Lecture 7

Phraseology.
Plan
1. Phraseology as a branch of linguistics.
2. Ways of forming phraseological units.
3. Semantic classification of phraseological units.
4. Structural classification of phraseological units.
5. Syntactical classification of phraseological units.
6. Free Word-Combination and Phraseological Units

1. Phraseology as a branch of linguistics.

The vocabulary of a language is enriched not only by words but also by
phraseological units. Phraseological units are word-groups that cannot be made in the
process of speech; they exist in the language as ready-made units. They are compiled in
special dictionaries. The same as words, phraseological units express a single notion and are
used in a sentence as one part of it. American and British lexicographers call such units
idioms. We can mention such dictionaries as: L. Smith «Words and Idioms», V. Collins «А
Book of English Idioms» etc. In these dictionaries we can find words, peculiar in their
semantics (idiomatic), side by side with word-groups and sentences. In these dictionaries
they are arranged, as a rule, into different semantic groups.
A word-group is the largest two-facet lexical unit comprising more than one word
but expressing one global concept.
The degree of structural and semantic cohesion of word-groups may vary. Some
word-groups, e.g. at least, point of view, by means, to take place, etc. seem to be
functionally and semantically inseparable. They are usually described as set phrases, word-
equivalents or phraseological units and are studied by the branch of lexicology which is
known as phraseology. In other word-groups such as to take lessons, kind to people, a week
ago, the component-members seem to possess greater semantic and structural
independence. Word-groups of this type are defined as free word-groups or phrases and
are studied in syntax.
Phraseological units can be classified according to the ways they are formed,
according to the degree of the motivation of their meaning, according to their structure and
according to their part-of-speech meaning.

2. Ways of forming phraseological units.

A.V. Koonin classified phraseological units according to the way they are formed. He
pointed out primary and secondary ways of forming phraseological units.
Primary ways of forming phraseological units are those when a unit is formed on the
basis of a free word-group:
a) The most productive in Modern English is the formation of phraseological units by
means of transferring the meaning of terminological word-groups, e.g. in cosmic technique
we can point out the following phrases: «launching pad» in its terminological meaning of
starting platform or area, in its transferred meaning starting point, «to link up» means to
dock in its transformed meaning it means to get acquainted;
b) a large group of phraseological units was formed from free word groups by
transforming their meaning, e.g. «granny farm» - «пансионат для престарелых», «Troyan
horse» - «компьютерная программа, преднамеренно составленная для повреждения
компьютера»;
c) phraseological units can be formed by means of alliteration, e.g. «a sad sack» -
«несчастный случай», «culture vulture» - «человек, интересующийся искусством»,
«fudge and nudge» - «уклончивость».
d) they can be formed by means of expressiveness, especially it is characteristic for
forming interjections, e.g. «My aunt!», «Hear, hear!» etc.
e) they can be formed by means of distorting a word group, e.g. «odds and ends»
was formed from «odd ends» etc.
f) they can be formed by using archaisms, e.g. «in brown study» means «in gloomy
meditation» where both components preserve their archaic meanings.
g) they can be formed by using a sentence in a different sphere of life, e.g. «that cock
won't fight» can be used as a free word-group when it is used in sports (cock fighting), and it
becomes a phraseological unit when it is used in everyday life, because it is used
metaphorically, etc.
h) they can be formed when we use some unreal images, e.g. «to have butterflies in
the stomach» - to feel excitement and nervousness, «to have green fingers» - "преуспевать
как садовод-любитель" etc.
i) they can be formed by using expressions of writers or politicians in everyday life,
e.g. «corridors of power» (Snow), «American dream» (Alby) «locust years» (Churchil), «the
wind of change» (Mc Millan).
Secondary ways of forming phraseological units are those when a phraseological unit
is formed on the basis of another phraseological unit; they are:
a)conversion, e.g. «to vote with one's feet» was converted into «vote with one's
feet»;
b) changing the grammar form, e.g. «make haу while the sun shines» is transferred
into a verbal phrase - «to make hay while the sun shines»;
c) analogy, e.g. «curiosity killed the cat» was transferred into «care killed the cat»;
d) contrast, e.g. «cold surgery» - «a plan before operation» was formed by
contrasting it with «acute surgery», «thin cat» - «a poor person» was formed by contrasting
it with «fat cat»;
e) shortening of proverbs or sayings, e.g. from the proverb «You can't make a silk
purse out of a vow 's (=pig's) ear» by means of clipping the middle of it the phraseological
unit «to make a sow's ear» was formed with the meaning - to make a mistake.
f) borrowing phraseological units from other languages, either as translation loans,
e.g. «living space» (German), «to take the bull by the horns» (Latin) or by means of phonetic
borrowings «dolce vita» (Italian) etc.
Phonetic borrowings among phraseological units refer to the bookish style and are
not used very often.

