in
thrust.
w
In both cases the forces at each end of the rod are equal and opposite.
Drawing diagrams
To work on any p roblem involving the action of forces on a body the first (and
necessary) step is to draw a clear diagram of the forces acting on the object.
Forces and Newton's Laws

Some points to remember are:
..,. Unless the object is light (this means it is taken as weightless), its weight
acts vertically down .
..,. When the object is in contact with another surface, a normal reaction
always acts on the body. Also, unless the contact is smooth, there may be a
frictional force.
..,. When the object is attach ed to another by a string or rod, a force acts on the
body at the point of attachment.
..,. Draw a diagram that is large enough and make the force lines long enough
to be seen clearly.
Example 1
A truck is attached by a rope to an engine which is being driven along a
horizontal smooth track.
Show the forces acting on
a the truck
b the engine.
a Looking at the truck, the only forces acting are the weight of the truck, the
vertical normal reaction and the tension in the rope which acts away from
the truck (inward along the rope).
The driving force of the engine does not act on the truck, it is the tension in
the rope that pulls the truck forward.
b Acting on the engine alone is the weight, the normal reaction, the driving
force and the tension in the rope which acts towards the centre of the rope
(it is a drag on the engine).
Example 2
A stone is projected vertically upwards. Draw a diagram to show the forces
I
-
acting on the stone when it is
a going up
b falling back down.
a The stone is not attached to anything so the only force acting is the weight of
the stone.
Tl
b The stone is not attached to anything so the only force acting is the weight of
the stone. Note
Tl There is no force in the

direction of motion.
Exercise 1
0 A block is at rest on a horizontal surface.
Draw a diagram to show the forces acting on the block.
E) A plank is resting on two supports, one at each end.
Draw a diagram to show the forces acting on the plank. ·~ ~·
e A particle is attached to one end of a light string whose other end is fixed to
a point A.
The particle is hanging at rest.
Draw a diagram to show the forces acting on the particle.
0 A shelf AB is supported by two vertical strings, one at each end. A vase is
placed on the shelf, a quarter of the way along the shelf from A.
Draw separate diagrams to show the forces acting on
a the shelf b the vase.
0 Two bricks are placed, one on top of the other, on a horizontal surface.
Draw separate diagrams to show the forces acting on
a the top brick
b the lower brick.
() A person standing at the edge of a flat roof lowers
a package using a rope over the edge.
Draw diagrams to show
a the forces acting on the package
b the forces acting on the person on the roof.
18.2 Newton's first law of motion

This law states that:
An object will continue In Its state of rest, or of uniform motion In a
straight line, unless an external force is applied to it.
Newton's first law also implies that:
.,.. When a body is at rest, or is moving with constant velocity, any forces that
are acting must balance exactly, so they must be in equilibrium .
.,.. When the speed of a moving object is changing, the forces acting on it are
not in equilibrium .
.,.. When the direction of motion of a moving object is changing, so it is not
moving in a straight line, the forces acting on it are not in equilibrium. (So
there is always a force acting on a body that is moving in a curve, even if the
speed is constant.)
Resultant force T
The diagram shows an object connected to a string.
The forces acting on it are its weight and the tension in the string.
If Tis equal toW, the fo rces are in equilibrium and the object will not move. w

·. ·:.~ :· . :.. . . : .:- .: ..: ' ... ' ' ..' .· . .' . .. .. -~--.. . ; .. . " . . . . .
' ·" \ ' • ' ' • ' • • • • • • f • • • ••• ' ' • ' • • • ·"~ • "' • • • .. "
If Tis greater than W, the forces are not in equilibrium. There is an excess force
equal to T- W acting vertically upwards and the object will move.
T- W is called the resultant force.
Newton's first law defines what force is: force is the quantity that, when acting
on a body, changes the velocity of that body.
When the velocity of a body changes, there is an acceleration, so:
When a body has an acceleration there is a resultant force acting on it.
When a body has no acceleration there is no resultant force acting on it.
A body has no acceleration when it is at rest, or when it is moving with constant

velocity so it is clear that no force is needed to keep a body moving with
constant velocity.
Example 3
I
An object is at rest under the action of the forces shown. All forces are measured
in the same w1it.
Find the values ofF and R.
The object is at rest therefore there is no resultant force either horizontally or

vertically.
Horizontally 5 - F =0 => F =5
Vertically R - 60 =0 => R =60
Example 4
I A particle of weight 7 units, hanging at the end of a vertical light string, is

moving upward with constant velocity. Find the tension in the string.
The velocity of the particle is constant so it has no acceleration and therefore
I the resultant force is zero.

Vertically T -7 = 0
Therefore the tenswn m the stnng 1s 7 umts.
Exercise 2
=> T = 7
In Questions 1 to 5, the diagram shows the forces, all in the same unit, acting on
an object which is at rest.
Find P. Find P and Q. Find P. Find P and Q. FindPand Q.

In each Question from 6 to 9 state whether or not the object shown in the
diagram has an acceleration.
If there is an acceleration state whether it is horizontal or vertical.
0 0 0 0
~ The diagram shows a block in rough contact with a horizontal surface.

It is being pulled along by a horizontal string.
a Make a copy of the diagram and on it mark all the forces acting on the
block.
b Explain what it means for the tension in the string compared with the
frictional force when the block
I is accelerating ii moves with constant velocity.
Newton's second law

This law defines the relationship between force, mass and acceleration.
Experience shows that
for a body of a particular m ass, the bigger is the force, the bigger will be the
acceleration
ii the larger is the mass, the larger will be the force needed to produce a
particular acceleration.
Experimental evidence shows that the force F is proportional both to the
acceleration a and to the mass m.
Therefore F oc ma
or F = kma where k is a constant
When m = 1 and a = 1 then F = k, so the amount of force needed to give a mass
of 1 kg an acceleration of 1 ms-2 is given by k.
When this amount of force is chosen as the unit of force then k = 1 and
F=ma
The unit of force is called the newton (N) and is defined as the amount of
force that gives 1 kg an acceleration of lms- 2 •
When more than one force acts on a body, Fis the resultant force.
When the force is constant the acceleration also is constant and when the force
varies, so does the acceleration.
When the acceleration is zero, the resultant force is zero - so Newton's first law
follows from the second.

Example 5
II- A resultant force of 12 N acts on a body of mass 5 kg. Find the acceleration of the
body.
UsingF=magivesl2=5a => a =2.4

---__;)~)~ a ms- 2
~ The acceleration is 2.4 ms- 2 in the direction of the force. 0>------?)

5 kg 12 N
Example 6
I- A set of forces act on a mass of3 kg and give it an acceleration of 11.4 ms-2•
Find the magnitude of the resultant force.
I
When m = 3 and a= 11.4 usingF= magives
F=3 X 11.4 =34.2
The resultant force is 34.2 N.
Example 7
I- The diagram shows the forces that act on a particle making it move vertically
downward with an acceleration a ms-2• Find the values of Panda.
There is no horizontal motion

Therefore P-7 = 0 => P = 7
3N
7N
The resultant force vertically down is (6 - 3) N = 3 N
PN
Using F= rna gives
3 6N
3=5a => a = -
5
Some problems give some facts about how an object is being made to moue with
constant acceleration and other information about the motion of the object. So
use both F = rna and one of the equations of motion which contains a.
Example 8
A resultant force F n ewtons acts on a particle of m ass 3 kg.
a The particle accelerates uniformly from 2 ms-• to 8 ms-• in 2 seconds. Find
the value of F.
b IfF= 6 find the displacement of the particle 4 seconds after starting from
rest.
a For the motion of the particle:
u = 2, v = 8, t = 2 and a is required.
Using v = u + at gives 8 = 2 + 2a ~ a =3
Now usingF= rna gives F =3 x 3
~ F =9
The force is 9 N.
b The force is known so we use Newton's Law first.
Using F= rna gives 6 = 3a
~ a =2
For the motion of the particle:
u = 0, a= 2, t = 4 and s is required.
Using s = ut + .!:_ at 2 gives s = 0 + .!_ (2)( 4)2
2 2
~ s= 16
The displacem e nt of the particle is 16 m .
Exercise 3
0 A resultant force of 12 N acts on a body of mass 8 kg. Find the acceleration
of the body.
0 The acceleration of a particle of mass 2 kg is 14 m s- 2• Find the resultant force

acting on the particle.
0 A force of 420 N acts on a block, giving it an acceleration of 10.5 ms- 2•

Assuming tha t no other force acts on the block, find its m ass.
0 In each diagram the forces shown (measured in newtons) m ake an object

of mass 8 kg to move with the acceleration sh own . Find P and/or Q in
each case.
b c
0 Each diagram sh ows the forces acting on ~ body of mass 3 kg. Find the
magnitude and direction of the acceleration of the body in each case.
a 9~ b c

C) In each diagram the mass of the body ism kilograms. Find m and P.
a b c
»
0 A body of mass 3 kg is accelerating vertically down at 5 ms-2 under the
action of the forces shown, all measured in newtons. Find the values of
PandQ.
C) A body of mass 2 kg accelerates uniformly from rest to 16 ms- 1
in 4 seconds.
Find the resultant force acting on the body.
C) A force of 100 N acts on a particle of mass 8 kg. The particle is initially at rest.
Find hpw far it travels in the first 5 seconds of its motion.
«:) A block of mass 6 kg is pulled along a smooth horizontal surface by a
horizontal string. The block accelerates uniformly and reaches a speed of
20 ms- 1 in 4 seconds from rest. Find
a the acceleration
b the tension in the string.
(D A constant force of 80 N acts for 7 seconds on a body, initially at rest, giving
it a velocity of 35 ms- 1• Find
a the acceleration
b the mass of the body.
e A force of 12 N acts on a particle of mass 60 kg making the velocity of the
particle increase from 3 ms- 1 to 7 ms-1• Find the distance that the particle
travels in this time interval.
e A body of mass 120 kg is moving in a straight line at 8 ms-1 when a force of
40 N acts in the direction of motion for 18 seconds. What is the speed of the
body at the end of this time?
Weight
An object of mass m kg, falls freely under gravity with an acceleration g ms-2•
The force producing the acceleration is the weight, Wnewtons, of the object, so
using F =ma gives W =mg.
Therefore a body of mass m kilograms has a weight of mg newtons.
For example, taking the value of gas 9.8,

the weight, W newtons, of a person whose mass is 55 kg is given by
W= mg= 55 X 9.8 =539
therefore the person's weight is 539 N.
The weight of a rockery stone is 1078 N, so its mass, rn kg, is given by
Note
w
1078
W=rng => rn=-=-- =110 1 newton is approximately
g 9.8
the weight of a 100 gram
TI1erefore the mass of the stone is 110 kg.
mass.
Example 9
A bucket attach ed to the end of a rope is used to raise water from a well. The
mass of the empty bucket is 1.2 kg and it can hold 10 kg of water when full. Find
the tension in the rope when
a the empty bucket is lowered with an acceleration of 2 ms-2
b the full bucket is pulled up with an acceleration of 0.3 ms-2 •
a The acceleration of the bucket is downward so the resultant force acts

downwards.
The weight of the bucket is l.2g N =1.2 x 9.8 N.
The resultant force is vertically down and equal to (l.2g - T) N.
Using F= rna gives
1.2 X 9.8 - T= 1.2 X 2
T= 1.2 X 9.8- 1.2 X 2 = 9.36
The tension in the rope is 9.36 N.
b The acceleration of the full bucket is upward so the resultant force acts
upwards.
The weight of the full bucket is 11.2 x 9.8 N.
Resultant force up is (T- 1l.2g) N.
Using F = rna gives
T- 11.2 X 9.8 = 11.2 X 0.3
T = 11.2 X 0.3 + 11.2 X 9.8
r
= 113.12
The tension in the rope is 11 3 N (correct to 3 significant figures).
Exercise 4
0 a Find the weight of a body of mass 5 kg.
b Find the mass of a sack of potatoes of weight 147 N.
c Find the weight of a ball of mass 60 g.
E) On the moon the acceleration due to gravity is 1.2 ms- 2•
Repeat question 1 with this value of g.

e A particle of mass 2 kg is attached to the end of a vertical light string.
The particle is b eing pulled up with an acceleration of 5.8 ms-2 by the string.
Find the tension in the string.
2 kg
0 A mass of 6 kg moves vertically at the end of a light string.
Find the tension in the string when the mass has an acceleration of
a 5 ms-2 downwards b 7 ms-2 upwards c zero.
Forces and Newton's Laws •

e The tension in a string, which has a particle of mass
m kilograms attached to its lower end, is 70 N.
Find the value of m if the particle has
a an acceleration of 3 ms- 2 upwards
b an acceleration of9 ms-2 downwards
c a constant velocity of 4 ms- 1 upwards
d a constant velocity of 4 ms- 1 downwards.
0 A block with a mass of750 kg can be raised and lowered using a rope. More
blocks can be added up to a maximum extra mass of 1000 kg.
a Find the tension in the rope when
raising the fully loaded rope with an acceleration of.!_ ms-2
2
1750g newtons
ii lowering the rope with just one block with an acceleration of~ ms-2 •
4
750g newtons
b The tension in the rope is 14 700 N when the rope, partly loaded, is being
raised at constant speed. Find the mass of the extra blocks.
0 A balloon of mass 1400 kg is descending vertically with an acceleration of
2 ms-2• Find the upward force exerted on the balloon by the atmosphere. This force Is called air resistance.
0 A block of mass 4 kg is lying on the floor of a lift that is accelerating at 5 ms-2•

Find the normal reaction exerted on the block by the lift floor if the lift is
a going up b going down.

Newton's third law
Newton's third law states that:
Action and reaction are equa l and opposite.
This means that if a body A exerts a force on a body B then B exerts an equal
force in the opposite direction on A.
This is true whether the two bodies are in contact or are connected but some
distance apart, whether they are moving or are stationary.
For example, a mass is resting in a scale p an.
The scale pan is exerting an upward force on the mass and the mass is exerting
an equal force downward on the scale pan.
These two particles are connected by a taut string. The obj ects are not in direct T T
contact but exert equal and opposite forces on each other because of the equal
0 ) ( 0
tensions in the string which act inwards at each end.
This is true even if the string passes round a smooth body, such as a pulley, T
which changes the direction of the string. T
The tensions in the two portions of the string are the same and each portion
exerts an inward pull at each end. So in each portion the tension at one end acts
on the particle and at the other end the te nsion acts on the pulley; all these
tensions are equal.
(If the string passes round a rough surface the tensions in the different portions
of the string are not equal.)
Exercise 5
Copy the diagram in each question. Make your copy twice as big and mark on it
all the forces that are acting on each body (in Question 4 draw a small block to
represen t the person). Use either a different colour or a different type ofline (for
example broken and solid) for the forces that act on separate objects. Ignore
forces that act on fixed surfaces- these are shown by hatching.
0 A load hangs from a beam which is supported at each end.
0
~ 6 i
A m ass on a table is linked by a string to a mass hanging over the smooth edge.
0 A mass B hangs by string from another mass A which hangs from a fixed point.

0 A passenger is in a lift that is being drawn up by a cable.
18.3 Connected particles

An inextensible (or inelastic) string is a string whose length
does not alter.
Smooth pulleys have bearings and a rim that are completely
without friction.
The diagram shows two particles A and B that are connected by
a light inextensible string passing over a smooth fixed pulley.
The masses of A and B are mA and m 8 respectively and mA> m8 •
As the particles move, one of them moves up in the same way
t
4 units
down
A 4units
as the other moves down, so up
the upward speed of B is equal to the downward speed of A, -------- -------- - --- --~ -
the upward acceleration ofB is equal to the downward acceleration of A,

the distance B moves up is equal to the distance A moves down.
The forces that act on each particle alone determine the way that each particle
m oves, so to find the motion look at the particles separately as shown:
Example 10
A light inextensible string passes over a smooth fixed pulley and particles of
masses 5 kg and 7 kg, are attached, one at each end. The system is moving
freely. Find in terms of g
a the acceleration of each particle
b the tension in the string
c the force exerted on the pulley by the string.
The two particles have the same acceleration, a ms- 2, and the two parts of the
I string have the same tension, T newtons.

For e~ch partie!~ find the res~ltant fo_rce i~ the direction of motion and use the
equatton of motion, F = rna, m that dtrecuon. t. . d"
1con1mue 1

(continued)
ForA:i
The resultant force is T- 5g.
Using F = rna gives T- 5g = 5a. [1]
T T
ForB: -1-
The resultant force is 7g - T. T
T
Using F= rna gives 7g- T= ?a. [2] T
ar ra
~a
1
a [1] + [2] gives 2g = 12a => a=6 g A B
The acceleration of each particle is g ms-2•

6
5g
5g
7g
ta 7g
3
b From [1], T -5g=5(!) => T= !g
. th e stnng
Th e tens .ton m . 1.s -
35g
- N.
6
c The string exerts a downward pull on each side of the pulley.
Therefore the resultant force exerted on the pulley by the string is 2T downwards, ~
358
=> N downwards.
3 T T
Example 11
A small block of mass 6 kg rests on a table top and is connected by a light
inextensible string that passes over a smooth pulley, fixed on the edge of the
table, to another small block of mass 5 kg which is hanging freely. Find, in terms
of g, the acceleration of the system and the tension in the string when
a the table is smooth
b the table is rough and a frictional force of 2g N acts between the table and
the block.
R a
Use F =rna for each block in its direction of motion. ~
T
a For the block A 4 T= 6a [1] A
For the block B -1- 5g- T =5a [2]

5
[1] + [2] => 5g= 11a => a= - g T
11
30
and from [1] T= 6a= - g
. 1s
The acce1eratwn
11
11
. -5 g ms-2 an d th e tenswn
. 1.s -30 g N .
11
B
5g
1.
b For the block A 4 T- 2g= 6a [3]
R a
For the block B -1- 5g- T= 5a [4] ~
3
[3] + [4] => 3g= 11a => a=-g
11
40
and T= 6a+2g= - g
11
T
. -3 g ms-2 and th e tens10n
. 1s
Th e acce1eratwn . 1s. -40 g N .
11 11
B I
~a
Sg

Example 12 a
))
a
The diagram shows the forces acting on a car and trailer at the instant ~ l OON
when the driving force is 5000 N.

