EKC278 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

AND MANAGEMENT
SEMESTER 1, 2023/2024
ASSIGNMENT 2

PREPARED FOR:
DR. NUR AYSHAH ROSLI

SUBMISSION DATE:
1st DECEMBER 2023

PREPARED BY:
Name Matric Number
Haszryn Natasha binti Hishamuddin 163695
Lu Mee Chuen 162984
Esther Sia Zhen En 162557
Leong Thong Yan 162484
Amira Nadira binti Muhathir Ammar 164244
Introduction

Textile industry which serves as an essential part of human beings’ everyday life is one of the
most global industries in the world. Demand from industrialized nations has increased
significantly, resulting to an increase in output and employment. Aside from its significance in
providing employment, the textile sector is regarded as one of the primary sources of pollution
globally. The textile production process is notorious for consuming a considerable quantity of
resources such as water, fuel, and a range of chemicals. According to industry estimates,
various textile treatment and dyeing procedures account for more than 35% of chemicals
emitted into the environment. (Thiry 2011). While understanding the motivations that drive
businesses toward sustainability and the challenges to implementation are critical, attention is
also given to study issues related to management perception of processes and environmental
implications. This review will cover the environmental issues, the industry's societal and health
consequences, analysis of the existing regulatory frameworks governing the environmental
impacts and the sustainable solution for the environmental problems.

I. Environmental issues
Textile industry extremely chemical-intensive and involves the use of numerous
environmental unfriendly, non-biodegradable chemicals. In addition, massive quantities of
unreacted chemicals are left after the final stage of processing along with the process water.
The toxic and nonrecyclable chemicals are difficult to eliminate from bilge waters. They
require tertiary and additional treatment processes to address their various properties. If the
wastewater is released without any treatment, it will lead to environmental degradation.
In many developing or underdeveloped countries, most textile wet processing units
operate through smaller facilities that struggle with limited finances, preventing them from
acquiring and maintaining expensive machinery for proper wastewater management.
Consequently, these facilities release untreated effluents into the environment, causing
significant ecological damage in their surrounding areas. (Saxena et al., 2017)
A significant volume of freshwater is essential for various purposes in textile processes,
serving as a medium, washing agent, solvent for chemical dissolution, and as vapor for heating
process baths. The specific amount of water used depends on the material being processed, the
types of dyes and finishing agents employed, and the technology used in handling. Generally,
it takes around 50 to 100 litres of water to process 1 kilogram of textile materials (Uqaili &
Harijan, 2011). However, during wet processing, water gets discharged along with unfixed dyes,
chemicals, and additives as textile effluents. These effluents contain a mix of organic and
inorganic chemicals, varying in quantity and composition. Urea is the most frequently used
chemical reactive dye in printing and leads to a high pollution load.
Textile effluents exhibit elevated levels of BOD, COD, total dissolved solids, and total
suspended solids, alongside low dissolved oxygen (DO) levels, and they often possess intense
coloration (World Bank, 2010). The problem of the colour is such that it reduces the light
availability to grow aquatic plants (Mansour et al., 2007). It reduces the depth of penetration
of sunlight into water environment, reducing rate of photosynthesis of aquatic plants hence
lowering oxygen level in the water system. Azo dyes constitute the largest class of commercial
dyes used in textile industry whereby they have serious environmental impact as their
precursors and degradation products are highly carcinogenic. Furthermore, azo dyes are not
prone to biodegradation under aerobic conditions. They may be trapped or absorbed in bio flocs
and disturb the ecosystem of streams. Inorganic contaminants in the wastewater are primarily
basic and acidic compounds with metallic salts. They undergo biochemical interactions with
water bodies and affect the quality of the water.
High concentration of salts in textile effluents degrade the soil quality and causing it
unsuitable for agriculture purposes. The biodegradable organic compounds require oxygen to
decay, causing low DO which disrupts aquatic life (Saxena et al.,2017). Triphenylmethane dyes
causes phytotoxicity in farm crops, cytotoxicity in mammalian cells as well as stimulate tumour
development in particular fish species (Khataee, Zarei, & Pourhassan, 2010). Alkyl phenol
ethoxylates (APEOs) are used in dye houses as wetting agents and detergents, also utilized in
bleaching, and scouring processes. APEOs are hazardous to aquatic life as they are hormone
disruptors.
Metals are responsible in imparting colours to fabric. Heavy metals like copper,
chromium, nickel, lead, and manganese are used associated with different dyes. Presence of
heavy metals is hazardous and dangerous to creatures. Mutagenic agents are also reported in
dyes. Non-biodegradable organic compounds persist in the ecosystem and can infiltrate and
disrupt the food web, causing bioaccumulation. The balance of the ecosystem is disturbed.
 II. Societal and health implications caused by the textile industry.