3. Semantic classification of phraseological units.

 Phraseological units can be classified according to the degree of motivation of their
meaning. This classification was suggested by acad. V.V. Vinogradov for Russian
phraseological units. He pointed out three types of phraseological units:
a) fusions where the degree of motivation is very low, we cannot guess the meaning
of the whole from the meanings of its components, they are highly idiomatic and cannot be
translated word for word into other languages, e.g. on Shank's mare - (on foot), at sixes and
sevens - (in a mess) etc;
b) unities where the meaning of the whole can be guessed from the meanings of its
components, but it is transferred (metaphorical or metonymical), e.g. to play the first fiddle,
old salt etc;
c) collocations (combinations) where words are combined in their original meaning
but their combinations are different in different languages, e.g. cash and carry - (self-service
shop), in a big way -(in great degree) etc.
It is usually impossible to account logically for the combination of particular words. It
can be explained only on the basis of tradition, e.g. to deliver a lection (but not to read a
lecture).
In phraseological combinations words retain their full semantic independence
although they are limited in their combinative power, e.g. to wage war (but not to lead
war), to render assistance, to render services (but not to render pleasure).
Phraseological combinations are the least idiomatic of all the kinds of phraseological
units. In other words, in phraseological combinations the meaning of the whole can be
inferred from the meaning of the components, e.g. to draw a conclusion, lo lend assistance,
to make money, to pay attention to.
In phraseological combinations one of the components (generally the component
which is used fugiratively) can be combined with different words, e.g. to talk sports, politics,
business (but to speak about life), leading worker, leading article (but the main problem),
deadly enemy, deadly shot (but a mortal wound), keen interest, keen curiosity, keen sence of
humour ( but the great surprise).
Words of wide meaning, as to make, to take, to do, to give, etc. form many
phraseological units, e.g. to take an examination, to take a trip, to take a chance, to take
interest, to make fun of, to make inquiries, to make a statement, to make friends, to make
haste.
Sometimes traditional combinations are synonyms of words, e.g. to make inquiries =
to inquire, to make haste=to hurry.
Some traditional combinations are equivalents of prepositions, e.g. by means of, in
connection with.
Some phraseological combinations have nearly become compounds, e.g. brown
bread.
Traditional combinations often have synonymous expressions, e.g. to make a
report=to deliver a report.
Phraseological combinations are not equivalents of words. Though the components
of phraseological combinations are limited in their combinative power, that is, they can be
combined only with certain words and cannot be combined with any other words, they
preserve not only their meaning, but all their structural forms, e.g. nice distinction is a
phraseological combinations and it is possible to say nice distinctions, nicer distinction, etc.,
or to clench one’s fist (clenched his fists, was clenching his fists, etc.).
4. Structural classification of phraseological units.
 Prof. A.I. Smirnitsky worked out structural classification of phraseological units,
comparing them with words. He points out one-top units, which he compares with derived
words because derived words have only one root morpheme. He points out two-top units,
which he compares with compound words because in compound words we usually have
two root morphemes.
Among one-top units he points out three structural types:
a) units of the type «to give up» (verb + postposition type), e.g. to art up, to back up,
to drop out, to nose out, to buy into, to sandwich in etc.;
b) units of the type «to be tired». Some of these units remind the Passive Voice in
their structure but they have different prepositions with them, while in the Passive Voice we
can have only prepositions «by» or «with», e.g. to be tired of, to be interested in, to be
surprised at etc.
There are also units in this type which remind free word-groups of the type «to be
young», e.g. to be akin to, to be aware of etc. The difference between them is that the
adjective «young» can be used as an attribute and as a predicative in a sentence, while the
nominal component in such units can act only as a predicative. In these units the verb is the
grammar centre and the second component is the semantic centre;
c) prepositional-nominal phraseological units. These units are equivalents of
unchangeable words: prepositions, conjunctions, adverbs, that is why they have no
grammar centre, their semantic centre is the nominal part, e.g. on the doorstep, on the
nose, in the course of, on the stroke of, on the point of etc. In the course of time such units
can become words, e.g. tomorrow, instead etc.
Among two-top units A.I. Smirnitsky points out the following structural types:
a) attributive-nominal such as: a month of Sundays, grey matter, a millstone round
one's neck and many others. Units of this type are noun equivalents and can be partly or
perfectly idiomatic. In partly idiomatic units (phrasisms) sometimes the first component is
idiomatic, e.g. high road, in other cases the second component is idiomatic, e.g. first night.
In many cases both components are idiomatic, e.g. red tape, blind alley, bed of nail, shot in
the arm and many others.
b) verb-nominal phraseological units, e.g. to read between the lines, to speak BBC, to
sweep under the carpet etc. The grammar centre of such units is the verb, the semantic
centre in many cases is the nominal component, e.g. to fall in love. In some units the verb is
both the grammar and the semantic centre, e.g. to know the ropes. These units can be
perfectly idiomatic as well, e.g. to burn one's boats, to vote with one's feet, to take to the
cleaners' etc. Very close to such units are word-groups of the type to have a glance, to have
a smoke. These units are not idiomatic and are treated in grammar as a special syntactical
combination.
c) phraseological repetitions, such as: now or never, part and parcel, etc. Such units
can be built on antonyms, e.g. ups and downs, back and forth', often they are formed by
means of alliteration, e.g. cakes and ale, as busy as a bee. Components in repetitions are
joined by means of conjunctions. These units are equivalents of adverbs or adjectives and
have no grammar centre. They can also be partly or perfectly idiomatic, e.g. cool as a
cucumber, bread and butter.
Phraseological units the same as compound words can have more than two tops
(stems in compound words), e.g. to take a back seat, a peg to hang a thing on, lock, stock
and barrel, to be a shadow of one's own self at one's own sweet will.