SOOO N
The car and trailer are connected by a light inextensible rope and are
accelerating along a horizontal road against the resistive forces shown. 500gN 1500gN
Find th e acceleration of the system and the tension in the string at this insta nt.
For the car ~ 5000 - T- 100 = 1500a [1]

For the trailer ~ T- 50 = 500a [2]
[1] + [2] ==> 4850 =2000a ==> a = 2.425
and T= 50 + (500)(2.425) = 1262.5
The acceleration is 2.43 ms-2 and the tension in the rope is 1260 N to
Exercise 6
Give the answers in terms of g.
0 Each diagram shows the forces, in newtons, acting on two particles connected
by a light in extensible string which passes over a fixed smooth pulley. In each
case find the acceleration of the system and the tension in the string.
a b c
T T T T T T
ta
T
T T T at T
T
2 kg lOkg 15 kg mkg
6kg M kg
2g lOg l 5g mg
6g Mg
e 1\vo p articles are connected by a light inextensible string which passes over
a fixed smooth pulley. Find the acceleration of the system and the tension
in the string wh en the masses of the particles are
a 5 kg and 10 kg
b 12 kgand8 kg.
0 1\vo particles A and B of masses 8 kg and 4 kg respectively hang one at each
end of a light inextensible string which passes over a fixed smooth pulley. Find
a the acceleration of the system when the particles are released from rest
b the distance that each particle m oves during the first 5 seconds.
0 A particle of mass 5 kg rests on a sm ooth horizontal table and is attached to
one end of a light inelastic strin g. The string passes over a fixed smooth pulley
at the edge of the table and a particle of mass 3 kg hangs freely at the other end.
When the system is released from rest find
a the acceleration of the system
3kg
D Forces and Newton's Laws

e Two particles of masses 2 kg and 6 kg are attached, one to each end of a long
light inextensible string which passes over a fixed smooth pulley. The system is
released from rest and the heavier particle hits the ground after 2 seconds. Find
b the height of particle B above the ground when it was released
c the speed at which B hits the ground.
0 Two particles, A of mass 4 kg and B of mass 5 kg, are connected by a light
inextensible string passing over a smooth pulley.
Initially B is 1 m above a fixed horizontal plane. The system is released from
rest in this position. Find
a the acceleration of each particle
b the speed of each particle when B hits the plane.
0 The diagram shows a particle Plying in contact with a smooth table top 1.5 m
above the floor. A light inextensible string oflength 1 m connects P to another
particle Q hanging freely over a small smooth pulley at the edge of the table.
The mass of each particle is 2 kg, and Pis held at a point distant 0.5 m from
the edge of the table. The system is released from rest. Find
a the acceleration of the system 0.5m
b the tension in the string
2kg Q
c the speed of each particle when P reaches the edge of the table.
0 The diagram shows a trailer coupled to a car by a solid rod. The mass of the car
is 800 kg and the mass of the trailer is 200 kg. The constant resistance to motion
of the car is 70 Nand the constant resistance to motion of the trailer is 30 N. D
200kg 800kg
When the acceleration is 0.5 ms-2 find
a the tension in the rod
b the driving force of the car.
0 The car and trailer described in question 8 brakes.
Find the braking force on the car at the instant when the deceleration of the
system is 1.5 ms-2 and the resistive forces are as shown in Question 8.
18.4 Dynamic friction

A book lies on a table. If the table is rough then a force P applied to the book
may not move it. 1his is because there is frictional resistance to motion.
The frictional force F, acting on the book, acts along the table in a direction F ~-=;:;::l.:;...,...,.-+-h-..,...-:~~-r-
opposite to the potential direction of motion.
If P and Fare the only forces acting horizontally on the book then, as long as it
does not move, P and Fmust be equal.
When Pis gradually increased the book will at some point be just on the point of
moving.
When the book is on the point of moving, Fhas reached its maximum value.
When the book moves, F stays at its maximum value which is called
dynamic friction.
;:'< ;·,~·:' ' :,_:.•~·>.' ' , , '• ·, '. ; , ,· •• ' • '"·~~ '." .' ~ :_; ', . ; • . , , . .' c' •, •.•• •' , ._. '. ; . • ·, • , . • • . .' ', •,
·.·.~·,~~:-\ \ ',''1,'~..._ ,• .~·' ~t:•,r, ~' ,7,,> •, ~-'', • \,<!' r' ·~
A further increase in P will make the book move and then P > R
Once an object begins to move, the frictional force opposing motion remains
constant.
The coefficient of friction

For two particular surfaces in rough contact, experiments show that the limiting
value of the frictional force is a fixed fraction of the normal reaction between
the surfaces.
This fraction is called the coefficient of friction and it is denoted by the Greek
letter J.l.
For limiting and dynamic friction F = JI.R.
As this is the maximum value of the frictional force, Fcan take any value from
zero up to J.1R, therefore
O~F~J.I.R
The value of J.1. depends upon the materials which make up the two surfaces in
contact- it is not a property of one surface- so ideally we should always refer to
rough contact but it is not always used. A shorter form of wording is often used
such as 'a block moves on a rough plane' and it means that there is friction
between the block and the plane.
In the context of mechanics, 'rough' means that there is friction at the contact;
'smooth' m eans that friction is ignored at the contact.
Example 13
A small block of weight 32 N is lying on a rough horizontal plane. A horizontal
force of P newtons is applied to the block until it is on the point of moving the
block.
a When P = 8 find the coefficient of friction J..L between the block and
the plane.
b If J..L = 0.4, find the value of P.
When the block is on the point of moving, it has no acceleration so the

horizontal forces are balanced.
a Horizontally 8 - J.1R =0 => pR =8
Vertically R - 32 = 0 => R = 32
J.1R 8
J.L =R=32 /
The coefficient of friction is .!..

4
b Horizontally P - OA x R = 0
Vertically again gives R = 32
Therefore P - 0Ax32 = 0 => P = l2.8
Example 14
1he diagram shows a particle A lying on a rough table.
A
A light inelastic string, attached to A, passes over a smooth pulley at the edge of
the table and is attached to another particle B hanging freely. Particles A and B
have equal m ass of 50 kg and the coefficient of friction between particle A and
the table is±·
The particles are released from rest. Find B
i
1¥
a For A: R =50g R
1 ZR
Using F= rna: ~ T - -R=50a ~ T-25g=50a [1]
2
ForB: Using F= rna:.!- 50g - T = 50a [2] ~a
[1 ] + [2] ::::> 25g = 100 a ~

1
a=- g= 2.45
4
The acceleration of the system is 2.45 ms- 2•
T§. L
SOg
b Substituting for a in [1] gives T = 25g+ 50 x .!_ g= 37.5g= 367.5.
4
The tension in the string is 367.5 N.
Exercise 7
Give answers that are not exact corrected 3 significant figures.
0 A particle of weight 24 N is on a rough horizontal plane and is being
pulled by a horizontal string. If the particle is just on the point of moving
when the tension in the string is 8 N, find the value of the coefficient of
friction, Jl.
E) A particle of weight 16 N is on a rough horizontal plane and is being pulled
at a steady speed by a horizontal string. The coefficient of friction between
the particle and the table is 0.4. Find the tension in the string.
0 A block is pulled along a rough horizontal table by a string and is
accelerating at 5 ms- 2• The tension in the string is 80 N and the coefficient of
friction between the block and the table is 0.3.
Find the weight of the block.
0 A horizontal force P newtons is applied to a n object of weight 80 N, in rough
contact with a horizontal plane.
The coefficient of friction between the object and the plane is ..!:. . What is
2
the magnitude of the frictional force when
a P = 10 b P =40 c P =50?
State in each case whether or not the body moves. If it does move find its
acceleration.

0 The diagram shows a particle A lying in rough contact with a table. A
A light inelastic string attached to A, passes over a smooth pulley at the

edge of the table and is attached to another particle B hanging freely.
The particles are of equal mass 40 kg and the coefficient of friction between
2
A and the table is 5. Find B
a the acceleration of B b the tension in the string.

e Two particles A and B are connected by a light inextensible
string. A is of mass 40 N and is resting on a smooth horizontal II I I I I I
A
Q I I I I I II I I II
B
I·~~\'!
surface. B is of mass 20 N and is resting on a rough h orizontal
surface. The two surfaces are at the same level. The coefficient of friction
between B and the surface is 0.5. B is pulled horizontally by a force of 40 N.
Find
a the acceleration of the system b the tension in the string.
Summary
Normal reaction is the force acting on an object and is perpendicular to the
surface of contact.
Tension in a taut string acts along the string.
Newton's Laws of Motion

First law: An object will continue in its state of rest, or of uniform motion in a
straight line, unless an external force is applied to it.
Second law: The resultant force acting on a body of constant mass is equal to
the mass of the body multiplied by its acceleration.
F (N) = m (kg) x a (ms-2)
The resultant force and the acceleration are in the same direction.
TI1ird law: Action and reaction are equal and opposite.
When a body has an acceleration there is a resultant force acting on it.
When a body has no acceleration there is no resultant force acting on it.
A body of mass m kilograms has a weight of mg newtons
Friction
Friction exists when two objects are in rough contact and have a tendency to
move.
The frictional force F is just large enough to prevent motion, up to a limiting
value.
When the limiting value is reached, F ={tR where R is the normal reaction and
{tis the coefficient of friction.
For rough contact 0 :5 F :5 {tR.
When contact is smooth {t = 0.
Review
0 Write down the letters of the statements that are correct.
a A particle is moving with uniform velocity so there is a resultant force
acting on the particle.
b When a friction force acts on a body, it is not always of value ltR where R
is the normal contact force.
c When a body has a resultant force acting on it the body will accelerate in
the direction of the force.
d A particle is hanging freely attached to a light inextensible string. The
string is made to accelerate vertically upward. The tension in the string
is greater than the weight of the particle.
e A car is towing a trailer at a steady speed. The tension in the tow rope is
greater than the resistance to the motion of the trailer.
f When a particle has a constant acceleration it must be moving in a
straight line.
f) A resultant force Pacts on a particle of mass 2 kg for 5 seconds, increasing
the velocity of the particle from 5 ms-• to 10 ms-•. Find
a the acceleration of the particle. b the value of P.
e A block of mass 10 kg is pulled along a rough horizontal surface by a horizontal
rope. The acceleration of the block is 0.2 ms-2 and the coefficient of friction
between the block and the surface is 0.45. Find the tension in the rope.
0 A light inextensible string passes over a small fixed smooth pulley. A
particle of mass 1 kg is attached at one end of the string and a particle
of mass 1.5 kg is attached at the other end. Find the acceleration of the
particles and the tension in the string.
C) A smooth pulley is fixed at a height 1 m above a horizontal table and a
light in extensible string hangs over the pulley. A particle A of mass 2 kg is
attached to one end of the string and a particle B of mass 4 kg is attached
to the other end. The system is held at rest with the particles both hanging
1
2m above the table. The system is then released from rest. Find
b the speed with which the particle of mass 4 kg hits the table.
Assessment
0 A lorry, whose mass is 5000 kg is towing a trailer whose mass is 3500 kg
along a horizontal road. The lorry and trailer are connected by a rod.
As they move, there is a constant resistance force of900 newtons acting
on the lorry and a constant resistance force of R newtons acting on the
trailer. The driving force of the lorry is 3500 newtons. The acceleration of the
system is 0.3 ms-2•
a Find the resistive forceR acting on the trailer.
b Find the force that the rod exerts on the trailer.

~. .
o(: \
'
'
. ~
' '
' . '
~
' ~' ,. ' . . . . '
0 Two particles A and B are connected by a light string that passes over a
smooth fixed peg as shown in the diagram.
The mass of A is 3 kg and the mass of B is 7 kg.
The particles are released from rest when P and Qare at the same level.
a Form an equation of motion for each particle and hence find the A(3 kg) B (7 kg)
acceleration of the system.
b Find the tension in the string.
0 A block of mass 15 kg is pulled along a rough horizontal surface by a

horizontal rope. The acceleration of the block is 0.2 ms-2 and the coefficient
of friction between the block and the surface is 0.45.
a On a copy of the diagram show all the forces acting on the block as it
moves.
b Find the tension in the rope.
0 A block of mass 40 kg is pulled at a constant speed along a rough horizontal

surface by a horizontal rope.
The tension in the rope is 220 N.
a Draw a diagram to show all the forces acting on the block as it moves.
b State the friction force acting on the block.
c Find the coefficient of friction between the block and the surface.
e The particles A, Band C have masses of2 kg, 3 kg and 1 kg respectively.

The particles A and B are connected by a light string that passes over a
smooth fixed peg. The particle Cis attached to the particle B. The particles
are released from rest when P and Q are at the same level.
a Find the acceleration of the system when it is released from rest. A(2kg) B(3 kg)
b The particle C falls away from B before A reaches the peg. C(l kg)
Find the acceleration of the system just after C falls away.

c Explain whether the tension in the string has increased or decreased
after the particle C falls from B.
0 A block, of mass 3m, is placed on a horizontal surface at a point A. A light

inextensible string is attached to the block and passes over a smooth peg.
The string is horizontal between the block and the peg. A particle, of mass
2m, is attached to the other end of the string. The block is released from rest
with the string taut and the string between the peg and the particle vertical,
as shown in the diagram.
A B c
1
Assume that there is no air resistance acting on either the block or the
particle, and that the size of the block is negligible.
D Forces and Newton's Laws

The horizontal surface is smooth between the points A and B, but rough
between the points B and C. Between B and C, the coefficient of friction
between the block and the surface is 0.8.
a By forming equations of motion for both the block and the particle, find
the acceleration of the block between A and B.
b Given that the distance between the points A and B is 1.2 metres, find
the speed of the block when it reaches B.
c By forming equations of motion for both the block and the particle, find
the acceleration of the block between Band C.
d Given that the distance between the points B and Cis 0.9 metres, find
the speed of the block when it reaches C.
e Explain why it is important to assume that the size of the block is
negligible.
AQA MMlB June 2015
0 A wooden block, of mass 4 kg, is placed on a rough horizontal surface.
The coefficient of friction between the block and the surface is 0.3. A
horizontal force, of magnitude 30 newtons, acts on the block and causes it
to accelerate.
c==r-;N
a Draw a diagram to show all the forces acting on the block.
b Calculate the magnitude of the normal reaction force acting on
the block.
c Find the magnitude of the friction force acting on the block.
d Find the acceleration of the block.
AQA MMlB June 2011

r.ntroduction Objectives
Impulse and momentum are concepts that h elp us understand the By the end of this chapter,
behavior of objects when they collide. you should ...
..,. Understand
momentum and
impulse.
..,. Know how to use the
conservation of linear
momentum
Applications
When two snooker balls collide, they move away from each other with
different velocities. Trying to predict where the balls will go and their
speed after the collision is part of playing the game.
••••••••• •••••••• ••••••• • •••••••••••••

19.1 Momentum and impulse
Momentum
The momentum of an object is the product of its mass and its velocity.
For an object of mass m, moving with velocity v
momentum= mv
Because momentum is a multiple of velocity, momentum is a vector and has
the same direction as the velocity.
When the velocity of a body is constant and its mass does not change, its
momentum is constant.
Because a force is needed to change the velocity of an object its follows that a
force must act on the object to change its momentum.
The relationship between a force and the change in momentu m that it produces
is found by combining Newton's Second Law with the equations of motion with
constant acceleration:
A constant force Facts for a time ton a body of mass min the direction of
its motion and causes the velocity to increase from u to v. As the force is
constant, the acceleration a that it produces, is also constant.
• Momentum and Impulse

Therefore using F = rna and v = u + at gives
~ Ft=mv-mu
Therefore the change in momentum, that is final momentum minus initial
momentum, is given by the product of the force and the time for which it acts.
Impulse
The product of the force and the time for which it acts is called the impulse of
the force and is denoted by I,
so I= Ft Therefore
impulse= change in momentum

giving I= mv- mu
This relationship shows that impulse is also a vector quantity. Therefore, if a
force exerts an impulse on a n object in a direction opposite to that of motion,
the impulse is negative. It follows that the change in momentum is negative, so
the final momentum is less than the initial momentum.
For any problem involving direction along a straight line, it is important to
define the positive direction and this applies to problems involving impulse and
momentum.
Units of impulse and momentum

The unit of impulse is the product of a force unit and a time unit so, for a force
in newtons acting for a time in seconds, the unit of impulse is the newton
second, Ns. (This is not newtons per second.)
Momentum (mass x velocity) can be m easured in kilogram metres per second,
(kgms- 1) but usually the impulse unit, Ns, is us~d instead.
Example 1
~~ A hammer of mass 0.8 kg is moving at 12 ms- when it strikes a nail and is

1
~~ brought to rest. What is the m agnitude of the impulse exerted on the hammer?
I
All the initial momentum of the hammer is lost when it hits the nail.
The change in the momentum of the h ammer is 0.8 x 12 Ns = 9.6 Ns.
Therefore the impulse exerted on the hammer is 9.6 Ns.
Example 2
A particle of mass 2 kg is moving in a straight line with a speed of 5 ms- 1• A force
I
-
of 11 N acts on the particle for 6 seconds in the direction of motion. Find
a the magnitude of the impulse exerted on the particle
b the speed of the particle at the end of this time.
Momentum and Impulse •

2 kg 5 ms- • ll N +ve
0 I> ) )
Take the positive direction as being to the right.

a The impulse ofthe force is INs where
I =Ft
= 11 X6
The magnitude of the impulse is 66 Ns.
Initial momentum is 2 x 5 Ns.
Final momentum is 2v Ns.
Using I = mv - mu gives
66= 2v-10 => v=38
The velocity after 6 seconds is 38 m s-•.
Example 3
The velocity of a particle of mass 7 kg, travelling along a straight line, changes
from 13 ms-• to 3 m s-• in 5 seconds under the action of a constant force. Find
the magnitude of the force.
Fnewtons
)
- - - ( ) - - - - ----<r-----x
Let the constant force be FN.

Initial momentum is 7 x 13 Ns; Final momentum is 7 x 3 Ns.
The impulse of the force is SF Ns.
Using I = mv - mu gives
5F=21- 91 =-70
F= -70 + 5 =-14
The magnitude of the force is 14 N.
Example 4
I- A truck of mass 1200 kg is travelling at 4 ms-• when it hits a buffer and is brought
to rest in 3 seconds. What is the average force exerted by the buffer?
+ve
Velocity Velocity
of truck ---{7 of truck
is4 ms- • is zero
/ / /
(continued)

(continued)
Taking the direction of the force as the positive direction, the initial velocity of
the truck is -4 ms-• and the final velocity is zero.
Using Ft =mv - mu
gives F X 3 = 1200 X 0 - 1200 X ( -4)
=> F= 1600
The average force exerted by the buffer is 1600 N.
Example 5
I
A particle of mass 3 kg is moving along a straight line with speed 6 ms-• when a
force is applied to it. After 4 seconds the particle is moving in the opposite
direction with speed 2 ms-•. Find the magnitude an d direction of the force.
--•+ve
A B
(
Fnewtons
The initial momentum is 3 x 6 Ns, the final momentum is 3 x (- 2) Ns and the
impulse of the force is (-F) x 4 Ns.
Using Ft = mv - mu gives
-4F =-6-18 => F=6
The force is 6 N acting in the direction opposite to the initial direction of
movement.
Impulsive forces
When a large force acts for a very short time, it is not easy to find either the force
or the time for which it acts, for example, a cricket bat hitting the ball, a shot
being fired, a footballer kicking a ball.
These are examples of impulsive forces and in such cases the impulse of the
force cannot be calculated using I = Ft. The change in momentum caused by the
impulse can be used to find the impulse.
Example 6
A cricket ball of mass 0.2 kg has a speed of20 ms-• when the bat strikes it at right
I angles and reverses the direction of the ball. The speed of the ball immediately
after being struck is 36 ms-•.
Find the impulse given by the bat to the ball.
The fin al momentum of the ball is 0.2 x 36 N s = 7.2 Ns.
I The initial momentum of the ball is 0.2 x (-20) N s = -4Ns.