The textile industry, integral from raw material creation to finished product distribution,
bears environmental consequences at each stage, notably in wet processing. This process
demands substantial fresh water, leading to extensive effluent production, with desizing
contributing significantly to wastewater rich in Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD). The
bleaching process raises environmental concerns, generating highly toxic chlorinated organic
by-products. Mercerization results in wastewater containing substantial unused sodium
hydroxide (NaOH). Moreover, the dyeing process introduces various chemicals into effluents,
including heavy metals, salts, surfactants, sulphites, and formaldehyde, posing risks to
receiving waters and causing substantial pollution. Untreated textile effluents endanger human
health and the environment, with potential severe health implications, emphasizing the urgent
need for proper treatment.

Also, textile effluents have been found to have adverse effects on both water and soil
quality, contributing to the endangerment of plant and animal health. Common heavy metals
associated with different dyes, such as copper, zinc, chromium, lead, cobalt, nickel, and
manganese, pose risks to human health and the environment. Human exposure to dyes can
result in skin and lung irritation, headaches, congenital malformations, and nausea.
Additionally, mutagenic agents in dyes and incomplete degradation of chemicals may lead to
the formation of aromatic amines, inducing cancer and tumours in humans. Non-biodegradable
organic compounds persist in the ecosystem, disrupting the food web and negatively affecting
animal and human life.

The societal implications of the textile industry are multifaceted, encompassing health,
environmental, resource consumption, economic, technological, occupational health and safety,
and social dimensions. In terms of health, chemical discharges from textile effluents can pose
health risks for communities using contaminated water, leading to skin irritation, respiratory
issues, and other health concerns. On the social front, the extensive supply chain of the textile
industry implies implications for human welfare and potential, extending from workers within
the company to those involved in upstream and downstream supply chain activities.

For instance, the societal implications caused by the textile industry, particularly
concerning water pollution. The untreated or poorly treated wastewater from textile industries
can lead to water pollution. This not only affects aquatic ecosystems but also poses potential
harm to communities relying on contaminated water sources.

Moreover, the textile industry faces societal implications stemming from its
technological choices and economic considerations. The impact of technology selection on the
environment is a factual consideration with broader societal relevance. In addressing
wastewater treatment, it is crucial that technologies go beyond cost considerations to account
for their environmental consequences. This underscores the societal importance of adopting
technologies in the textile industry that not only effectively control pollution but also minimize
environmental harm.

Besides, economic considerations within the textile industry have societal dimensions.
The industry's emphasis on cost-effective technologies and the necessity to balance the
economic burden of pollution control measures against overall societal benefits highlight
broader economic implications. These decisions influence not only the industry itself but also
have repercussions on the well-being of communities and the environment.

III. Analyse the existing local and international regulatory frameworks governing the
environmental impact of the textile industry.

In Malaysia, there are now 662 licensed manufacturers and 1000 small scale textile and
apparel companies that are exempt from the Manufacturing License. Malaysian manufacturing
companies must comprehend and implement green HRM practices ISO14001 certification to
promote long-term performance. In the context of Malaysian industries, the notion of green
HRM is still relatively new. Manufacturing enterprises in Malaysia such as manufactures in
textile industry have mostly employed three green HRM practices: green recruiting and
selection, green training and development, and green performance assessment and incentives.
This inadequate implementation of green HRM practices is attributed to organizations' less
inclined to adopt ISO14001 and green initiatives. According to the research, just 16% of
organizations have ISO14001 certificates, which may affect potential of incomplete
implementation of green HRM practices. Other challenges, including a lack of effort toward
environmental preservation and the application of environmental requirements, as well as
inadequate pollution control systems, limit the full adoption of green HRM practices. In general,
Malaysian manufacturing enterprises' attempts to inculcate green HRM practices, implement
ISO14001 to ameliorate the imbalance between economic and environmental performance, and
improve overall sustainable performance continue to grow. Further study still required for more
understanding toward the adoption and implementation of GHRM and the organization
awareness level on environmental problems that caused by their business operation.