5. Syntactical classification of phraseological units.

Phraseological units can be classified as parts of speech. This classification was
suggested by I.V. Arnold. Here we have the following groups:
a) noun phraseologisms denoting an object, a person, a living being, e.g. bullet
train, latchkey child, redbrick university, Green Berets,
b) verb phraseologisms denoting an action, a state, a feeling, e.g. to break the
log-jam, to get on somebody's coattails, to be on the beam, to nose out, to make headlines,
c) adjective phraseologisms denoting a quality, e.g. loose as a goose, dull as
lead,
d) adverb phraseological units, such as: with a bump, in the soup, like a dream,
like a dog with two tails,
e) preposition phraseological units, e.g. in the course of, on the stroke of,
f) interjection phraseological units, e.g. «Catch me!», «Well, I never!» etc.
In I.V. Arnold's classification there are also sentence equivalents, proverbs, sayings
and quotations, e.g. «The sky is the limit», « What makes him tick», «I am easy». Proverbs
are usually metaphorical, e.g. «Too many cooks spoil the broth» while sayings are as a rule
non-metaphorical, e.g. « Where there is a will there is a way».

6. Free Word-Combination and Phraseological Units

The problem of distinguishing free word-combinations and phraseological units is
rather a complex one. Let us compare the free word-combination red flower and the
Phraseological unit red tape (meaning bureaucratic methods). The constituent red in the
free word-group may be substituted for by any other adjective denoting color (blue, white,
yellow) and the denotational meaning of this group will not change (a flower of a certain
color). In the phraseological unit, such substitution is not possible. The change of the
adjective will change the meaning of the whole group and it will mean a tape of a certain
color, but not bureaucratic methods.
Thus, we conclude that phraseological units are, as a rule:
1. semantically non-motivated, i.e. its meaning cannot be understood from the
meanings of its components;
2. therefore - stability of their lexical components;
3. the grammatical structure of phr. units is also to a certain extent stable, e.g.
the noun "flowed' in the free word-combination can be used in plural (red flowers) and the
lexical meaning will not change, but no such change is possible in the phr/ unit"red tape".