The impulse, INs, given by the bat is given by I= 7.2- (- 4) = 11.2.
Therefore the bat exerts an impulse of 11.2 Ns on the ball.
---+ve
Momentum and Impulse G

Exercise 1
0 Write down the momentum of
a a child of mass 40 kg running with a speed of 3 ms- 1
b a lorry of mass 1200 kg moving at 20 ms- 1
c a missile of mass 92 kg travelling at 120 ms- 1
d a train of mass 214 tonnes travelling at 55 ms- 1
e a bullet of mass 100 g travelling at 40 ms- 1•
e Find the magnitude of the impulse exerted by
a a force of 14 N acting for 6 s
b a force of 12 tonnes acting for 1 minute
c a force that causes an increase in momentum of 88 Ns.
In Questions 3 to 7 a force of magnitude Fnewtons acts in the direction AB on a
particle P of mass 2 kg. Initially the velocity of Pis u m s- 1 and t seconds later it is
v ms- 1, each in the direction AB.
Fnewtons
)
- 1~____j()~===i~~v~m~s-~-B
A----J()~===±~~~~~m~s:
1
e When u = 4, v =7 and t=3, findR

0 When u=7, v=4 and t=3, findR
O when u = 5, t=4 and F=lO, findv.
0 When u =8, t =S and F=-4, findv.
0 When u = 10, v = 6 and F= - 3, find t.
0 In what time will a force of 12 N reduce the speed of a particle of mass 1.5 kg
from 36 ms-1 to 12 ms-1?
0 An object of mass 5 kg is moving in a straight line with a velocity of 10 ms-1
when a force F is applied to it for 4 seconds. Find the velocity at the end of
this time when
a F=20 b F=-20.
G An object of mass 4 kg is moving with speed 7ms- when a force is applied
1
to it for 8 seconds. Its speed then is again 7 ms-1 but in the opposite
direction. Find the magnitude of the force that has caused this change.
G A dart of mass 40 g hits the dartboard at a speed of 16 ms- The dart comes
1
•
to rest in the board in 0.02 seconds, find the average force exerted by the
board on the dart.
$ A particle of mass 5 kg moving in a straight line has a velocity 16 ms- 1 when
a force -4 N begins to act on it.
Find the velocity of the particle when the force h as been acting for
1
a -s b 5 s.
3
e A stationary truck is shunted into a siding by a locomotive that exerts· a
force of 2600 N on the truck for 12 seconds.
a What is the momentum of the truck at the end of this time?
The truck carries on without change of speed until it is brought to rest in
2 seconds when it hits the buffers at the end of the line.
b What is the magnitude of the impulse exerted on the truck by
the buffers?
c What is the average force exerted on the truck by the buffers?
In Questions 14 to 18 calculate the impulse given.
~ A ball of mass 1.1 kg strikes a wall at right angles with a speed of 6 ms-•
and bounces off at 5 ms-•.
e The speed of a ball just before it is hit is 38 ms-•.
The bat hits the ball at right angles, giving it a return speed of 30 ms-•.
The mass of the ball is 0.15 kg.
( ) A shot of mass 50 g, fired at 250 ms-•, is stopped when it hits a steel barrier.
CD A bird of mass 60 g is stopped when it flies at 12 ms-• directly into a window.
( ) A stone, of weight 24 N, dropped from a window, hits the ground at 45 ms-•
and does not bounce.
19.2 Conservation of linear momentum

When two objects are in contact, they exert equal and opposite forces on
each other.
Whether they are in contact for a measurable time, or just for a split second,
then each is in contact with the other for the same time. Therefore they exert
equal and opposite impulses on each other.
As long as neither object is fixed, these equal and opposite impulses produce
equal and opposite changes in momentum, so the overall change in
momentum of the two objects caused by the collision is zero.
Therefore, as long as no external force acts on either object, the total momentum
of the two objects remains constant.
This property is known as The Principle of Conservation ofLinear Momentum
and is expressed formally as follows:
When no external force affects the motion of a system, the total

momentum of the system remains constant.
In some problems involving a collision the two colliding objects bounce and so
have individual velocities after impact. Other objects collide and join together
at impact, for example trucks which becom e coupled. (Such objects are said to
coalesce.)
In either case the re are different velocities before and after impact so draw
separate 'before' and 'after' diagrams and define the chosen positive direction.
Momentum and Impulse

Example 7
A particle A of mass 3 kg, travelling at 5 ms-• in a str~ight line collides with a
I particle B with mass 2 kg and travelling at 4 ms-• in the same direction. After
impact, B moves in the opposite direction at 2 ms-•. Find the velocity of A.
A
Just before impac t~
5 ms- • 4 ms- 1
4-----0
B
3kg 2kg
urns-•
Just after impact~
A
Total momentum before impact is 3 x 5 + 2x (-4) Ns.

Total momentum after impact is 3u + 2 x 2 Ns.
Using conservation of linear momentum gives
15-8=3u+4 => u= 1
The velocity of A is 1 ms-• in the same direction as before the impact.
In this example the direction of motion of A after collision is not given. We
guessed that it was to the right and got a positive value for u showing that the
guess was correct. If we had thought that A moved with speed u to the left, we
would have found that u = -1; this also shows that A moves to the right.
Therefore it does not matter in which direction we mark an unknown velocity;
the sign of the answer gives the correct direction.
Example 8
A truck of mass 2 tonnes moves along a track at 8 ms-• towards a truck of mass
5 tonnes moving at 5 ms-• on the same track. The trucks become coupled at
impact. Find the velocity at which they continue to move given that before
impact they move
a in the same direction b in opposite directions.
a A 8ms-•
Just before impact~ - - -+ ve
Just after impact
Before impact, the momentum of A is 3000 x 8 Ns = 24 000 Ns

the momentum of B is 5000 x 5 Ns =25 000 Ns
the total momentum is 49 000 Ns.
After impact, the combined momentum is 8000 x v Ns.
8000v=49000 => v=6.125
The velocity of the coupled trucks is 6.13 ms-• correct to 3 significant figures.
(continued)

(continued)
b Bms- 1
Just beforeimpact ~
- -- +ve
Just a fter impact
Before impact, the momentum of A is 3000 x 8 Ns = 24 000 Ns

the momentum of B is 5000 x (- 5) Ns = -25000 Ns
the total momentum is - 1000 Ns.
After impact, the combined momentum is 8000 x v Ns.
8000v=-1000 => v =-0.125
The velocity of the coupled trucks is 0.125 ms- 1 in the direction of motion of
the h eavier truck before impact.
Exercise 2
In Questions 1 to 5 a body A of mass mAtravelling with velocity uA, collides
directly with a body B of mass m8 moving with velocity u8 • 1hey coalesce at
impact. The velocity with which the combined body moves on is v.
A B
Just before impact ~uA ~ua
mA ma
A+B
Just a fter impact CD [> v
mA+ma
0 mA = 4kg, uA = 4 ms- 1, m 8 =2kg, u = 1 ms- 1• Find v.

e mA= 6kg, uA = 1Ins- 1
, m 8 =2 kg,
8
u 8 =-3ms- 1
• Find v.
0 m A= 9kg, uA=5 ms- 1
, m 8 =4kg, v=3 ms- 1
• Find u 8.
0 mA=3 kg, uA = 16 ms- 1, m 8 =5kg, v=6 ms- 1 • Find u 8.
0 uA=3 ms- m = 6kg, u =-5 m s- v =-1ms- FindmA.
1
,
8 8
1
,
1
•
G A bullet of mass 0.1 kg is fired horizontally at 80 ms- into a stationary block 1
of wood that is free to move on a smooth h orizontal plane. The wooden

block, with the bullet embedded in it, moves off with speed 5 ms-1• Find the
mass of the block.
0 A particle A of mass 5 kg travelling with speed 6 ms-1, collides directly with
a stationary particle B of mass 10 kg. A is brought to rest by the impact. Find
the speed with which B begins to move.
0 The masses of two particles, P and Q, are 0.18 kg and 0.1 kg respectively.
TI1ey a re moving directly towards each other at speeds of 4 ms- 1 and 12 m s-1
respectively. After they collide the direction of mo tion of each particle is
reversed and the speed of Q is 6 ms- 1• Find the speed of P after impact.
0 A baH P of m ass 2 kg is moving at 4 ms- 1 when it collides with a ball Q of
mass 1 kg m oving in the same direction at 3 ms- 1• After the impact, both P
and Q move on in the same direction as before, P at u ms-1 and Q at v m s-1•
Given that 7u = 2v, find u and v.
Momentum and Impulse G

(:) Two skaters, a father and son, are standing at rest on the ice. The masses of
the father and son are 70 kg and 50 kg respectively. The father slides a stone
over the ice giving it a velocity of 8 ms- 1• The son catches it. The mass of the
stone is 5 kg. Find
a the speed with which the father starts to move backwards after releasing
the stone
b the common velocity of the son and the stone after he has caught it
c the impulse exerted by the stone on the son. (Assume that there is no
friction between the stone and the ice.)
Summary
An object of mass m, moving with velocity v, has momentum where
momentum= mv.
impulse = change in momentum so I= mv- mu
The Principle of Conservation of Linear Momentum states that when in a given
direction, no external force affects the motion of a system, the total momentum
in that direction remains constant.
Review
In Questions 1 to 3, write down the letter that gives the correct answer.
0 A sphere A of mass 2m collides directly with a sphere B of mass m. Before
impact the spheres are moving in opposite directions with speed u. A is
brought to rest by the collision.
2n1 m
0 - -+(>31> u u -E(j-1--0 - - • +ve direction
A B
After impact the speed ofB is
1
a -u b u c 2u d - u.
2
0 Two masses with the same mass collide and coalesce as shown in the
diagram. What is the speed V of the combined mass just after impact?
Just before impact ~ 3rt
Just after impact
a 2u b 3u c u d 5u.
0 A particle of mass 2 kg moving with speed 4 ms- 1 is given a blow which

changes the speed to 1 ms-1 without deflecting the particle from a straight
line. The impulse of the blow is
a IONs b 6Ns
c it could be either 10 Ns or 6 Ns.
Momentum and Impulse

0 A railway truck, of mass 1900 kg, is moving at a speed of 5 ms-1 along a
horizontal track. It collides with a stationary truck, of mass 600 kg.
The two trucks couple and move on together. Calculate
a the speed, in ms- 1 of the pair of trucks immediately after the collision
b the magnitude of the impulse, inNs, on the stationary truck due to the
collision.
0 A brick of mass 3.5 kg falls from rest from a point vertically 10 m above firm
horizontal ground. It does not rebound.
Find a the speed with which the brick hits the ground
b the impulse of the force on the ground by the brick.
( ) An object of mass 2 kg, moves along a straight line with speed 6 ms- 1 and
collides with an object of mass 0.5 kg moving with speed 3 ms-1 in the same
direction along the same straight line. The bodies coalesce and move on
together. Calculate their speed immediately after the collision.
0 A cricket ball, of mass 0.15 kg, is moving horizontally with speed 30 ms-1
when it hits a vertically held cricket bat.
The ball rebounds horizontally with speed 15 ms- 1•
Calculate the magnitude of the impulse, inNs, of the force exerted by the
ball on the bat.
Assessment
0 A ball of mass 1.5 kg falls from rest from a point vertically 4 m above firm
horizontal ground.
a Find the speed with which the ball hits the grow1d
The ball rebounds with speed 4 ms-1•
b Find the change in momentum of the ball during the rebound.
c Hence find the impulse of the ground on the ball.
f) Two particles A and B have masses of2 kg and 1 kg respectively. The
particles are moving in the same direction along the same straight line on a
smooth horizontal surface when they collide and coalesce.
Before they collide the velocities of A and B are 2 ms-1 and 1 ms-1
respectively.
Find their combined velocity after they collide.
0 Two balls A and B are moving towards each other along the same straight
line on a smooth horizontal surface when they collide. The mass of a ball A
is 0.4kg.
Before they collide the velocities of A and B are 1.5 ms-1 and -0.4 ms-1
respectively.
After they collide their combined velocity is 1 ms-1•
Find the mass of the particle B.
Momentum and Impulse ..

0 Two balls A and B are moving in the same direction along the same straight
line on a smooth horizontal surface when they collide. The mass of ball A
is 0.8 kg. Before the collision the speed of A is 3 ms-1 and the speed of B is
2 ms-1• After the collision the speed of A is 1 ms-1 and both balls move in the
same direction along the line.
a Find the impulse on the ball A in the collision.
b The mass of the ball B is 1.8 kg. Find the speed of B after the collision.
C) A ball of mass m is travelling horizontally with a velocity of 3 ms- 1 at the
instant before it hits a vertical wall. The wall gives an impulse of6 Ns
to the ball. Find an expression for the velocity of the ball in terms of m
immediately after it hits the wall.
e A ball A is moving along a horizontal line when it receives an impulse of

6 Ns in the direction of its movement.
The mass of A is 2 kg. The velocity of A before the impulse is 2.5 ms- 1•
a Find the change in momentum of the ball.
After receiving the impulse the ball collides with a stationary ball B. The ball
A then reverses direction and moves with velocity 0.5 ms-1• The ball B
moves with velocity 0.3 ms-1 in the opposite direction to that of A.
b Find the mass of the ball B.
f) Two toy trains, A and B, are moving in the same direction on a straight
horizontal track when they collide. As they collide, the speed of A is 4 ms-1
and the speed ofB is 3 ms-1 • Immediately after the collision, they move
together with a speed of 3.8 ms-1 •
The m ass of A is 2 kg. Find the mass of B.
AQA MM1A June 2012
0 A trolley, of mass 5 kg, is moving in a straight line on a smooth horizontal
surface.
It has a velocity of 6 ms- 1 when it collides with a stationary trolley, of mass
mkg.
Immediately after the collision, the trolleys move together with velocity
2.4 ms- 1•
Find m.
AQA MMlB January 2011

Glossary
A complement of A event A does not occur, written A'