Most textile industries are involved in polymerization, spinning, and weaving. These
methods are distinct from wet treatment processes used in textile processing such as pre-
treatment, dyeing, printing, and finishing. Because of the large-scale manufacturing and
widespread use of organic dyes in textile dyeing and finishing processes, there is a considerable
danger of major environmental contamination and health risks. The color, chemical oxygen
demand (COD), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), total organic carbon (TOC), suspended
solids (SS), pH, temperature, turbidity, and toxicity of untreated textile effluent are all high.
Each textile industry plant in Malaysia processes its own wastewater, and the treated effluents
are generally released to a drain rather than a centralized treatment system. As a result, they are
required to remove highly contaminated and colored wastewater to fulfil statutory requirements
and reduce the severity of water contamination. Thus, it requires treatment to achieve GHRM
objectives and adhere to ISO140001.

Many approaches to treating wastewater have been studied since the presence of colors
in wastewater effluent is particularly undesirable. Textile wastewater must be treated using a
variety of techniques, including physical, chemical, and biological techniques, or appropriate
mixes of these, before it may be released into the environment. There are several physical
techniques, including membrane-filtration procedures, ion exchange, and adsorption. The
process of adsorption involves gathering soluble components of a solution at an appropriate
contact. Adsorption technology is a technique of equilibrium separation with great potential for
use in wastewater treatment. Commercially available activated carbons have a high adsorption
capacity and may effectively absorb many colors. Unfortunately, the success of this approach
for treating wastewater is limited by its high cost and requirement for activated carbon renewal.

Unwanted cations and anions can be eliminated from wastewater by ion exchange. Most
ion exchange resins utilized in the treatment of wastewater are synthetic resins created by
polymerizing organic molecules into a three-dimensional structure with pores. The process of
passing a fluid through a porous media to extract suspended particles is known as filtering. This
technique is often used to treat wastewater that has undergone biological treatment or
flocculation. The fundamental limitation of the ion exchange technology in treating textile
industry wastewater is its ineffectiveness in removing various types of dyes. Meanwhile, the
benefits of the ion exchange treatment technique include adsorbent recovery after successful
regeneration, solvent reclamation after use, and efficient removal of soluble dyes. The
expensive expense of anion/cations exchanger resins may explain Malaysia's lack of research
on ion exchange treatment methods to remove organic dyes. Furthermore, it is possible that the
ion exchange membrane was unable to breakdown the dye molecules, reducing their toxicity,
and that the depleted membrane caused disposal difficulty. The sole advantage is that it allows
you to recover the dyes and reuse them.

Next, in Malaysia also have biological treatments that may entail the employment of
microorganisms in aerobic or anaerobic conditions to breakdown organic dyes via fixed or
suspended growth systems. Microorganisms may metabolize biodegradable organics to
produce water, carbon dioxide (CO2), and energy for growth and reproduction. Algae have
been shown to be capable of removing different colors from wastewater via a biosorption
mechanism, followed by bioconversion and bio coagulation. More than 30 azo compounds
have been found to be biodegraded by algae, with the azo compounds decomposing into
simpler aromatic amines.

By implement the treatments in textile industry, GHRM methods may surely achieve a
balance among the sustainable performance elements of economic, social, and environmental
performance, resulting in an improvement in ISO14001 and overall sustainable performance.
Nonetheless, comprehending green HRM methods is dependent on green behavior patterns
inside a business. Green HRM practices are critical for enhancing sustainable performance
among ISO14001-certified Malaysian manufacturing enterprises to fulfill the aims of the 11th
Malaysian Plan.