acceleration the rate of increase of velocity completing the square adding a number to an expression of
acute angle an angle between 0° and 90° the form ar + bx to form a perfect square
ad dillon law for mutually exclusive events the relationship compound angle the sum or difference between two or
between P(A or B) and P(A and B) when A and B cannot more angles
occur at the same time compound area an area made up of two or more
addilion law of probability the general relationship different shapes
between P(A or B) and P(A and B) conditional probability the probability of an event is
ambiguous two or more different meanings conditional on the outcome of another event
angle of elevation the angle between a horizontal line and a constant of lntegralion the unknown constant added to
line to a point above the horizontal an integral
arc of a circle a section of a circle continuous variable a variable that cannot be given exactly,
such as height, mass, time
arithmetic series a series where any term differs from the
term before it by the same constant convergent a sequence or a series is convergent when the
nth term or the sum respectively approaches a finite
asymptote a straight line a curve approaches but does
value as n increases
not cross
cosine of an angle the ratio of the adjacent side to the
average a typical or representative value of a set of data
hypotenuse of an angle in a right-angled triangle
cube root one of three equal factors whose product is
B a number
Bernoulli distribution the distribution of the number of
successes in a Bernoulli trial cubical die a die with 6 faces, usually marked 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6;
the score on the die is the face uppermost when it is
Bernoulli trial a trial with two outcomes: success and thrown or rolled
failure
cubic function a polynomial where the highest power of xis 3
binomial coefficient the coefficient of a power of x in a
binomial expansion cumulative binomial distribution function a function
giving cumulative binomial probabilities
binomial distribution the distribution of the number of P(X~x) = P(X= 0) + P(X= 1) + ... + P(X= x)
successes in n independent Bernoulli trials
cyclic a function with a repeating pattern
binomial theorem the expansion of (l +x)" as a series of
ascending powers of x
D
definite Integration the process of integrating a function
c between limits
Cartesian coordinates the directed distances (x, y) of a
point from the x-axis and they-axis derivative the general expression for the gradient of a curve
chord a straight line between two point on a curve derived function the general expression for the gradient of
a curve
chord a straight line between two points on a circle
difference of two squares the difference between two terms
circumscribe a figure that passes through the vertices of that are perfect squares, for example a2 - b2
another figure
differenliat ion The process of finding a general expression
coalesce join together to form one object for the gradient of a curve at any point
coefficient of friclion the ratio of the friction force to the directed distance the distance in a given direction
normal reaction when friction is maximum
discrete random variable X a variable whose value is
coefficient the number multiplied by an expression determined by chance, taking individual values with a
containing just letters given probability
collinear in a straight line discrete variable a variable whose values can be given exactly
common difference the difference between consecutive discriminant the expression b2 - 4ac where a, b and c are
terms in an arithmetic series the coefficients of Jf, x and the constant in a quadratic
co nunon factor a number or letter that is a factor of each expression
term in an expression displacement a vector giving the length of a line and its
common ratio the ra tio between consecutive terms in a direction of one point from another point
geometric series
• Glossary
distance how far an object travels G
divergent a sequence or a series is divergent when the nth geometric series a series where each term is the same
term or the sum respectively does not approach a finite constant multiple of the term before it
value as n increases gradie nt function the general expression for the gradient of
dividend the expression that is divided by another a curve
expression gradient the gradient of a straight line is the increase in
divisor the expression that divides another expression y divided by the increase in x between one point and
dynamic friction the maximum value of the friction force another point on the line.
gravitational attraction the force that attracts an object to
the earth
E
equally likely outcomes each outcome has the same
probability of occurring
equation of a curve the equation that gives the relationship Improper algebraic fraction a fraction where the highest
between the x andy coordinates of the points on a curve power of the numerator is equal to or greater than the
or line highest power of the denominator
equilibrium an object is in equilibrium when it is not impulse the product of a force and the time fo r which it acts
accelerating impulsive force a large force that acts for a very short time
event one or more possible outcomes of an experiment; a indefinite integration integration where an unknown
subset of the possibility space constant needs to added to the integral
event: A and B outcomes in A 11 B, so in both A and B independent events the outcome of an event is unaffected
event: A only outcomes in A but not in B by the outcome of any other event
event: A orB outcomes in Au B, so in A orB or both (in at index (plural: indices) the index of a number, written as
least one of A and B) a superscript, gives how many of the same number are
multiplied together, also called the power
event: neither A nor B outcomes that are not inA u B
inequality a comparison between two unequal quantities
expectation of a function of X, E(g(X)) the mean or
expected value of g(X) infinite series a series whose terms continues indefinitely
expectation of X, E(X) the mean 11 or expected value of the Integration the process of finding a function from its
random variable X derivative
expected value expectation, average value intercept the distance from the origin where a grap h crosses
they or x axis
experimental mean x the mean of a set of data
lnterquartlle range diffe rence between the quartiles:
exponential function a function where the variable is part upper quartile - lower quartile
of a power
intersection of sets A 11 B, the overlap of sets
exponent index or power
Intersection the points where two graphs cut each other
Irrational nwnber a number that cannot be expressed as
F alb where a and bare integers
factorial the product of the integers from one to a
given number
factorislng expressing as the product of factors L
like terms terms in an expression that contain the same
factor theorem (x- a) is a factor of a polynomial in xwhen combination of variables
f(a) = 0
limiting friction the maximum value of a friction force
fair unbiased
limiting value value to which a quantity tends as n tends
finite series a series with a finite number of terms to infinity
force the quantity that, when acting on a body, changes the linear combination of X and Y combination of the form
velocity of that body. aX + bY, where a and bare constants
frequency distribution a table showing how many times line of symmetry a line that divides a figure into two that a re
each observation occurs the mirror image of each other
frequency the number of times an observation occurs logarithm the power to which the base must be raised to
friction a force that opposes motion or potential motion equal a number
function a function is an expression involving one long-term relative frequency value to which r/ n tends as
variable which gives a single answer, when a number is n tends to infinity
substituted for the variable
Glossary ..
lower quartile the median of all the observations before the p
median in an ordered set of data; the observation 'A of parabola the shape of a curve whose equation is
the way through an ordered set of data y = ax2 +bx+ c
perfect square an expression or number that can be
M expressed as the product of two equal factors
mass a measure of the quantity of matter in an object periodic a function with a repeating pattern
maximum point a point on a curve where the gradient period of a function the length of a repeating pattern
changes from positive to negative
perpendicular the angle between perpendicular lines is a
maximum value the value of a function at a point on a curve right angle
where the gradient changes from positive to negative
polynomial a collection of terms containing powers of x
mean of a random variable X p, the expectation or expected which are positive integers, for example, 2.xl- 5x+ 2
value of X
possibility space diagram a diagram showing equally likely
mean of a set of data x, the sum of the observations divided outcomes as pairs on a grid, such as the outcomes when
by the number of observations two dice are rolled
measure of central tendency of data average or typical possibility space set of all distinct possible outcomes in an
value measured by mean, mode, median experiment
measures of spread of data the variability of data measured power of a munber the power of a number, written as a
by range, interquartile range, standard deviation superscript, gives how m any of the same number are
median middle value in an ordered set of data multiplied together, also called the index
minimum point a point on a curve where the gradient probability (relative frequency) table a two-way table
changes from negative to positive showing probabilities relating to events
minimum value the value of a function at a point on a curve probability distribution of X the probabilities of the values
where the gradient changes from negative to positive of the random variable X, P(X = x)
mode observation that occurs most often (most popular) in probablllty function the probability distribution of X
a set of data written as a function of x
momentum the product of mass and velocity probability the likelihood of an event happening
multiplication law for Independent events relation ship proper algebraic fraction a fraction where the highest
between P(A), P(B) and P(A and B) when the outcome of power of the numerator is less than the highest power of
event A does not affect the outcome of event B the denominator
multiplication law of probability the general relationship
between P(A and B) and conditional probabilities relating Q
to A andB quadratic equation an equation of the fo rm ax'+ bx + c = 0
mutuaJly exclusive events events that cannot occur at the where a. b and care constants and a :t- 0
same time qu adratic function a polynomial where the highest power
of x is 2
N quotient the result of a division
newton the unit of force where 1 N is equal to the product of
a mass of 1 kg and acceleration in ms-2
R
normal reaction a force acting on a body on a surface radian an angle unit, 1 radian is the angle subtended at the
perpendicular to the surface of contact and away from centre of a circle by an arc equal in length to the radius
that surface
random selection all outcomes are equally likely; there is
normal to a curve a straight line at right angles to a tangent no bias
to a curve
range the spread of the distribution given by the differen ce
between the maximum and minimum values
0 rational number a number that can be written as alb where
obtuse angle an angle between 90° and 180° a and bare integers
one way stretch a process that stretches a shape in one real number the set of numbers that includes the rational
direction and irrational numbers
ordinate the length of a line from the x-axis to a curve recurrence relation a rule that gives the next term in a
origin the point where the x-axis andy-axis cross sequence in terms of the previous term
outcome result of a trial in an experiment reflection reflection in a line creates a mirror image of a shape
relative frequency (proba bility) table a two-way sum mary d ata a summarised form of the data, such as I,x
table showing frequencies written as proportions or or L,r, rather than individual observations
percentages of the total
surd an irrational number left in square root form su ch as J2
remainder the expression or number left over after a
division
T
remainder theorem the value of a polynomial when a is
tangent of a n angle the ratio of the opposite side to the
substituted for x
adjacent side of an angle in a right-angled triangle
resulta nt force a single force equivalent to all the forces
tangent to a curve a line that touches a curve at a point, but
acting on a body
does not cross the curve at that point
roots the values that satisfy an equation
ten sion the force in a taut string
rough contact contact between an object and a surface
terms the parts of an expression separa ted by plus or minus
where friction opposes motion along the surface
signs
tetrahedral die a die with 4 faces usually numbered 1, 2,
s 3, 4; the score is the value on which die lands when it is
sampling without replacement selecting an item but n ot thrown or rolled
re turning it to the population before another item is
selected thr ust the force in a rod that is in compression
sampling with replacement selecting an item then returning transforma tion a process that moves or reflects in a line or
it to the population before another item is selected stretches a curve
scalar a quantity that has magnitude but no direction tra nslation a process that moves a curve
secant of a circle a straight line passing through a circle tree d iagram a diagrammatic way of showing outcomes of
combined events
second derivative the rate at which the gradient function
increases trigonome try relationships involving lengths and angles in
triangles
sector of a ci rcle the part inside a circle bounded by two
radii and the circle tuming point a point on a curve where the gradient
changes sign
segment the part inside a circle bounded by a chord and the
circle
sequence a set of numbers in a given order u
union of sets A v B; all of sets A and B, A or B or both
series the sum of the terms of a sequence
unlike terms terms in an expression that do not contain the
simulta neous equ ations equations that contain more same combination of variables
than one variable and that can b e solved to find values
that satisfy all the equations upper quart ile the median of all the observations above the
median in an ordered se t of data; the observation % way
sine of an angle the ratio of the opposite side to the through an ordered set of data
hypotenuse of an angle in a right-angled triangle
s ine wave the shape of the curve y = sin x
v
smooth contact contact between an object and a surface variable a quantity that can take more than one value
where there is n o frction force
varia nce of a set of da ta square of the standard deviation of
s peed the rate of c hange of distance a set of observations
square root one of two equal factors whose product is a vari ance of X a2 = Var{X), the expectation of (X - tt)2
number
vector a quantity that has magnitude and direction
sta ndanl devia tio n of a set of da ta measure of the spread of
veloci ty the rate of increase of displacement
the observations about the mean x
Venn diagram a diagrammatic way of representing sets
standard deviation of X a, a measure of the spread of the
random variable X about 11 vertex the point at which a parabola turns or the point
where two sides of a polygon meet
stationary point the coordinates of a point on a curve where
the gradient is zero vertical line graph a diagram consisting of vertical lines
illustrating discrete data
stationary value the value of a function at a point where the
gradient is zero
s tatistical mode calculator mode giving statistical values w
such as mean a nd standard deviation directly weight the force that attracts an object to the earth
subte nds a line or an arc forming an angle at a particular point
when straight lines from its ends are drawn to that point
Glossary •
Answers
1 Expanding Brackets, Surds and Indices
Exercise 1 7 9J2 8 12,fi 9 sJJ
1 3.l.. ,- 4x 2 a - 12 3 2y-xy + y2 10 4./3 11 lOJ5 12 2../5
4 Spq-9p' 5 3xy+y2 6 x'-x"+x+7 13 2-/3 -3 14 s,fi + 8 15 2../5 +SJIS
7 5+ 1-t' 8 a' - ab -2b 9 7 -x
16 4 17 J6+J2 -J3- 1
10 4x-9 11 3x"+ 18x -20 12 ab -2ac+cb
13 I let - 2ct 2 - SSt' 14 -x" +7x"-7x 15 - 4y2+24y - 10 18 13+7./3 19 4 20 s -3J2
16 -7 17 2 18 a 1 b 0 c -3 21 22-10,[5 22 9 23 10-4J6
Exercise 2 24 31+12./3 25 ( 4+ J5)( 4 -../5) = 11

1 .l..,+6x+8 2 x"+Bx+ 1S 3 2
a + 13a+42 26 (.JiT- 3)(Ji1+3)=2 27 (2J3 +4)(2./3 - 4) =-4
4 t2 + 1St+S6 5 .f+ 17s +66 6 2x"+ llx+S
28 (J6+J5)(J6 - J5)= 1 29 (3+2./3)(3-2./3) =-3
7 Sy2+28y+ IS 8 6a' + 17a+l2 9 3St'+86l +48
10 99.f+49s+6 11 x" - Sx+6 12 y2-Sy+ 4 30 (2J5+J2)(2../5-J2)=18
13 a 2 - 11a + 24 14 b2 - 17b +72 15 p' - 1Sp+36
16 2y2 - 13y+ IS 17 3x" - 13x+4 18 6r - 2Sr+ 14 Exercise 6
19 20x"-19x+3 20 6a'-7ab +2b' 21 .l.. ,-x- 6
22 a' +a -S6 23 y2+2y - 63 24 .f+s-30 1 ~,fi 2 !..J7 3l:._Jil
2 7 11
25 q'+ 8q - 6S 26 2t2 +3t -20 27 4x" + llx - 3
28 6q'- q - IS 29 x"-xy- 2y2 30 2.f +st - 6t2 4 ~JW 5 !..J3 6 l..,fi
s 9 2
Exercise 3
x"- 4 2 2S - .l.-'~ 3 x"-9 7 ,fi +I 6 ; (1s,fi-6)
3
9 ~(4-/3+6)
4 4x"- l 5 x" - 64 6 x"-a'
7 x"-1 8 9!12 - 16 9 4y2- 9 10 -s(2+J5) 11 ~(J7 +J3) 12 4(2 +./3)
10 a' lr-36 )) 2Sx" - I 12 x"y- 16
13
16
x"+ 8x+ l6
9x" + 30x+ 2S
14
17
x" +4x+4
4x"+28x+49
15
18
4x"+ 4x+ 1
x" -2x + 1
13 J5 -2 14 ~~(7./3+2) 15 3+J5
19 x" - 6x+9 20 4x" - 4x+ 1 21 16x"-24x+ 9
22 2Sx"- 20x+ 4 23 9t' - 421+ 49 24 x"+2xy+y2 16 3(J3+J2) 17 I~(w-../5) 16 3+2J2
25 4p'+36p+81 26 9if - 66q+l21 27 4x"- 20xy + 2Sy2
28 3X'- 4.l..,+ 4x- 4
coefficient of x" is - 4 coefficient of x is 4
19 ~(1-2J1) 20 ± (1+J5) 21 ±(Jil + J7)
Exercise 4 22 ~(9 +./3) 23 1~ (g,fi - 20) 24 ~(3,fi + 2J3)
1 ll x - 2x" - 12 2 x"- 49
3
5
6 - 2Sx+ 4x"
9p'- 6p + 1
4
6
l4p' - 3p-2
1St'+ l -2
25 ±(2+J2) 26 :2 (3J7- $1) 27 i(../30 + 2J3)
7 16 - 8p+p' 6 14t- 3-6t'
9 x"+ 4xy+4y2 10 16x" - 9 Exercise 7
11 9x"+42x+49 12 1S- R - 2R2 1
13 a' -6ab+9b2 14 4x"- 20x+ 2S - =- 2 ...!._2 =!.. 3 3'= 9
2' 16 2 4
15 49a2 - 4b2 16 9a' +30ab +2Sb2
4 x" 5 1 6 t'
17 x"-x"-x-2 16 3X'-Sx"-x+2 J
19 4.l.~- 8x" +13x -S 20 X'- 2-l... + 1 7 I 8 2 9 Y'

21
23
2x"-9x" - 24x - 9
x" +4x"-x -4
22
24
x"+ 6x"+ ll x+6
x"- 4x"+x+ 6
10 X' u -.!, 12 p
y'
25 2X'+ 7x"+7x + 2 26 x"+ 4x"+Sx+2
27 4X'+ 4x"-7x+2 · 26 27x"-27x" + 9x- l 1
13 3 14 32 15 2
29 4x"- 9x" - 2Sx- 12 30 4X' - 4x" - x+ I
31 Gx"+ 13x"+x-2 32 X' + 3x" + 3x+ I 9
16 2 17 27 18
33 x"+x"-4x - 4 34 2x' + 7x"- 9 4
35 24x"+38x"-Slx+ 10 36 4X'- 42x"+68x+210
19 20 16 21 s
37 .~ + 3x"y + 3xy' + y' 36 X' + 4x"y + 6x"y2 + 4xy" + Y' 4
39 x'- 1Sx'+ 7Sx" - 12S 40 8 - 18i' + 18X' - 27x' 3
41 6, - 17 42 -36 22 -s 23 1331 24
s
Exercise 5 25 6 26 16 27 8
27
1 2-/3 3 3-/3 28 s 29 1 30 I
4 s,fi 6 s,fi 31 2 32 - I 33 0
• Answer
34 -1 35 -5 36 Assessment 1
2 1 a -3 b 2
37 5 38
2
39 3 2a 21 b p= 18, q= 108
3 3
40 2 3 a 6 b 5 c p=1 , q=-z
__.!. 1 3 3
4 a 2 2 , r=-
2 b -x1 , a=-, b=1
Review 2 2
5 a 2x'-x'-4x+3 b 3,-8
1 3a2 -a 2 2x 2 +3x-35 3 16x2 -24x+9
4 4x 2 -9 5 3+x- 10x' 6 2x3 +x'y-4zy2 -3y3
6 a I 18 II 30 b 3- JfQ 7 5-2J3
7 - 54 a 5,J6 9 43-24..[3
10 d 11 a 12 B
2 Quadratic Polynomials and Equations

Exercise 1 Exercise 4
1 (x+5)(x+3) 2 (x+7)(x+4) 3 (x+ 6) (x + 1) 4 2 3 9
4 (x+4)(x+3) 5 (x- 1)(x-9) 6 (x-3)' 25
4 25 5 2 6 4
7 (x+6)(x+2) 8 (x - 8)(x- 1) 9 (x+ 7)(x- 2)
10 (x+4)(x-3) 11 (x -5)(x+ I) 12 (x-12)(x+2) 7 192 8 81 9 200
13 (x+ 7)(x+2) 14 (x - 1) 2 15 (x- 3)(x+ 3) I 9
10 11 12
16 (x+8)(x-3) 17 (x+2) 2 18 (x-l)(x+ I) 4 3 8
19 (x-6)(x+3) 20 (x+ 5) 2 21 (x- 4)(x+4) 13 X=-4±,fl7 14 x=1±J3 15 x= -~(I±Fs)
22 (4+ x)(1 + x) 23 (2x - 1)(x-1) 24 (3x+ 1) (x+ 1)
25 (3x - 1)2 26 (3x+ 1) (2x- 1) 27 (3 +x)' 16 x=-~(uJJ) 17 X=-~(3±'<"5) 18 x=+(I±ffi)
28 (2x - 3)(2x+3) 29 (x+a)' 30 (.!.y - 1) 2
19 X=-2±J6 20 X = -~( 1± Ji3) 21 X=~(-2±3../2)
Exercise 2
(3x-4) (2x+3) 2 (4 x - 3)(x - 2) 3 (4x -l)(x+1) 23 X=-~(I±ffi) 24 X=+( 3±.f4l)
4 (3x-2)(x-5) 5 (2x -3)' 6 (1 -2x) (3+x)
7 (5x -4)(5x+4) 8 (3+x)(1 -x) 9 (5x - 1) (x- 12)
10 (3x+5)2 11 (3 -x)(1+x) 12 (3+4x)(4 -3x)
Exercise 5
13 (1 +x)(1-x) 14 (3x+2) 2 15 (x+ y)' 1 X=-2±,/2 2 x=+(I±ffi) 3 x=~(-s±.J21)
16 (1 - 2x)(1 + 2x) 17 (2x-y)' 18 (3 - 2x) (3+ 2x)
19 (6+x)' 20 (5x-4)(8x+3) 21 (7x+30)(x -5 ) 4 x=+(I±J33) 5 x=2±J3 6 x= +(I±.J41)
22 (6 - 5x)(6 + 5x) 23 (x -y)(x+y) 24 (9x - 2y)'
25 (7- 6x)' 26 (5x-2y)(5x+2y) 7 x=~(I±Ji3) 8 X=-~(I±Ji3) 9 x = - 0.260 or -1.540
27 (6x+ 5y)' 28 (2x -3y)(2x+y)
10 x=2.781or0.719 11 x=l.883or-Q.I33
29 (3x+4y)(2x+y) 30 (7pq - 2)2 31 n ot possible
12 x=0.804or-1.554 13 x=0.804or -1.554
32 2(x+ 1)' 33 (x+ 2)(x+ 1) 34 3(x+ 5)(x -1)
35 not possible 36 not possible 14 x=0.724or0.276 15 x=7.873or0. 127
37 not possible
38 2(x-2)2 39 3(x-2)(x+ 1) 40 2(x'- 3x+ 4) 16 x=3.303or-D.303
41 3(x- 4) (x+ 2) 42 (x-6)(x+2) 43 not possible Exercise 6
44 4(x-5)(x+5) 45 5(x'- 5) 46 not possible 5
47 not possible 1 4 2 3
48 not possible 3
4 2
Exercise 3 4 -3 5 - 6 5
3
1 x=-2orx=-3 2 x=2or x=-3 3 x=3orx= -2 7 real and different 8 not real
4 x = -2 or x = -4 5 x=1 or x=3 6 x=
1 orx= -3 9 real a nd different 10 real and equal 11 real and different
I
7 x=-1orx=-.!_ 8 x=2or x=- 9 x= I orx=-5 12 real and equa l 13 real and different
2 4 14 not real 15 real and different
10 x=8orx=-9 11 -1 , 3 12 1, 4
16 real and equal 17 k=± l2
13 1, 5 14 2,-5 15 -2,7
9
16 2, 7 17 x=2 or x=5 18 x=3orx=-5 18 a=4 19 p = 2 22 q'=4p
1
19 x=4orx=-1 20 x=3 or x=4 21 x=- orx=-1
3 1 Exercise 7
22 x=-1or x=-6 23 x=Oorx=2 24 x= -1 orx=--
25 x=-32 or x=-1 26 x =Oorx=-.!:. 27 x=Oorx= - 6

4
~ 2 X=-1,y=3 3 x=2,y=3
2 [ZEEJ
28 x= Oorx= IO
31 x=2orx=-i
34 x=Oor x=2
3
29 x=Oor x=-z
32 x=2orx =-1
35 x=3orx=-1
I
30 x=5 or x=-4
33 x=Oorx= l
36 x=-1orx= .!:.
2
400 X
y
-1
4
2
I
5tffitB l l ~ l-2 1
X
y -3
2 -2
2 y -2 5
Answer •
' ffiffij 8
tffi1E 4
9 X= l ,y = S Review
3(x-1)(x -2) 2 4(x-3)(x+3) 3 - 1,6
I
4 3±Ji4 5 ±(-3±Ji7) 6 ~(-2±v'l9)
10 ~ 11 X=-, y =-1
2 12 f f· i :1B ]
0j 7 x=4,y=5orx=-22,y=31
8 x=2,y=5orx = 4,y=9
ITS y 3
I 2
3 2
9 5,3 a rational b it facto rises
1 I
13 X=-1,y=-z 14 x= l,y=-3 15 I 2 10 a not real b real and different
X 3 3 c real and equal d real and different
I
y .!. 11 4,-1
2 4
1 Assessment
16 X= l,y=z
17 ~ X
18 0 -4
I0 b p =6 or2 c x 2 -4x+4=0;x2 = 0
~ y -2 3
2 a (x-~)·- 33 . a=-~,b=- 33
2 4 ' 2 4
19 tffi1]j b
3±J33
x=---
2
3 a (x -~) +~· a =-~,b=~

2
2
4' 2 4
21 ~ 22
R
I
X - 1 7-
2
b Is not a real number.
[2EGJ y 2
7
5
4 x= - 6,y = l7;x=2,y=1 5 a 9 7 I (x-3)2 +2
3 Algebraic Division
Exercise 1 7 (2x-1)(x 2 ;+-x+5); a=2, b =-1, p = 1, q=1, r = 5
1 quotient 2x+ 1, remainder -5 8 b=3,c=-6 9 5
2 quotient x- 2, remainder 6 10 p = 11, q=-5 12 a = l, b= 2, c = - 1
3 quotient 2i' + x+ 1, remainder 0 Revi ew
4 quotient2i' + 3x+6, remainder 14
2x+7, 18 2 3x2 - 5x+4; -7
43 2
Exercise 2 3 3x-14--- 4 x 2 - 3x-3 2·x2 -3x -3 + - -
x+3 ' ' x-I
3 2 18 3 47 5 -7 6 yes, whenx= I then x'- 2x2 + 1 =0
35 16 7 (x -3)(x - 1) 2 8 (x - !)(x+ 1)(2x - 1) 9 -6
4 5 6 a'-2a2 + 6
16 27
Assessment
7 c> -ac + b 8 _!_ - ~+ I 9 -7 1 x•-3x+2+--
1
2 b (x + 1)2 (x- l)
a• a x- I
Exercise 3 a = !,b =-3,c=2,d= l
3a -4 c (x-3)(x 2 +1)
1 yes 2 no 3 neither are
4 a a = 4, b = 1 b (x - I)(x+2)(x+3)
5 a (x- I )(x+ l)(x+2) b (x-2)(i'+x+ I)
5 a 5 b x = 2or3
c (2x - 1)(i'+ 1)
6 a II (x+ 3)(x- l)(x+ 5) b 35
6 20
7 a I 36 Ill (x+ 2)(i'- 5x+ 10) lv -2
4 Functions and Graphs

Exercise 1
II
1 a b 3 c 4
4
2 a y
~b
d e
• Answer
3 a b Exercise 2
u ~
2 a 9 - (x+2)2 b (-2, 9)
c f(x )
15
'W
d y
-8 4 X
X
3 a (x- 1)(x' +x+ 1) b J(x)
0 _!_
3 X
2
e
4 y
X
*- 4 a (x+ 1)2(x - 2) b J(x)
X
3 X
5 J(x)
6 6 a J(x) b 1
-3 -2
-3 -2 - 1 0 3 X
-6 - 10
6 f(x) 7 a (3, -6) b
6
4
-4
-6
7 f(x)
- 12
X
9 a r+ (l 2 - p)x+25=0 b 2,22
Answer •
Exercis e 3 2 a (x+ l)(x'-x+ I) b y
7
X<- 2 X> 4 3 X> -3
2 I
4 X>-2 5 X< - - 6 X<-3
2
1 8 3
7 X< - - 8 X>- 9 X>-
4 3 8 3 X
10 x > 2and x<1 11 x ?: 5andx:5 -3 12 - 4 <x<2
13 X~ .!. and X :5 - I 14 x >2+J7 andx<2-J7
2
18
I I
15 --<X<-
2 2
x~~and x:5-5
2
16 -4 :5 x :5 2
19 x> 4 andx<-2
17 x>landx <-~
5 3 b (- 4,3)and
4 a x'-x'+x - 1 = 0
cz'z15)
b x= l
20 ~( -3 - Jf7) :5 X :5 ~(-3 + Jf7) 21 x>7andx <-l 6 a X-
2
c x<-2and x>3
2 3
22 k< 49 23 -4 2 d --<X<- e -Jl3 <x < Jl3 f x<-1 an dx > 7
12 3 2
25 true for all real values of a
7 a one way stretch parallel to they-axis by scale factor 2
b one way stretch parallel to the x-axis by scale factor 2
Exercise 4
c translation [ -~] d reflection in the x-axis
X X 2x+ l
8 a b c
l +x 3 -X x+ J
Assessment
-:l +(x+~)
7
I a b x =--
2
c ( _'!__
2'
-~)
4 d
y
I 8
2 a one way stretch by scale factor 2 parallel to they-axis
2 b (0, 0)
b one way stretch by scale factor 3 parallel to they-axis
3 y = 3•-•-5 4 y = 2(3<+>- 5) 5 y=5+.J2x-7
c translation by[~]
I 3 c (0, 2) when k = 2,
6 a one way stretch by scale factor 2 parallel to they-axis OR one
and (I, 3) when k=3
way stretch scale factor 2 parallel to x-axis
4 a x(x+ l)(x- I) e h-.!.
b one way stretch by scale fac tor 2 parallel to they-axis OR one 2
way stretch scale fa ctor 2_ parallel to x-axis 5 a 2.J2x' - I b -.J2x' - l
2
c translation [ -~] d translation[~] 6 a ( x+%) ' -+

2 b I ( - 1.5, -0_25) II X=-1.5
7 2_.Jl6-x' 8
2 l +x c y = x'-x+4 - 12
9 one way stretch by scale factor 2 parallel to the x-axis
7 a I 2( x+ 3)' + l II 0.5
10
.Jx' +2x+6
+5 2 2
x+ l
b II 2_J[O
Review 2
1 a least value.!._!_ where x = ~ b least value ~ where x = '!__
4 2 8 4
c least value - 9 where x = - 2
Exercise 1 3 a ~. (~, 1) b vrs,(-~. -~) c 2J2,(- 2,-3)
Jl3
1 a 5 b J2 c
4 J65 5 Jl3 6 (2, - 4) 8 b (-~, ~~)
2 a (%,4) b
(%·~) c (3,~) 9 a .J5(2+J2) b (o, ~) c 2.!. 11 (- 5, -3)
2
• Answer
Exerc ise 2 2 a 3x-2y+2=0 b 3x- 2y+ 7 = 0 c x=3
3 3 a, cand d 4 x+y-7=0
1 a 3 b c
2 3 5 a x+2y-5=0 b 16x-6y+ 19=0 c 10x- l6y+23 = 0
3 6 2x+y=O 7 4x+5y=O 8 5x-4y=O
d e -4 6
4 9 x+2y- ll =O 10 3x-4y+ 19 = 0
3
g - -37 h
2
k
h Exercise 5
2 a yes b no cyes d yes
3 a parallel
d neither
b
e
perpendicular
parallel
c perpendicular 2 ~sq. units 3 (-i, 11
3
}(-5,0),(6, 0) 4 10x-26y - 1 = 0
Exerc ise 3
1
5 x+3y - ll=O,c:. : ) 6 [~(2+2a - b),~(8 -2a+b)]
1 a y =2x b x+y=O c 3y=x 7 y= 2x - 3 8 8by - 2ax+ 81f + 3a' =0
d 4y+x=O e y=O
2 a 2y =x+2 b 3y+2x=O c y=4x 9 (~~)and(-~
10'10
26).(-27 _ _!_)or(36,J!..) (27,-~)
10 ' 10 10' 10 10 10' 10 10
y
10 (1 , 2), (5, 2), (3, 6)
6
4
•
Review
2
I c 2 d 3 b 4 a
2
-2 O • 2
-2
4 6 X 5 a
3
b 2y - 3x=8
c (-~ ~)
13' 13
-4 6 a 9x+ l 3y+14=0 7
6
-6
3 a y= 1 b y+2x-6 = 0 c y=2x +5 Assessment
4 a 2y+x = O b 2x-3y=O c 2x+y= O 2
a -- b 2x + 3y-3=0 c 3x - 2y - 11=0
5 a x - 3y+ 1 =0 b 2x+y-5=0 3
6
7
a 5x-y- 17 = 0
3x+4y-48=0,5
b x+7y+11=0
y 2 a · 9x+l3y+14=0 b
3
4' - 3
4
c G·-f)
3 a ( -~, 0} (o, - 2) b ~square units c y=3x
( -~, ; )
1
4 a p= 3 b 3 c d x+3y-4=0
5 a p= l3 b
7 9)
(13'13 c
32$
- - -
13
7
6 a b I 7x+3y=2 II (4, -5) c (- 2,9)
3
7
7 a I -4 II 7x+4y= I
Exercise 4 3 4
b I (I, - 1.5) II y+-=-(x-1) c 1-~
1 a y=3x-3 b 5x+y - 6=0 c x-4y-4=0 2 7 ' 5
d y=5 e 2x+5y-21 = 0 f 30x+80y- 277 = 0
6 Differentiation
Exercise 1
4 .!. 3 _2 3 ..2. 3 .!. I ..2. 1 2
1 5X' 2 -3x-" 3 -X' 4 7 - - X '1 - - X 4 + 1 8 9x"-8x+9 9 -x>- -X 2 - - X 2
3 x' 4 4 2 2 2
2 3 1 2 1 3,JX -2 3 -1 2
5 lOt' 6 7 -JX 8 - -X 2
x' 2 2 10 - -+- - II - + - 12 - - + -
2,JX 2 x' x' 2 # x'
4 1 2. 1 2
9 10 - X' II --X •I 12
x' 3 4 - 1 2 9 .!. 1 -"- 1 ....:! 12 3x'
13 - x ' +-x' 14 -x•--x > 15 - - + -
-7 ) ..2. 2 2 4 5 x• 4
13 '!. . ,JX> 14 15 -X 7 16 3x"
2 x' 7 4 10 18 _3__ 3
16 - - - - + - 17 18 1 + 2.r' - 9.r4
x' x' x ·• 2,JX
Exercise 2
1 I 3 5 - 3,JX 3,JX
3x'-2x+5 2 6x+_i_ 3 2,JX- 2x,JX 19 -JX --x,JX 20 - - +- -
x' 2 2 2x3 2
5
4 8~"'- Bx 5 3x"- 4x - 8 6 2x+--
2,JX
Answer
(1, 1) max 2 (- l , - 2)min;(l,2)max
dy =2x+2 2 dz = -4x_, + x-• 3 dy =6x+ 11
dx dx dx
3 (3, 6) min; (-3, -6) max 4 (0, 0) max; ( -10 ,- -500) rrun
.
ds 3 ds 1 3 27
4 dy = 2z- 8 5 -=-- 6 -=-
dz dt 2t' dt 2
5 (O,O)min 6 (!• %)min
7 dy = 1 - _!_ dy 5z' - 1 dy
8 dx =zrz 9 - = 18x' - 8 7 (- 1, 1) max; (0, 0) min; (1, 1) max
dx x' dx
dy 3!X+28 9 ( -5 - -49) mm
.
11 ds = 1_2_
10 ds =2l 8 (O, O)min
12 4' 8
dt dt t' dx 2x3
10 (- 1,4)max; (l , - 4)min 11 (-2,-16)min; (O,O)max; (2, -16)min
12 (-2, 8) mln; (2, 8) min 13 (- 1, -2) max; (1, 2) min
Exercise 4
2· - .!. 3 .!.. -4 4 6·-!.. 14 ( ~· 141 ) min 15 ( -~, - 1~ )min, (0, 0) max, (1,-2) mln
' 2 4' ' 6
1 1 16 5X' + 3r + 4 = 0 has no real roots so there is no stationary point
5 1;-1 7 11; - 11 8 - 11; -
11
Exercise 8
9 4 • _.!_ 5 4 12 2· _.!_
' 4
11 4;-5 ' 2 a 80 -2x c 800 m2; 20 m x 40 m
4
13 (2, 2) and (- 2, 4) 14 (I 0) and(-.!.
' 3' 27
_i.) 2 a
x'
c 2mx2m x lm
3 a r =,/9 - h' c 12tr./3 cm 3

15 (3,0)and(- 3, 18) 16 (- 1, - 2) and (1, 2) 4 a 10 - x b x(IO - x),5cm
5 ,f35 em (a square) 6 a = l ,b = -2,c = 3
17 (1, - 16) 18 ( - 2, ~) 19 (0, -5) 20 (1, -2) and (-1, 2)
Review
Exercise 5 1 _.!. 1 -~ 2 6
1 a -3x - 4-3r b -x ' +-x ' c -- --
2 2 3
X x'
1 a y =2x- 5 b 2y+x+5 = 0
2 a y = 4x - 2 b 4y+x+B =O dy 3 .!. 2 ...!. I ..!
2 a -=-x• - -x 3 - - x 3
3 a y+x+2 =0 b y =x dx 2 3 3
4 a y =5 b x= O
3 I
5 a y+x=3 b y =x- 1 c - - , +- -.
6 a y = 19x +26 b I9y+x+230 = 0 4x< 4x<
7 4y+x+ 12= 0 8 y =7x - 29 3 a 5 b 5 c 17
9 y+x=l,2y= 2x-3; (~.-~) 10 4y -x+ I = 0, 4y+x - 5 = 0 4 a 5 b 6
b 7and - 7
5 a
11 y= 5x - l, 3y+ 9x+ 19 = 0 12 y=7x-4,y +5x +28 = 0
6 a (1, 10) and (- 1, 6) '!_)
b (.!. 7 and ( _.!_ a'!:..)
13 (2,8),y = Bx- 8 14 (i. - ~) 15 y +x+ 1=0 3' 9 3' 9
7 2y = x - l{ -~2 ' -~)
4
8 y = 3x+6,y= 3x+2
16 2y = x+2 17 k =-7_ 18 By+ 121 = 0
2 9 x+2y+9 =0 10 (- 2, 16) max, (2, - 16) mln
19 (1 , - 1) 20 p= 12,q = 8;(-2, 4)
11 min (I, 2), max (-1, -2) 12 a 5-x
1
Exercise 6 13 a h =- (7 - 2r - trr)
2
1 x =O 2 X=~ 8
3 x =O,x=- Assessment
4 3
d'
4 b 4 c maximum, since 2 < 0
5 x =O, x =- 6 x =±I dx'
3
4 2 a 4x3 - 6x'+3 b 12x'- 12x c y =x - 6
7 X=4 8 x =±3 9 x = 1,x = - -
3 3 32
3 a 4 a c 4mx4 m x2 m
10 x = ±~./3 11 x= !, x=-4 12 x =±'!:..J3 2 x'
9 3 5 a 10 - x c 12.5cm2
13 (3, 3), (-3, -3) 14 (1, - 7), ( !.. _ 185 )
3' 27
15 (~. - ~5 ) 6 a I 5X'-6x+ I II 20x' -6 b y= 12(x+ 1)
16 (i· ~2-13) 17 (1,2) 18 (4, 10),(-4,6) 7 a

l3
--2l
2
b I -1.!_
2
II dy < o so decreasing
dt
c I 4 II m inimum
• Answer
7 Integration
Exercise 1 15 y a -2 b 2 c 0
4 ~
~.\.s +K 2 -~x.... +K 3 -x•+K
6 4 5
X
2 2
-~x-' +K
I
4 5 - - X ' +K 6 2x2 +K
2 3
7 ~x' +K 3 !
8 -XJ+K 9 x+~x'+K
2 2 3 6 16 4
16 a - b 17 18 19 I 20 4,/3
2 !
10 x'- -x• +K 11 x-~+K 12 ~x' +~x' +K 3 3 6 3 3
3 X 2 3
15 ---+~+K 1
2x' x Exerc ise 4