International regulatory frameworks are being developed in response to the growing

global awareness of the environmental implications of the textile sector. Global water issues
are largely caused by the textile industry, which also contributes significantly to chemical and
water pollution. An estimated 79 billion cubic meters of freshwater are consumed by business
each year, severely polluting the water and leaving a large carbon footprint. This is especially
troubling in nations where the textile industry is based, such as China and Indonesia, where
unstable water supplies are already common. Concerns are raised about the sector's substantial
impact on the environment, especially in the clothing sector.
First, China's textile industry, the world's largest producer of textiles, is the world's
second largest polluter of water, according to article in Devex, Kurt Kipka, senior project
manager at the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) attributed 1,715 million tons of
carbon dioxide, accounting for 5.4% of the global total, for 2015 alone. The dyeing industry,
responsible for vibrant colors, also contributes to water pollution through the use of noxious
chemicals and improper disposal of wastewater. China's economy has significantly changed
since its 1989 environmental protection law, but the lack of enforcement and accountability
hindered its implementation. Since 2014, changes and revisions in environmental law have
increased to address pollution and environmental damage, ensuring oversight and enforcement
of industrial impact on the environment.
The Chinese Institute of Public and Environmental Affairs (IPE) works to draw
attention to air and water pollution infractions and make sure that companies and governments
are held accountable. From two thousand records in 2006 to 1.5 million commercial violations,
the China Water Pollution Map, a database of official government reports developed by the
IPE, has grown. People may receive information on air and water pollution and file micro
complaints against firms that emit pollutants by using the Blue Map smartphone app, which
was developed by the IPE as well. To encourage accountability and transparency for violations
of water pollution, anyone can report "black and smelly rivers" to government departments
using the IPE app. With an emphasis on water pollution from dye houses, chemical plants, and
industrial water treatment facilities, IPE offers daily emissions data from 18,000 Chinese
industries. By enabling the submission of ministerial reports and providing data to the People's
Congress, the app raises public oversight. It serves as the spokesperson for China's
environmental movement and raises awareness of environmental issues.
Indonesia is the tenth largest textile manufacturer in the world, even though most people
only know it for its beaches and rainforests. The Indonesian Ministry of Industry recently
announced that the nation hopes to rank among the top five manufacturers of textiles. To
accomplish this, Indonesia will need to considerably expand its present textile export levels.
Because of this change, there will be further environmental difficulties as textile production
rises. The textile industry in Indonesia is polluting waterways at a never-before-seen rate, even
at the current pace of production. Residents living beside the river attest that every two hours,
the factories flush off the dyes, changing the color of the water noticeably. Reports that their
employers dispose of untreated waste in the river are also confirmed by workers from the
factories.
Law No. 32/2009 on Environmental Protection and Management, sometimes known as
the "Law 32/2009," serves as the foundation for Indonesia's environmental management system.
Principles on environmental impact assessment, hazardous substance management, hazardous
waste management, water, air, and soil conservation, and environmental rehabilitation are
provided by Law 32/2009, which superseded Law No. 23/1997 on Environmental Management
(henceforth referred to as "Law 23/1997"). One of the tenets of the nation's economic
development, according to Law 32/2009, which was enacted in 2009, is "sustainability."
Between Law 32/2009 and Law 23/1997, this inclusion is a significant distinction. The Law
32/2009 has integrated several sophisticated components, including the environmental
economic methodology, ecoregional approach, strategic environmental assessment (SEA),
environmental permit system, and enhanced fines and authority for the relevant agencies.
Government rules pertaining to the management of chemicals, waste, water quality, and air
quality have been established under Law 32/2009. Verifying required threshold levels, required
documentation, required application forms, etc., as specified in different ministerial
laws/decrees, is essential to guaranteeing compliance with environmental legislation in
Indonesia. The specific penalties for environmental infractions are also outlined in Law
32/2009. in case of breaking the law (or any of its auxiliary requirements). The maximum
penalties are 15 billion rupiah, or $1.07 million in US dollars. As an extra punishment, Law
32/2009 permits the enforcement of business closure (Article 119). As was previously
mentioned, Indonesia has significantly harsher sanctions for environmental infractions than
other ASEAN members.