I 22 2 1.39 3 16 4 10.5 5 25.2 6 0.512
17 x-x' +~x'+ K
3
Review
18 ~x'- 2.x''+K 19 _2_+.2.._+K 20 y =x'-x' +1 3 !
2 4 X ,jX 2 -x >+ K
4
2 ! 13 2 ~ .!.
21 y =JX' - 22 y =-x• -6x• +2 23 y=x3 - x 2 +3x + 2 2 ! .!. 2 1 .!.
3 3 3 - x• +2x • +K =- JX(x+3)+K 4 -x'- 2x• +K
3 3 2
2 ~
~ x' +~+K
.!.
Exercise 2 5 6 - x • - 2x• +K 7 9
2 X 5
4
2
2 -(6,fi - I)
2
3 26- 4 12~ 5 15
7 3 3
8
297
9
135
10 ~
6 -2 7 2~ 8 s,fi - 4 9
10 4 4
3
ll 10~ 12
I
-6
3
Exercise 3 13 a 4 square units b -4~
2
Answers a.r e In squ are u nits.
I 2
5- 2 12- 3 2~ 4 1 3~ Assessment
3 3 3 2
I b x + ~-2_ + K c -
5
1 I 7 X x' 8
5 5- 6 60 7 5- 8 4-
3 3 8
34
2 a
3
b -223
4 1
9 24 10 - 11 15- 12 -1
3 4 2 ! .!. 13
3 3 a 2x + 5y- 13 = 0 b y=-x• -2x• +x- -
3 3
13 ~
a
4
b
4
4 a 27 ~ b 27~
2 2
c a is exact b ecause the area under the line is that of a trapezium.
5 a stre tch by a factor of 2 parallel to the x-axis
y~
a 4 b 4
14 \ . b ~(5,fi +6) =7.54 (3 significant figures)
~
6 6 II 2
7 a 6.43 b in crease the number of strips
Answer ..
8 Sequences and Series
I a 32,211 b c 48,3(-2)" - 1
l a 1 .!_ .!_ ..!._ _..!_ _..!_ convergent a·~
'4 '9'16'25 '36
b - 2, 4, - 8, 16, -32, 64 divergent
1
d 2,(- 1)•-l 2
cr· 1
e 27 ' cr·
3
1 1 1 I I 1
c - - - -- - - - - c onvergent
2' 4' 8' 16 ' 32' 64
2 a 3, 0.57, 0.73, 0.70, 0.71, 0.71
2 a 189
781
b -255
341
c 2- -
2cr
b - 4,-10,-88, -7654,-5.9 X 107, -3.4 X 1015 d e
c 0.5, 1.2, 0.88, 1.1, 0.97, 1.0 125 1024
d 1, 0.8, 0.87, 0.85, 0.86, 0.85 1 1
3 .!.2 4 5 - 2,1024 6 13.21 to 4 s.f.
3 a Undefined after u,, divergent b divergent 2' 2
c divergent
4 a converges (to 0.4) b converges (to 0.4) x - xn+l x(1 - :. ) 1+(-1)'"1 y•
c converges (to 0.4) 7 a b c
1-x ) -.!_ l +y
X
Exercise 2 d
x(2" -x•)
e
x(2" -x" )
5 10
3
2"-1 (2-x) 2"-1 (2 -x)
1 a I,11 b I ,z11
8 62 or 122 9 8.493 to 4 s.f.
•• I
c
I.
n• l
-
11+1
Exercise 5
1 a yes b no c yes
• d yes e no f yes
e I , (-7+311) 1 1
n• l 2 a - I <X 1 C - -<X<-
2 2
2 a 1+.!_+.!_+ ... b 0+2 + 6+ .. ·+20 d 0 <x< 2 e -1-a<x< 1-a x < - (1 +a), x > 1 -a
2 3 1 5 9
3 a 6 c 13- d
1 4 5 22 1 1 1 3 9 4
c 2+15+ 28 ... + 861 d -+-+-" ·
2 5 10 1
4 - 5 8, 4, 2, 1 or 24,-12, 6, -3
e 6+ 24+72 · .. +720 -a-a'+ a' ... 2
3 a 8;9 b 13; 8
Exercise 6
1
C 462 ;oo 1 a 1 + 36x + 594x" + 5 940x'
b I - I 8x+ 144x'- 672x'
e - 48; 23 f 4; 10 c I 024 + 5 120x+ 11520x" + 15 360x'
d 1 _ 20 x+ 190 x' _ 380 x'
Exercise 3 3 9 9
a 9, 211 - 1 b 16, 4(11 - 1) c 15,311 e 128 - 672x+ 1512x" -1 890x'
d 17,3n +2 e -2, 8 -211 f p + 4q,p + (n - 1)q f 19683 + 59049 x + 19683 x' + 15309 x'
g 18, 8+ 211 h 17,411 - 3 o, 1 (5 - n) 512 128 8 2
2
J 8,311 - 7 2 a 336x' b - lOx c -21840x"
2 a 100 b 180 c 165 d 3360p"q'1 e 34992a' b 7920.l'1
d 185 e - 30 f 5(2p+9q) g 63x" h 56a'li'
5 3 a 1 - 8x+27x" b I + I9x+ 160x" c 2 - 19x+ 85x"
g 190 h 190 d 1 - 68x+2136x"
2
J 95 4 a x 5 +5x'1y + 10x'y' + 10x'y' + 5xy' + y•
3 a= 27.2, d = - 2.4 4 d =3; 30 .!. o·-.!.2.
5 1'2 b 32 + 80(0.01) + 80(0.01)' + 40(0.01 )3 + 10(0.01) 4 + (0.01)5
' , 2
c 32.8080401001
6 a 28.!_ b 80 c 400
2
Review
d 80 e 108 f 3n(1 - 611)
1 23456
g 40 h 2m (m +3) - - - - - -converges to 0
2 '5 ' 10' 17 '26 '37
7 4, 211 -4 9 2, 364 10 39 2 a 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 con verges to 0
11 64 12 a 1, 4 b 270 b 0.5, --Q.25, 0.3125, -{).215, 0.261, --Q.1 93 converges (slowly to 0)
13 a a =21,d=-3 b less than 4 or more than 11
3 a cycles 2, - 1, -1 b undefin ed for r > 1
2
• Answer
2 Assessment
4 - 5 ..!:.c1 + 3") == ss574
3 2 1 a 1 + 15x + 90x" + 270x' + 405x' + 243-~..s
6 ab' (l - b' )" 7 2(n+5)(n -4) b 1 - 15x + 90x' - 270x' + 405x' - 243x"
l -b' 2 a r==±2 b a== ±3
3 a A== -0.5, 8 == 5.5 b 11
8 1 9 2.5or -1
4 a 4, 2, 6, - 2
4n
5 a a== 1, b= - 2n ,c= 2n(n-l), d = - (n - 1)(n -2) b 0.88584
10 I, 7, 19,37;3n2 - 3n + 1 11 16 .!!. 3
'3
6 a 3 b 39
12 I 13 a==2±J2, r = ~(2 ±J2) 7 a I 8 + 12y+6y'+y' II 16+ 12y-'
3
14 l + l 8x+ 144x', 5 12x" 15 512 - 6g12x+ 41472.x2 -145 152x' b I 16x - 4x- + c II 19.5
9 Coordinate Geometry and Circles

Exercise 1 Review
1 a r+y' - 2x- 4y = 4 b .x" +y' - 8y+ 15 = 0 1 a == b = l ,f= g = O, c ==-g
c r + y'+6x+ 14y+54= 0 d r+y'- 8x- 10y+32 = 0 2 a not a circle, the coefficie nts of x> a ndy' are n ot equal
b not a circle, the coefficie nts of x> a ndy' are n ot equal
2 a (-4, 1); 5 b ( - ..!:.
2'
-~). 3 J2
2 ' 2
c acircle,centre (- 1, !)radius l
d not a circle, the radius is not a real number
c (- 3, 0) ; .Jl4 d (~ _ ..!:.) . J5 3 a (1,2) b (x - 1)' + (y - 2) 2 == 100
4' 2 ' 4
4 a (2, 4), 2$ 5 a $3, (- 1,3)
e (0,0); 2 f (2, - 3); 3
b (x-4)' +(y-3)'= 8
6 a (x-4)' +(y + 3)' = 25
c (x - 2) 2 + (y -7)2 =29 d x' +(y - 3)' =g
g (1, 3); 3 h (-1 ..!:.).
'2 '
J69
6
7 a (4- J2l, o) and (4 + J2l, o) b 2y==J2l(x - 4) + 21
3 aandf 4 (- 2, 0) and (6, 0) 8 3x+2y - 3== 0
5 a (0, 2) b ( 254'2: ) Assessment

1 a (x - 3) 2 + (y+ 1) 2 = 100 b $1 -1,-$1 - 1
Exerci se 2
c 3x + 2y - 7= 0
1 (x - l)' +(y - 4)2 = 100 2 r +y' -1 2x - 4y+ 4 = 0 3
(
-o3) 2 a (I, 3), ,Jl7 b 7, - 1
3 a (x - 5)' +(y- 3)' = 25 c 3x- 4y+35= 0
Exercise 3 6
4 a (2, - 3), 5 b 7 c
1 a (x - 5)' +(y - 3)2 =25 2 (4,4) 6 7
3 a' +b' - 9a - b + 14 = 0 1
5 a ( 3, : ) b ..!:.J53
4 a (-~ -
29 2
) b 10.8 un its to 3 s.f.
18 ' 6
c (x - 3) +
2 (
y- 17 ) ' == 53 d 2x +7y - g2 = 0
2 4
Exercise 4 6 a (x+ 1) 2 + (y-3) 2 ==50 b I C(-1, 3) 11 5,J2
1 a 2x+y == O b (-i ~)
5'5
2 x+y- 14= 0 c - 2,8
7 a (x - 3)' +(y+8)' == 100
d 7
b (-3, g)
3 a 3y+ 4x=23 b 4y==x+ 22 c 3y=2x+25 c 2x+2y+34 = 0 d II - 3 ±,Jil
4 x+2y== O 5 3y+x = 11 6 y= 2x-7
10 Trigonometry
Exercise 1
12 5 3 3
1 sin A=13• cos A =13 2 tan x=
4 , sin X=s 10 52°
13 57°
11 150°
14 goo
12 ggo
15 ago
9 40 I 5
3 cosP = 4I• tanP =9 4 sin A = J2 == cos A 16 17 53° or 127° 18 150°
13
I I
6 cos A ==~J:i'; 30°
5 sin Y=3JS, tan Y= 2 JS 19 a yes, 90° b yes, 0 c no
20 A+8= 180° 21
J2 22 45°, 135°
24
7 cos X == 2
25
Answer
Exercise 2 Review
24
ll.lcm 2 10.2 em 3 156cm I a 116° 2
4 113 em 5 7.01 em 6 141 em 25
3 a s./39 b s./39
7 16.3cm 8 no; you do not know any angles in the triangle
39 39
9 18° IO 58° or 122° 11 17°
I2 35° I3 57° or 123° 14 30° ,fi ,fi 5
Exercise 3
4 a
z-·-z- b 3Ji3
13' 13
5
13
6 9.05cm 7 4.82 8 83.3°
5.29cm 2 12.9cm 3 53.9 em 4 4.04 em 9 54. 1°, 125.9° IO 22°,50°, 108° I2 75.8 e m '
5 101 em 6 12.0cm 7 64.0cm 8 31.8 e m I
9 38° IO 55° I3 a
II 45° I2 94° 2
I3 a 18° b 126° 14 29° b yes, the triangles where two adjacent sides are each 6 em and
I5 a 11.4 em b 68° the included angle is either 30° or 150° both have the same
area of9 em'
Exercise 4
I b=87.4 em 2 B=30.4°;c=23.8cm Assessment
3 c= 17.5cm 4 B= 81.0°;a= ll 2cm 1 a gao b 19.8cm2 c 3.96cm
5 a= l64 cm ;c=272cm 6 B=34°; a =37.0 cm 2 a 6.4cm b 15.9cm c 11.6°
7 40.5°, 53.0°, 86.5°
3 a ( ~3' ~) (~ o)
3 ' 2' c
25
12 .
square umts
Exercise 5
12 300cm' 2 2 190 em ' 3 1680 cm' 4 a 364m b 201m c 477m
4 453 square units 5 42.9 square units 6 51.0°, 21.0 em' 5 a 889 m b 196000 m' c 785m
7 10.6 em, 59.8 em' 8 52.4°, ! 51 em 9 5.25 em 6 a 15.6 cm b 13.7 em
IO h =csinA 7 b 25. 16m C ll.5°
11 Trigonometric Functions and Equations

Exercise 1 6
25
em 7 4JC cm 8 60 em 9 360o IO 146.4°
Tr b 5Tr Tr Tr 1( Tr Tr
1 a c 6 d 2
4 6
3Tr 2Tr Tr Tr Exercise 3
e g 3 h 8 Tr
2 3 4.19 cm 2 2 75.4 em' 3 2 4 0.96 r ad
4Tr 51r 7Tr 3Tr
3 k 4 125Tr 15 225
3 4 5 - - em' 6 -cm, - cm 2 7 Gem 8 23.1 e m
7Tr 51r 3 Tr 2Tr
m n
6 4 9 Scm IO 0.288 rad 11 a 12em 2 b 23.2cm2
2 a 30° b 180° I2 14.5 mm 2, 139 mm 2 I3 a 15.2cm b 32.5cm 2
e 150° f !5°
I 20° I 270° Exercise 4
m 108° n 22.5°
3 a 0.61 b 0.82 c 1.62 d 4.07
LJ3 2 0 3 -~,/3 4
2 2 2
e 0.25
4 a 97.4°
f 2.04
b 190.2°
g 6.46
c 57.3° d 11 9.7° 5~· s;. 9; 1 5
6 - 2Tr, - 2Tr 7 sin 55° 8 - sin 7 0°
e 286.5° 360.0°
5 a 0.8660 b 0.5 c 0 d 0.5 9 -sin60° IO - sin~
6
e 1 f 0 g h -1
II 12
I -1 I -o.s
1( 51r Tr 5n lC 5Tr
6 a 0, 2rr
b 4'4 c 6'6 d 3'3
3Tr Tr 3Tr 7Tr
e - f Tr g 2 11
2 4 '4
7Tr llrr Tr 3Tr 5Tr 7Tr
0, Tr, 2Tr
6'6 k 2 '2 4'4
7 a 0.932 b 0.939 c 9.89 d - 0.801 I3 y I4
8 a 0.284 b 0.929 c 0.644 d 0.0226 1
Exercise 2
2Tr 15
- em 2 ZSrr em 3 2.4 rad 4 0.692 rad 5 - em
3 2 Tr -I
0 Answer
- 21r 21r Review
12 - l r , -, 0,-,lr 13 ±0.723 rad
3 3 e 2 d 3 d
1 1
15 -If _!.If
3
0 !.If Jr
'3 16 - Jr - - If 1 0 1 - I f 1r
6 6 I 4 sin/3 = ± J3, tan/3 = ±J3 5
71r 51r
I I I I
2 12'-12
6 ±70.5°, ± 180°, 0° 7 30 8 -90°,30°, 150°
Exercise 8
75° 2 165° 3 none Assessment
4 135° 5 none 6 60° 1 a 30°, 150° e 76°, 108°, 256°, 288°
21r 1r 2 a 8.38em b 16.8 em 2 e 8 em d ll.Oem2
7 8 3 9
3 4 1
10 -
1r
II
3 b 2 r(20 - 2r) b 0, 1r
12 12 _!
5 a sinx=l 6 a 0.8 b 10 em2
' 5
12 Exponentials and Logarithms

Exerc ise 1 13 logqp =2 14 log,2= y 15 logP r = q
I 1 I 1 16 105 = 100 000 17 43 =64 18 10' = 10
1 a 16, 8, 4, 2, l , -, - , - , -
2 4 8 16
19 22 = 4 20 25 =32 21 10' = 1000
Y. 22 5°= I 23 32 =9 24 42 = 16
I
25 33 =27 26 362=6 27 tf= l
28 r=y 29 ab=5 30 p' =q
31 2 32 6 33 6
34 4 35 2 36 3
l
37 - 38 -2 39 -1
2
1
40 - 41 0 42
2
1 1
2 4 X 43 - 44 0 45 - 46 3
r
3 3
47 a 0.477 b 0.380 e -0.697 d 1.24
b y=( ~ is the reneelion of y = 2' in they-axis. e 0.748 2.40
2 a Y. b Y. Exercise 3
logp+logq 2 logp+logq+ log r 3 logp - logq
4 log p+ log q -log r 5 logp-logq-log r 6 2 logp+logq
I
7 logq -2 logr 8 logp+-logq
2
I I
9 2 logp+ 3 log q - log r 10 - logq- -log r
2 2
3 X II nlog q 12 nlogp+ m log q
-3 -2 - 1 0 1 2
q
13 logpq 14 logp2q 15 log-;-
e d Y. p• pq 2
10 16 logq"p'' 17 log- 18 lo g -
q r'
8 19 log5+ logx 20 log5+ 2 logx
6 21 log 3+ log (x+ l) 22 logx - log (x+ 1)
4 23 log2+logx-log(x- 1) 24 logx+2 logy
2 25 log x+ log (x+4) 26 log(x+ l) + log(x - 1)
27 2log x+ log (x+ y) 28 2log a+ log x+ log (x- b)
-3 -2 - 1 0 1 2 3 X 1 2 3 X
log(~)
2
29 log2x 30 31 log( ~)
Exercise 2
log,0 000 = 3 I 2 log2 16 =4 3 log 10 10 000 = 4
32 log(- x)
(l -x) 2
33 log( :);~I) 34 log (;: )
4 log3 9 = 2 5 log4 16 = 2 6 log5 25 =2
1
7 log10 0.01 =-2 8 log,3= - 9 log5 1 =0 Exerci se 4
2 3
I 1 2 2 -2 3 - 4 1.63
10 log 2= - 11 log, 2 1 = 0 12 log 2=- 2
4 2 8 3
5 1.16 6 0.861 7 2.77 8
4
Answer
3
5
9 10 16 11 1, 4 12
2 2 a tog( ~) b 6.4 x to• 3x
3 a lo g -
3 2
b y=-=-
6
13 logx (%). ~.JS 14 15 log, ( ;, ).y= 3x'
1
16 y' -
'2 4 a log_-=._ b x=y' 5 b
y'
Review 5
6 a 1.39 b >: c
12
>: 2 a 7 b 2
10
c 0 d 5
8 3 a 3 loga - logb-2 logc
6 b nloga- Iogb
4 c loga+ logb - logc
-3 -2 - 1 0 3 X
1
d loga+2log(l +b)
a'
-3 -2 -1 0 2 3 X 4 a Iogb b - toga
[~5 ]
5 a log..=_ b loglOO(x+l) c logAx d logy
y 7 a y b translation by
6 3 7 2 8 ~10 9 2 c II 2.332
Assessment
1 a >: c 0.132
X
8 a b =a'
-2 2 4 X
13 Probability
Exercise 1 4 a 0.41 b 0.005 c 0.98
2 5 5 a 0.35 b 0.55 c 0.15 d 0.75
1 a b 1 c 3 d 2 e 6 7 1 5
2 6 a d
3 5 4 36 b 6 c 18 12
2 a b 8 c 0 d 5
8 7 a 0.2 b 0.7 c 0.3 d 0.5
3 a 0.3 b 0.75 8 a 0.8 b 0.2 9 a 0.6 b 0.3
1 I 3 7 10 a 0.4 b 0.9 c 0.5 11 a 0.75 b 0
4 a i 13 II Z iii 52 b 25 12 a 0.4 b 0.35 c 0.4 d 0
5 a i 0.4 II 0.5 b 0. 25 13 a No, P(A and B) ot- 0 b Yes; P(A and C) = 0
2 3 c No, P(B and C) ot- 0
6 a b 7 7 a 0.64 b 0.68
7
5 41 41 3 Exercise 3
8 a b d 5
7 140 c 140 1
I 3 1 3 3 1 a b 0 2 a 0.05 b 0.5 c 0.0625
9 a b 10 a 3
2 4 4 b 4 c 8 5 3 3 3
1 3 a 8 b 13 c 20 4 a 7 b 8
11 a i ii iii 0 iv 0 b 6, 12
36 12
7 43 13 7 118
5 a 41 b 82 c 25 d 20 e 241
Exercise 2
5 6 a 0.09 b 0.3 c 0.66
1 a b c d 6
2 2 6 7 a 0.28 b 0.56 c 0.98 d 0.02
11 9 19 9 21 10 39
2 a b 30 c 30 8 a 38 b 380 c 19 d 95
30
25
4 4 5 5 9
a 2704 b 16 c
3 a b d e 0 169
17 51 c 17 17
10 a i 0.821 ii 0.480 b 0.282
Answer G
Exercise 4 5 a c C' Total
1 5 II 1 f Full-time teacher 45 25 70
1 a I
36 II 18 Ill 36 lv 9 b 8 I Part-time teacher 12 18 30
3 15 37 Total 57 43 100
2 a 0.000625 b 0.04875 3 a b 16 c 64 I2
4
4 a 0.06 b 0.09 b I 0.12 II 0.25 Ill 0.82 lv 57
5 a I 0.36 II 0.06 Ill 0.81 c No,P(C)xP(F).,P(CandF) d Fand P; Cand C'
b I 0.162 II 0.108 c 0.07776
Review
Exercise 5 7 17
1 a b c
5 1 17 30 6 30
1 a 14 b 3 c 42 2 a 0.85 b 0.37 c 0.12
15 1 56 3 a no heads b fewer than 2 heads
2 a 38 b 2 3 a 0.65 b 65 4 a 0.375 b 0.16 37
4al_!!_ II~ b I~ II~ 5 a I 0.375 II 0.5 b64
27 27 21 21 3
5 a
1 3
6 a b 116
1
II~
6 a 0.75 b 0.35 c 7
3 b 11 4 8 14
7 0.591 8 a 23 b 0.226
27 9 5 27 1
c 1- II 64 lll 32 lv 32 d 256 9 a 0.976 b 0.385 10 0.710
64
5 4 37 3
7 a
3
8 a I 0.36 II 0.48 b O.OI024 11 a I 8 115 Ill 80 lv lO b 0.0642
10 b 3
18 12 a I 0.4 II 0.35 Ill 0.65 b 0.6I
9 a 0.364 b 0.086 c 43 13 a I 0.45 II 0.47 Ill 0.77 b O.I6875
47 14 I is more likely since p =0.518; for II p =0.491
10 a I 0.28 II 0.54 b 110
Assessment
Exercise 6 1 a b 0.25
I I' Total
1 a No, P(B)-¢ P(B IA) b 0.66 lw 0 .55 0.1 0.65
2
2 a 0.1 b P(A) x P(B)-¢ P(A and B) c 7 lw 0.1 5 0.2 0.35
Total 0.7 0.30 1
3 a A A'
c I Reasons include P(W and J) = 0.55 tc 0,
In 0.21 0.09 0.3
II Reasons include P(W) x P(J) = 0.455"" P(Wand f)
I B' 0.49 0.2I 0.7
0.7 0.3 I 0.2
2 a p - 0.3 b -- c 0 .7
p - 0.3
b I Yes, P(A) x P(B) = P(A and B)
3 a I 0.024 II 0.336 Ill 0.084 b I 0.18 II 0.22
II No, P(A and B) -¢ 0 II 0.345
4 a I 0.065 II 0.17 Ill 0.298 b I 0.655
Ill Yes, P(A ') x P(B) = P(A 'and B)
5 a 0.096 b 0.188 c 0.976
4 No, P(X' and Y' ) tc 0
6 a I 0.72 II O.I2 b I 0.504 II 0.328
14 Discrete Random Variables

Exercise 1 I If mode exists it must be 58 or greater than 60, so it would
not be representative
1 a 61 b 52 c 73 d 21
II The maximum value is unknown
2 a 28 b 207 c 22
II a 2562 b 2104.5 c 765.5
Exercise 2
3 a 3.05, 3.45 b 3.I2 c 3.321 d 50%
4 a I 5, 2 II 8.5, 1.80 Ill I8.8, 6.46 1 a O.I b 0.85 c 0.55 d 0.5
b 16.8, 6.46 5 11.52, 0.827 e 0.45 0.15
6 a 69 b 69.3 c 1.7 1 1
7 a 0.6 b 0.24 2 a I2 b 2 c 16
8 a I 63.87 II 29.47 b 133, 144 1 2
9 1.014, 0.0102 10 29,2.429 11 5.84, 203.7 3 a b 9 c 3
12 5.099 13 a 2.236 b 4.33
14 a 49.85 b 0.5275 15 3.838
16 a I850 c 74.72, 8.234 I I7 3
4 a 40 b 40 5 a 12 b U
17 a 61, 73, 83.6 b IBl, 21, 42.0
c I median; not affected by outlier 6 a b 0.2 c 0.6
X -1 0 1 3 4 5
II IQR; not unduly affected by outlier
18 a 39.35, I2.36 b 42,24 P(X= x) 0.1 O.I a a 0.3 O.I
c Reasons include
• Answer
7 b
b 0 1 2
8 a 1~ b I 4~ II 66~ Hi 16~
1 16 14 6 36 9 9
P(B =b) -
11
-33 -33 9 a 121, 144 b 58,36 c 6, 1 d - 80,64
10 2.5 11 a a= 1.5, b= -10 b 65
1 1
12 a 2 c 30
Exercise 5
Ill 0.352
1 a 64 b 155 c 7.68
2 a I 2.9, 0.89 il 0.6, 0.44 b 8.8, 3 .82
c I 3 il 2.2 3 a 6.5, 4.5 b 57
4 11, 2.5 5 100,4.47 6 a 80, 12 b 80,6
Exercise 3
7 a 72,24 b 72,9 .80
1 a 2.9 b 0.6 2 a 6.9 b 35.5
3 a 1.4 b 5.6 c 1.8 Review
12 a 26, 16
4 a b 11
X 0 1 2 b I No unique value
II 1\vo values are unknown, so s.d. cannot be calculated
P(X=x) -112 -11
6
-
3
c 26, 9.42
11 2 a c e 11
Die
s 1 2 3 4 6 12
5 a a+ b=0.5 b 10a+ 30b=7 2 3 6
1 1 1 1 1 1
c a=0.4, b =0. 1 d 16 1 63 H 2 4 6 12 P(S = s) -
r-----~--~-. 7 a b 1 8 4 8 8 4 8
6 c 32 Coin
32 T 2 3 6
3 a 0.1 b c 1.75 d 0.5 e 1.2875
13 4 a 1.47, 1.14 b 0.1 9 5 2.56
8 a 4.6 b 30 c 31 d 2 6 a 0.1 b 2, 1 c 0.4
7 a 3a+b= 0.9,5a+2b= 1.6,a=0.2,b=0.3 b 1.61
9 a 3 b 9.5 c 27.5 d 0.5
1
c 15.2 d 40.25
10 4 11 a 2.25, 1.1875 b II 33 8 a 1.3275 b I T=C+nX II c + l.85n, 1.3275n 2
9 a 0.25 b 10 10 a 8 b 32
Exercise 4
Assessment
1 a 5.8 b 3.36 2 a 4.2 b 7..!:.
3 a 3 a 70.4, 2.03 b 10.4, 2.03 2 a 50, 10.13 b 750, 101
0.1 b 0.34 c 0.982
3 a 0.09 b I a = 0.3, b = 0.1 Ill 5.2, 2.27
112221
4 a 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13; g'g'g'g'g'g b a.!. c 2.98 4 a II 2.35 lv 0.417 b 185, 124
3 c 1.875, 0.324
5 a 0.5
5 a 0.2 c 11.6 6 a I 25, 10 II 255 b 0.8844
49
6 b d 1.23 7 5.85 7 a 60 b 148 c 100,9.49 8 9, 3
99
15 Bernoulli and Binomial Distributions

7
1 0.36, 0.48 2 12' 0.493 3 a 0.2 b 0.499 a 0.8499 b 0.2793 c 0.0175 d 0.51 41 e 0.0918
I 2
2 a 0.9493 b 0.8730 c 0.8747 d 0.7984
4 a 3 b 9 5 0.2, 0.8 3 a 0.3668 b 0.0650 c 0. 1734 d 0.5332 e 0.9425
4 a 0.9845 b 0.7757 c 0.2063
Exercise 2 5 Random selection, 0.1827
6 a 0.3222 b 0.3020 c 0.2682 7 a 0.1172 b 0.0003
1 a 0.233 b 0.0368 c 0.00000590 d 0.0282
8 a 0.0081 b 0.9470 c 0.2669
2 a 0.0231 b 0.208 c 0.886 d 0.000381
3 a 0.102 b 0.143 c 0.000965 Exercise 4
4 a 0.583 b 0.157 5 a 0.1827 b 0.414
6 a 0.819 b 0.997 7 a 0.919 b 0.319 1 a 0.183 b 0.002 c 0.2001
8 a 0.193 b 0.00432 c 0.064 2 a 0.0789 b 0.8411 c 0.0251 d 0.1224
9 a 0.290 b 0.0188 c 0.159 d 0.745 3 0.1121 4 pis constant for each shot; 0.766
10 a 0.0425 b 0.167 5 a 0.914 b 0.974 c 0.0048
11 a 0.3125 b 0.5 c 0.1875 d 0.78125 6 a 0.6678 b I 0.1287 II 0.7608 iii 0.8162 iv 0.1723
12 a 0.0638 b 0.465 c 0.267 7 a I 0.2 173 II 0.0950 b 0.0405
8 a 0.1926 b 0.8041 c 0.9937
13
X 0 1 2 3 4
P(X=x) l{' 4p'q' 6p2q2 4p'q' p'
Answer
Exercise 5 6 a I 0.925 it 0.0011 iii 0.3535
b 0.0593
1 a 5.04 b 3.2256 c 1.80
c I 5, 1.43
2 0.180 3a 23 b 1.92
it means same, variances similar, claim appears valid
4 a 8 b 0.0467 c 1.30
7 a 0.086 b 4.2 c 25
5 a 5, 1.58 b I 0.0107 it 0.0107 c 0.0215
8 a 0.624 b 2.5 c 1.275
6 a 0.25 b 5, 1.94 c 0.561
9 a 0.0008 b I 0.720 it 0.186
7 a 0.0081 b 1.6 c 0.84
10 a I 0.1742 it 0.4325 iii 0.5003 b 4.8, 2.02
8 a 0.3 b 8 c 0.0100
9 a 9, 0.4 b 0.232 Assessment
10 a 0.1 b 0.354 c 6 d 25
1 a 0.247 b 0.144 2 a 4.05 b 1.49
11 a 0.13 b 2.6 c 2.1
12 a 0.216, 0.288 b 1.2, 0.72 c 1.2, 0.72
3 a 0.930 b 0.0109 c 0.000729
4 a 0.309 b 6 c 0.977
Review 5 a 0.086 b 6 6 a 0.207 b 0.499 c 22,4.14
7 a I 0.969 it 0.140 iii 0.891
a 0.0173 b 0.118 2 0.737
3 a 2.4 b 0.439 c 2.04 b J1 = 10, cr' = 8; means similar, variance much larger than
4 a 0.0749 b 9, 6.75 5 0.133 expected, doubt validity of claim
8 a I 0 .8725 II 0.0940 iii 0.338 b 60,52.8

Exercise 1
1 a, d and fare vectors; b, c, e, g and h are scalars 3 a
2 a I 2.3 m il 0 iii -1.2 m 8
b I 3.4m it 14m c 0.08 ms-•
6
Exercise 2 ~ 4
1/ '\
1 a Correct 8 2 1/I
E f\ l-
b Incorrect; the direction is changing all the time so velocity \ Tin e (s)
~ 0
not constant
c Incorrect; do not know whether the speed is constant
~-2 1\
2 a 1 ms-• b - 2 m s-• c 2 ms-• d - 0.5 ms-•
Q
-4 \
\
3 -4 ms-2 4 a - 2 ms-2 b -3 ms-2 -6
5 a 23 ms-• b -7 ms-• c 5 ms-•
b 2.5 s c - 5ms-• d I -1 ms-• it 3.08 ms-•
Exercise 3 4 a 1 s, 1.75 s, 2.5 s, 3 s, 3.5 s, 3.8 s
b I l ms-• it 0.8ms-• iii 0.7ms-•
1 a I 24 ms-• II 0 ms-• ill - 1.6 ms-•
c I - 1 ms-• it Oms-• ill Oms-• d -{).22 ms- 1
b I Oms-•
II Ball hits wall and its direction of motion reverses Exercise 4
c After 3 s
a 3 ms-2 1 ms-2 c I 152m it 400 m
b Ill 200 m;
2 the car moves in the same direction all the time.
6
60m
4 I•
J,....- T""'--- 2 24v- t r n
1/ !'.....
~
2
v ""
ime (s)
E
"'6
"'
u
0
-2 I--
--4 -
~
1\ ol±klt 30
c."' -6
! i\ 3 v ., a l=5 b 16m c 34m
"' ~I
Q
-8
I
.
\ 10
1"-...
~
I' 5
-10
It! 0
"'-r.. .
- 12
-5 ~
a I 2 ms-• it -2 ms-• IU Oms-• tv -4 ms-•
b I 2 ms-• it 2 m s-• Iii 2 ms-• lv 4 ms-• - 10 ~
c 4ms-• d 2s
• Answer
4 a I Accelerates at a reducing rate to zero acceleration 5 a v
ii Constant velocity Ill Accelerates at varying rate
b 185m; less, becau se trapeziums have smaller area than that
under the curve
1
5 a I after 82 s II after 20 s b 6 s, 15 s after starling v
c The girl stops accelerating and begins to slow down.
- 1
__ I-
- - ·-
6 a
c
3 ms-2
!350m
b v(m/s)
0
'L 1T 30 I
l 00 -l---.---.-T-"-.---,---,
d 42m
80
60 ~-~-4-+--~-+~
Assessment
1 a vms- 1 b 13.3 seconds c 7.75 s
40
20
20
10
200
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 1 (s)
0
0 I seconds
v 3
7 a b -s c 8.04 s
4 2 a 547.5 m b l 6.6ms-• 3 a 400 s b 1215m
4 a 36m b 1.8 ms· • c - 0.5 m s· '
3
\
t! 5 a y b 1=2 c 6ms-•
1- 20
\ 15 - t--
v
\
0
I t
IO
5
['...
L
I
2 .l
4
-5
0
- !""""
./
X
Review d I 2ms· • II 3.5 ms-•

I c 2 b 3 c 4 a 6 a 16m,B b l8 s 7 a 120m b 5. 7lms· '

Exercise 1
I 5 2 -1.2 3 6 4 60 I2 a 3 1..!. ms· ' b 27m I3 a 2.53 m s·• b 2.5 m s·•
5 2 6 -2 7 6 8 1.5
2
9 - 54 10 - 8 11 a 16m b 7m I4 a Bms-• b 5 ..!.m I5 2( I+ til)
3
I2 b 8.22s 13 97.2 m I 4 _...!.._ m s-2
30
I5 a 6.5ms· ' b -1.5 ms· 2
c 8.7 s I6 612 m Review
I a 14.1 ms· • b 1.02 s
Exercise 2 2 a 200 s, 5000m b !OOs, 2500m c 350 s = 6.83 minutes
I a 120m b l l m/s 2 a 3 1m b 5s 3 90.9 s
3 a 4.9 m b 20m c 25 m 4 a hA=20t - 4.91', hll =20(1- 2) - 4.9(1-2) 2 b 3.04 s
4 a !!.Om b I5m/s 5 a 3.2s b 31 m /s 5 a 26 ms-2 b 145m
6 50 m
8 a l.l s
7 28m/s
6 a a =-~ and this is negative for 1> 2, so the particle is
b 2.6 s; 18m/s in each case t
9 18m 10 a 11m b 2.6s decelerating. b 0.15m
11 a 5.6ms- • b 0.4 m I2 440 m
Exercise 3 Assessment
85 m s· • 2 50ms- 2 3 26 m s- 2 1 a 14.3 m s· • b 1.22 s
2 a 7.67 ms·• b 5.42 m s· ' c 1.11 s
4 82~m 5 17 ms· '; 12m 6 t = 2 and 4 3 a 9ms·2 b -3. 17 m 4 a 50 s b 0.16 ms-2
3
7 t = ~and..!.
5 a v =ft' -61 + 10 b I = 2 and t= 10 c 42.7 m
8 v= t'; s=..!.t" 9 292. m s· •; 47..!. m
3 3 3 3 3 6 a 40 s II 0.2ms-2
IO a l = ~s.t=2s b -
32
m,Om b 0.4 ms-2 II 40 ms·• c 22.4 ms· •
3 27
( i)'
7 a -2ms·' II 10 seconds
11 v = 3 t + 35
+ which is always positive
G
3
Answer
18 Forces and Newton's Laws
Exercise 1
R 2
y·, 't Exercise 5
Rl
w.
R2 2
T
•r,trr :t
T
w
w2
3 / 4
T
R W1
"4
w.
R,~
w2
Rl
w2
·~~
6 b
Exercise 6
T g
1 a a =lL, T=3g b a =-, T = 12g
2 5
c a =(M - rn)g,T=2 Mmg

M+m M+m
Exercise 2
a =lL, T = 20g a =lL, T = 48g
lOa+
1 P = 10 2 P = 20,Q=90 3 P= 18 2 a b
4 P= 12, Q = 4 5 P = 12, Q = 26 6 Yes, h orizonta l 3 3 5 5
lL 25g
7 Yes, vertical 8 No 9 Yes, vertical 3 a b - m
b I T>F II T =F 3 6
F T 4 a 3g b 15g
8 8
5 a lL ms-• b gm c gms-•
w 2
fii
6 a lL b
Exercise 3 9 3
1.5 ms-• 3 40kg
4 a 38N
c P =34N, Q = 30N
2 28N
b P= IO N, Q = 8N
7 a lL
2
b gN cJf
8 a 130N b 600 N 9 1400N
20
b 16ms-2 , 7 c ms-2,7
3 Exercise 7
6 a m = 4kg,P=23N b m =5 kg, P =30 N
c m = 10kg,P = 40N 2 6.4N 3 98.7 N
7 P = 8N, Q =31 N 8 8N 9 31.25 m 3
4 a 40 N,no b 40 N, no Gust on the point of moving)
10 a 5 ms-2 b 30 N
c 40 N, yes
11 a 5 ms-2 b 16 kg
12 100m 13 14 m s-• 5 a 30g m s-• b 28g N
10
Exercise 4
I a 49N b 15 kg c 0.59N
6 a c ~g) m s- 2
2 a 6N b 122.5 kg c 0.072N 3 31.2 N