IV. Propose sustainable solutions to address the environmental problems associated

with the industry.
The textile industry is acknowledged for having significant adverse effects on the
environment, causing pollution, disrupting ecosystem balances, and damaging ecosystems. It
is essential to put forth sustainable solutions that might reduce the negative effects to address
the environmental issues related to the textile industry.
Implementing the biodegradation process is one sustainable solution. The organic substrates
in textile effluent wastewater can be effectively removed using this technique. It has been
discovered that a variety of microorganisms, such as fungi, bacteria, and algae, can degrade
several types of dyes. A fungi’s metabolism can be modified to accommodate changes in its
surroundings. Thus, the action of metabolism is supported by extracellular and intraenzyme.
The degradation process depends significantly on enzymes including laccase, manganese
peroxidase, and lignin peroxidase. Phanerochaete chrysosporium and white-rot fungi have been
primarily used in the degradation of dyes from textile effluent. Colour removal by algae takes
place through three main processes, including dye consumption by algae for growth, enzyme
conversion of dyes to noncolored products, and chromophores sorption onto the surface of
algae. Wastewater contains significant levels of sodium chloride and various humic acids, as
well as azo dyes (such as acid red 27) that are used to decolorize Shewanella algae (SAL).
Recently, the biodegradation of dyes from textile effluent wastewater has been established
utilising single bacterium cultures, such as Alcali-genes faecalis PMS-1. Acid orange 7 and
acid orange 8 dyes were eliminated from water by applying bacteria culture (MI2).
Microbial Fuel Cells (MFCs) for the Treatment of Textile Effluent Wastewater are
another sustainable solution. Chemical potential energy, or the accessible organic compounds
in wastewater, is converted into electrical energy by a biological process known as a microbial
fuel cell. As a fuel cell, the MFC converts chemical potential energy using oxidation-reduction
processes techniques into electrical power. The microorganisms in the MFC process oxidise
various organic water substrates in the anode chamber to produce protons or electrons that
move to the cathode chamber to consume oxygen. Anaerobic respiring bacteria in an anode can
effectively break down organic matter into carbon dioxide as the product, while the electrons
and protons released. Using wastewater treatment to create MFCs has several benefits: it
converts organic materials directly into electrical energy; it produces less excess activated
sludge than other process technologies; it is not affected by the operating environment, even at
low temperatures; it doesn't require gas treatment; it doesn't require energy input for aeration;
and it can be widely used in places with insufficient electrical infrastructure.
Additionally, sustainable methods are being adopted through physicochemical
treatment methods in textile manufacturing. Numerous physicochemical techniques, such as
filtration, adsorption, coagulation, and ion exchange, have been developed. A well-known
physicochemical method for eliminating contaminants from textile effluent water is
coagulation. Iron and alum salts are added to wastewater as a coagulant to help the small
particles that agglomerate. Several researchers have used inexpensive adsorbents for
adsorption, such as bentonite, zeolite, ash, biomass byproducts, and resins. Since commercial
activated carbon has a large surface area and adsorption capacity, it is an effective adsorbent
for removing dyes. Filtration technologies like reverse osmosis (RO), microfiltration (MF),
nanofiltration (NF), and ultrafiltration (UF) have been utilised to remove substances from
textile effluents. The selection of filter media and their capacity to consider the chemical
composition and temperature of textile wastewater are crucial factors for removal methods.
The ion exchange procedure eliminates the cation and anion contaminants found in wastewater.
The procedure of ion exchange is often used to soften hard water. This method has the benefit
of preventing the loss of any adsorbents. It could be used to eliminate dyes that are soluble in
water.

Conclusion
In conclusion, the textile industry's chemical-intensive operations and inadequate
wastewater treatment, particularly in developing nations, result in the emission of untreated
effluents containing dangerous compounds. This raises environmental dangers such as soil
deterioration and ecological disturbance. The environmental and health risks associated with
the textile sector including heavy metals and mutagenic agents harm water and soil quality
because of excessive water use and hazardous chemical discharge. Societal consequences
include health, the environment, economy, and technology, highlighting the importance of
ecologically responsible industrial operations. Due to a lack of green HRM practices and
ISO14001 certification, the Malaysian textile sector confronts environmental issues. Various
procedures are used to solve wastewater problems. Globally, both China and Indonesia struggle
with water contamination issues in their textile sectors, prompting increased environmental
legislation enforcement. Long-term solutions involve the use of microorganisms and microbial
fuel cells for biodegradation, along with physicochemical treatments like coagulation,
adsorption, and ion exchange for efficient and sustainable textile wastewater treatment.
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Plagiarism Statement
This project was written by me and in my own words, except for quotations from published
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