4 a 28.8N b 101 N c 58.8N Review
5 a 5.47 kg b 87.5 kg c 7.14 kg d 7.14 kg
1 C, d, f 2 a 1 m s-2 b 2N 3 6.5 N
6 a I 18000 N
Jf
II 6790 N b 750kg
7 10 920N 8 a 59.2N b 19.2 N 4 0.2g ms-2, 1.2g N 5 a lL m s-2 b m s-•
3
D Answer
Assessment 5 a 3.27ms-2 b 1.96 ms-2
1 a SON b llOON 2 a 3.92 ms-2 b 41.2 N 8g 12g
c decreased: before T= 3, after T= - -
3 a b 69.2 N 5
6 a 3.92ms-2 b 3.07 ms-•
F =IJ.R c -o.785 ms-2 d 2.83 ms-•
e If the size of the block is not negligible there will be ntixed
friction on the block as it passes from the smooth to rough
4 a R b 220 N c 0.561 sections of the surface.
7 a R b 39.2 N
F 220N
F~30
40g 4g
c 11.8 N d 4.56ms-2
19 Momentum and Impulse

Exercise 1
a 120 Ns b 24000 Ns c 11040 Ns 7 3ms-• 8 6ms-• 9 u =2, v=7
d 1177x 10'Ns e 4Ns 10 a 0.57 ms-• b 0.73ms-• c 36Ns
2 a 84Ns b 72 x 10'1 Ns c 88 Ns
3 2N 4 -2 N 5 25ms-• Review
8 3 c
6 -2ms-• 7 -s 8 3s b 2 a
3 4 a 3.8 ms-• b 2280Ns
9 a 26ms-• b -6ms-• 10 7N 5 a 14ms-• b 49Ns
236 6 5.4ms-• 7 6.75 Ns
11 32N 12 a 15ms-• b 12 ms-•
13 a 31200 Ns b 31200 Ns c 15600N Assessment

14 12.1 Ns 15 10.2 Ns 16 12.5 Ns 1 a 8.85ms-• b 19.3 Ns c 19.3 Ns
17 0.72Ns 18 llONs 2 1.67 ms-• 3 0.143 kg
4 a 1.6 Ns b 2.89 ms-•
Exercise 2 6-3m
5 V=-- 6 a 6Ns b 40kg
3ms-• 2 Oms-• 3 -1.5 ms-• m
4 Oms-• 5 6kg 6 1.5 kg 7 0.5 kg 8 7.5
Answer ..
Index
A collinear points 60- 1 discrete random variables 231, 261
acceleration 301- 2,310 combined events 182-3 comparing the distributions of 2X and X 1 +
equations of motion with constant common difference 107 x2 255- 7
acceleration 314-19,326 common factors 18- 19 E(X), expectation ofX237-45, 261
motion in a straight line variable common ratio 111 further applications 257-60
acceleration 323-6, 326 complements 178, 213 notation 231
addition law of probability 183-5, 213 completing the square 22-3 probability distribution 232
algebraic expressions 2 conditional events 191-2 probability functions 234-7
coefficient s 3 conditional probability 191, 213 sum of independent observations of a
angle units 148 connected particles 342-5 discrete random variable 253-4
angles 154 conservation of linear m omentum sum of probabilities 232- 4
angle w1its 148- 50 357- 60,360 sum or difference of t\vo independent
trigonometric ratios of acute angles con stant of integration 90 random variables 251- 2, 262
134-5, 145, 154 finding the constant of integration 91-2 variation and standard deviation
trigonometric ratios of obtuse angles 135-7 con stants 40 of X245-51, 262
arcs 150-2, 162 constant of integration 90-2 discrete variables 222, 260
arithmetic series 107, 120 differentiating constants and multiples measures of central tendency 223-4
sum of an arithmetic series 108 of x74 measures of spread 224-5, 261
sum of the first 11 natural n umbers 108- 10 continuous variables 222 discriminant 25-7
asymptotes 167 convergent sequences 103-4 displacem ent 298-300
averages 222 convergent series 113 displacem ent-time graph s 302-5
coordinate geometry 56 dividends 32
B effect of a translation on equation of a division
base 10 circle 126- 7 division of a polynomial by x- a 32-3
Bernoulli distribution 268-9, 292-3 equation of a circle 124-6, 131 factor theorem 34-5, 36
Bernoulli distribution with parameter p 268 equation of a straight line 61-6, 67 factors of a' - IT and a' + b' 35-6
Bernoulli trial 268 geometric properties of circles 127-8 remainder theorem 33- 4, 36
mean and variance 269- 70 gradient of straight lines 59-61, 67 divisors 32
binomial coefficients 117 lines joining two points 56-9, 67 56 dynamic friction 345-8
binomial distribution 271-2,293 tangents to circles 128-30 coefficient of fr iction 346-8
binomial probabilities and the binomial cosine rule 140- 1, 145
expansion of(q+ p) n274-7 general triangle calculations 143 E
binomial theorem 274 using the cosine rule to find an angle 141-3 equally likely outcomes 178, 212
conditions for a binomial distribution 272 cosines 134, 145 equations
cumulative binomial distribution cosine function 156- 8, 162 cubic equations 44
function 278-85 cosine of an obtuse angle 135 equation of a circle 124-7, 131
d eciding whether a binomial distribution cube roots6 equation of a straight line 61- 6,67
is appropriate 272-4 cubic equations 44 equations containing logarithms or x as a
formula for calculating binomial cubic polynomials 34 power 172- 3
probabilities 274- 8, 293 cumulative binomial distribution function equations of motion with constant
further applications 289-92 278-85 acceleration 314-19, 326
m ean, variance and s tandard deviation of curved lines 70-2 equations of tangents and normals 77-8
a binomial distribution 285- 9, 293 differentiation 72-5 graphical interpretation of equations
binomial theorem 115- 19, 120, 274 gradients of tangents and normals 75-8 43-6
maximum and minimum points 80- 2 quadratic equ ations 19-29
c stationary points 79- 80, 85 sim ultaneous equations 27-9
calculators 169 cyclic functions 155 trigonometric equations 159-62
using a calculator in s tatistical mode 227- 8 equilibrium 33 1
Cartesian coordinates 56 D events 178
chords 70, 85 definite integration 93-4 combined events 182- 3
circles 124, 131 finding area by definite integration 94 -5 conditional events 191-2,213
area of a sector 152-3, 162 finding compound areas 96-7 independent events 196-200,213
effect of a translation on equation of a meaning of a negative result 95-6 mutually exclusive events 187-90, 213
circle 126-7 denominators 8- 10 showing whether events are
geometric properties of circles 127-8 derivatives 72 mutually exclusive or independent
length of an arc 150-2, 162 differentiation 72, 85 206-9
radians 148-50, 162 applications 82- 5 expansion of two brackets 3, 14
recognising the equation of a circle 124-6 differentiating constants and multiples binomial probabilities and the binomial
tangents to circles 128-30 ofx74 expansion of(q+ p)" 274-7
coalescing 357 differentiating products and fractions difference of two squares 4
coeffi cients 3 74-5 harder expansions 5-6
binomial coefficients 117 differentiating X' 73-4 important expansion s 5
coefficient of friction 346-8 notation 73 squares 4
• Index
expectation ofX237, 261 graphs40-3 binomial distribution 285-9
calculating E(X) 238-40 displacement-time graphs 302-5 mean of a simple function of X 242-5
E(g(X)), expectation of g(X) 240-1,261 graphical interpretation of equations 43-6 mean ofX237
E(X) 237 shape of the graph ofj(x) =ax 166-7 measures of central tendency 222
expected mean 237 transformations of graphs 48-51, 52 mean 222, 260
expected value 237 velocity-time graphs 305-10 median 223, 261
mean of a simple function of X242-5 vertical line graphs 232 mode 222, 260
mean ofX237 gravity 319-23 measures of spread 224
practical approach 237-8 interquartile range 224-5
theoretical approach 238 I range 224, 261
exponential functions 166, 173 improper fractions 32 median 223, 261
shape of the graph ofJ(x) =ax 166-7 impulse 352,353,360 minimum points 80-2
impulsive forces 355-7 minimum value 80
F units of impulse 353-5 mode 222, 260
factorials 117 indefinite integration 90-2 momentum 352-3, 360
factors independent events 196-200, 213 conservation of linear momentum
common factors 18-19 showing whether events are mutually 357-60,360
factor theorem 34-5, 36 exclusive or independent 206-9 units of momentum 353-5
factorising quadratic equations 19-20 indices (index) 10-13, 14 motion in a straight line 314
factorising quadratic polynomials 16-19 base and index 10 equations of motion with constant
factors of a3 - b3 and a3 + b3 35-6 Law110 acceleration 314-19, 326
finite series 105-6 Law210-11 free fall motion under gravity 319-23
forces 330 Law313 Newton's first law of motion 333-5, 348
connected particles 342-5 Law411-12 Newton's second law of motion 335-40, 348
drawing diagrams 331-3 inequalities 46, 52 Newton's third law of motion 341-2,348
dynamic friction 345-8 solving linear inequalities 46-7 variable acceleration 323-6, 326
friction 331 solving quadratic inequalities 47-8 multiples 256
Newton's first law of motion 333-5, 348 infinite series 105-6 differentiating constants and multiples
Newton's second law of motion 335-40, 348 integration 90, 99 ofx74
Newton's third law of motion 341-2,348 definite integration 93-4 multiplication law of probability 192-6
normal reaction 331, 348 finding area by definite integration 94-7 independent events 196-200, 213
resultant force 333-5 finding area by indefinite integration 92-3 two events 193-4, 213
tension 331, 348 finding the constant of integration 91-2 mutually exclusive events 187-90,213
weight330 integrating a sum or difference of addition law 187
fractions 32, 64-5 functions 91 showing whether events are mutually
free fall motion under gravity 319-23 trapezium rule 97-9, 99 exclusive or independent 206-9
friction 331, 348 intersections 44-6, 52, 66-7
dynamic friction 345-8 irrational numbers 7 N
functions 40, 52 Newton's first law of motion 333-5, 348
cubic functions 42-3 L resultant force 333-5
derived function 72 like terms 2 Newton's second law of motion 335-40, 348
exponentialfunctions 166-7, 173 limiting value 178 weight 338-40
gradient function 72 linear combinations 251 Newton's third law of motion 341-2,348
increasing and decreasing functions 78-9 linear equations 27-9 normal reaction 331, 348
linear functions 40 linear functions 40 normals 71,85
probability functions 234-7 linearinequalities46-7 equations of normals 77-8
quadraticfunctions41-2 linear momentum 357-60, 360 gradients of normals 75-6
trigonometric functions 154-9 lines joining two points 56-9, 67
Cartesian coordinates 56 0
G distance between two points 56-7 one-way stretches 48, 50
geometric series 110-11, 120 midpoint of the line joining two given ordinates 92
convergence of series 113 points 57-9 outcomes 178
sum of a geometric series 110-13 logarithms 168, 173 equally likely outcomes 178, 212
sum to infinity of geometric series 113-15 equations containing logarithms or x as a
gradient of curved lines 70-2, 85 power 172-3 p
gradient function 72 evaluating logarithms 169 parabolas 41
gradients of tangents and normals 75-8 laws of logarithms 170-2, 173 parallel lines 60
gradient of straight lines 59-61, 67 using a calculator 169 Pascal's Triangle 116, 274
collinear points 60-1 long-term relative frequency 178, 212 period 155
parallel lines 60 periodic functions 155
perpendicular lines 60 M perpendicular lines 60
graphical interpretation of equations maximum points 80-2 polynomials 16-19
cubic equations 44 maximum value 80 cubic polynomials 34
intersections 44-6 mean 222, 260 division of a polynomial by x- a 32-3
quadraticequations43 Bernoulli distribution 269-70 factorising quadratic polynomials 16-19
Index
possibility space 178 s rationalising a denominator 8-10
powers 10 sampling without replacement 193 simplifying surds 7
equations containing logarithms or x as a sectors 152-3, 162 symmetry 239
power 172-3 segments 152
probability 176-7, 212 sequences 102, 120 T
addition law of probability 183-5,213 behaviour of u, as n ~ oo 103-4 tangents 70, 85
combined events 182-3 convergent sequences 103-4 equations of tangents 77-8
conditional events 191-2 defining a sequence 102-3 gradients of tangents 75-6
definitions and notation 178-82 series 102, 120 tangent function 158-9, 162
equally likely outcomes 178, 212 arithmetic series 107-10, 120 tangents of an angle 134, 145
further applications 209-12 finite series 105-6 tangents to circles 128-30
multiplication law of probability geometric series 110-15, 120 tension 331, 348
192-200 infinite series 105-6 terms2
mutually exclusive events 187-90, 213 simultaneous equations 27 transformations of graphs 48-51, 52
practical probability 177-8 solution of one linear and one quadratic reflections 49-51
probability dj.stribution 232 equation 27-9 translations 48-9
probability functions 234-7 sine rule 137-8, 145 translations 48-9
probability tables 185-7, 213 ambiguous case 138-40 effect on equation of a circle 126-7
showing whether events are mutually sine waves 155 trapezium rule 97-9,99
exclusive or independent 206-9 sines 134, 145 tree diagrams 200-6,214
sum of probabilities 232-4 sine function 154-6, 162 triangles 134, 145
theoretical probability 178 sine of an obtuse angle 135-6 area of a triangle 144-5
tree diagrams 200-6,214 smooth contact 331 general triangle calculations 143
products 74-5 speed 300-1, 310 sine rule and cosine rule 137-43
proper fractions 32 square roots 6 trigonometric equations 159-61
cube roots 6 equations involving compound angles
Q other roots 6 161-2
quadratic equations 19, 29 squares 4 trigonometric functions 154-9
discriminant and the nature of roots completing the square 22-3 cosine function 156-8, 162
25-7 difference of two squares 4 definition of trigonometric ratios 154
formula for solving a quadratic equation standard deviation 225-31, 261 general definition of an angle 154
23-4 mean, variance and standard deviation of sine function 154-6, 162
graphical interpretation 43 a binomial distribution 285-9, 293 tangent function 158-9, 162
losing a solution 21 using a calculator in statistical mode 227-8 trigonometric ratios 154
properties of the roots of a quadratic standard deviation of X245, 262 trigonometric ratios of acute angles
equation 24-7, 29 practical approach 245 134-5, 145
rearranging the equation 20-1 theoretical approach 245-7 exact values 135
solution by completing the square 22-3 variance of a simple function of trigonometric ratios of obtuse angles
solution by factorising 20 X247-51, 262 135-7, 154
solution of one linear and one quadratic stationary points 79-80, 85 turning points 80
equation 27-9 investigating the nature of stationary
quadraticfunctions 41-2 points 80-2 u
quadraticinequalities47- 8 stationary value 79 unlike terms 2
quadratic polynomials 16 straight lines 59-61, 67
common factors 18-19 equation of a line passing through (x" y, v
factorising quadratic polynomials 16-18 and x2, y2) 64-6 variables 222
harder factorising 18 equation of a line with gradient m and variance 261
quartiles 224-5, 261 passing through the point (x,, y,) 64 Bernoulli disu·ibution 269-70
quotients 32, 33 finding the equation of a straight line 64-6 mean, variance and standard deviation of
general form of the equation of a line 62- 3 a binomial distribution 285-9, 293
R intersections 44-6, 52, 66- 7 variation and standard deviation of
radians148-50, 162 summary data 226 X245, 262
range 224, 261 sums256 practical approach 245
interquartile range 224-5 integrating a sum or difference of theoretical approach 245-7
rational numbers 7 functions 91 variance of a simple function of
real numbers 25 sum of a geometric series 110-13 X247-51, 262
recurrence relations 103 sum of an arithmetic series 108-10 velocity 300-1, 310
reflections48,49-51 sum of independent observations of a acceleration 301-2
relative frequency tables 185, 213 discrete random variable 253-7 velocity-time graphs 305-10
remainders 32, 33 sum of probabilities 232-4 vertical line graphs 232
remainder theorem 33-4, 36 sum or difference of two independent vertices (vertex) 41
resultant force 333-5 random variables 251- 2,262
roots 6 sum to infinity of geometric series 113-15 w
properties of the roots of a quadratic surds 7, 14 weight330
equation24-7, 29 multiplying surds 7-8 Newton's second law of motion 338-40

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3 Algebraic Division 8 Sequences and Series

I Simplify 5x- 3(4- x)

1.2 Expansion of Two Brackets

Expanding Brackets, Surds and Indices •

Difference of two squares

• Expanding Brackets, Surds and Indices

(ax+ b)(ax- b)= a r- b2 2

I Expand (4p + 5)(3 - 2p)

I (4p + 5)(3- 2p) = (5 + 4p)(3- 2p)

I Expand (x+ 2)(2x - l)(x+ 4)

Expanding Brackets, Surds and Indices

1.3 Square roots and other roots

• Expanding Brackets, Surds and Indices

I Expand and simpHfy (2+2J'i)(5 - J'i).

~ (2+2J'i)(5-J'i) = (2)(5)- (2)(.J7)+(5)(2.J7) -(2.J7)( .,fi)

Expanding Brackets, Surds and Indices •

Expand and simplify ( 4-.{3")( 4+.{3").

(4-./3)( 4+-/3)= 42 -(./3)2

The product of any two brackets of the type (p - Jfi) (p + .Jii) is

• Expanding Brackets, Surds and Indices

I Rationalise the denominator of }.

I- Rationalise the denominator and simplify

First rationalise the denominator

Expanding Brackets, Surds and Indices a

~ J3~J2 • 3J5 0 J2+1

G) 2J3+J2 ~ 2J5+.fi ~ 3J6+J3

This is one example of the general law that

When this law is applied to some fractions, interesting cases arise.

Now look at a4 + a4•

Therefore a 3 m eans :(/a, which is the cube root of a.

a li= ifi, that is the pth root of a.

Expanding Brackets, Surds and Indices •

~a 4 b5 x = (a i)(b % )(b ~)(a -1 ) = (ai- 1 )(b %+~)=a~b 2

c ~=(~J =(~r sop= - 2.

• Expanding Brackets, Surds and Indices

State the value of p given that

Expanding Brackets, Surds and Indices •

• Expanding Brackets, Surds and Indices

c Show that 2J2-1J2 can be expressed in the form p + q-vIn

0 a Expand (x-1) (2x+3).

b Find the coefficients ofr andxin the expansion of (x-2)(2x+3)(x +2).

II Show that ( 3J2 -2 r +( 3+J2r is an integer and find its value.

G A rectangle has length (9+s.J3) em and area (15+7.J3) cm 2

AQA MPC1 June 2014

Expanding Brackets, Surds and Indices •

Expressing a quadratic as the product of two linear brackets is called factorising

• Quadratic Polynomials and Equations

I Factodse x'- 5x+ 6.

The x term in each bracket is x as x2 can only be x x x. Note

I Factorise x' - 3x- I 0.

Quadratic Polynomials and Equations •

I Facto rise 12- x - 6x'.