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5. Overcoming barriers to learning

Introduction
In Chapter 3 we considered the ways in which you as a professional TA can plan with teachers to ensure appropriate targets are set for all pupils, including those with SEN. It is important not to assume that just because a pupil has a special educational need that they are not capable of working to the same learning objectives as the rest of the class. Pupils can be capable of working towards the same learning objectives as their peers but have difficulties arising from their particular physical, cognitive, or sensory difference which may prevent them from taking part in the lesson. Schools supported by local education authorities and others should actively seek to remove the barriers to learning and participation that can hinder or exclude pupils with special educational needs. (DfES 2001a) There is a growing emphasis on the need to focus less on an individuals difference or impairment and more on access, i.e. how the teaching environment can be adapted to meet the learning needs of everyone: Difficulties in learning often arise from an unsuitable environmentinappropriate groupings of pupils, inflexible teaching styles, or inaccessible curriculum materials as much as from individual childrens physical, sensory or cognitive impairments. (DfES 2004a) Access strategies ensure that pupils are not prevented from participating in lessons and from assessment opportunities because of their special needs. The role of the professional TA can be seen as an access strategy (DfES 2002) but there are some important issues to consider in defining your role in supporting pupils to access the curriculum. The aim should be to develop pupils independence and self-esteem and there are several important factors to consider. Firstly, we need to ensure that the learning objectives are relevant and appropriate for the pupil who is being supported and that the TA is not being used to help the pupil complete inappropriate work just because its work that the rest of the class is doing. We need to avoid pupils becoming dependent on TAs, believing that they can only succeed with their support; this undermines a childs self-esteem. It is important that the pupil has opportunities to work on their own or supported by peers. We need to ensure that the TA is not inadvertently acting as a barrier to a pupils interactions with their peers and it is important that the TA works with other pupils in the class too. Support needs to be discrete. We want to develop pupils independence and self-esteem through providing them with the learning conditions and resources that they need to succeed.

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There are a number of DfES publications that you need to become familiar with as these offer practical advice on how to ensure that curriculum and assessment strategies at school and class level allow all pupils to access the curriculum. The following two documents are a useful starting point: Including All Children in the Literacy Hour and Daily Mathematics Lesson (DfES 2002) Excellence and Enjoyment: Learning and Teaching in the Primary Years (DfES 2004b). This chapter considers how teachers and TAs can plan and incorporate specific access strategies in their teaching to enable pupils to take part in a lesson and demonstrate their knowledge, understanding and skills.

HLTA STANDARDS
1.1 They have high expectations of all pupils; respect their social, cultural, linguistic, religious and ethnic backgrounds; and are committed to raising their educational achievement. They have sufficient understanding of their specialist area to support pupils learning, and are able to acquire further knowledge to contribute effectively and with confidence to the classes in which they are involved. They are familiar with the school curriculum, the age-related expectations of pupils, the main teaching methods and the testing/examination frameworks in the subjects and age ranges in which they are involved. They know how to use ICT to advance pupils learning They know the key factors that can affect the way pupils learn. They know a range of strategies to establish a purposeful learning environment and to promote good behaviour.

2.1

2.2

2.4 2.5 2.9

3.1.3 They contribute effectively to the selection and preparation of teaching resources that meet the diversity of pupils needs and interests. 3.3.1 they interest and motivate pupils, and advance their learning. 3.3.3 They promote and support the inclusion of all pupils in the learning activities

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CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
By the end of this chapter you should:

be aware of the potential barriers to learning that exist for pupils who have particular needs in the areas identified in the Code of Practice cognition and learning, communication and interaction, sensory and physical, and behavioural, emotional, social difficulties have considered access strategies which enable pupils to work both independently and collaboratively have considered the range of access arrangements for National Curriculum tests.

The Code of Practice identifies four areas of need but each child is unique and it is important to understand that individual pupils may have needs in one or more areas of communication and interaction, cognition and learning, behaviour, emotional and social development and sensory and/or physical difficulties. In order to help pupils overcome barriers to learning it is important to know about the individual needs and characteristics of the pupils you support and some background knowledge about particular special educational needs.

Understanding barriers to learning

Cognition and learning
There are a number of skills that pupils need to function in the classroom: literacy skills, numeracy skills, organisation, memory and comprehension. Some pupils have great difficulty in these areas and require access strategies that ensure that their difficulties dont prevent them from acquiring, generalising and applying new knowledge and which promote self-confidence and self-esteem. Pupils with moderate learning difficulties in mainstream schools are recognised by the DfES as the largest group with SEN whose needs are often overlooked (DfES 2004a). Dyslexia is another example of a barrier to learning within the area of cognition and learning. It is a combination of strengths, often in artistic, spatial and creative thinking, and weaknesses which affects the acquisition of reading, spelling and writing skills and sometimes number and calculation. Learners with dyslexia may also have additional difficulties such as short-term memory, organisation, sequencing, slow processing and motor co-ordination. It is a hidden disability and because literacy skills are part of everyday classroom life, can have a negative effect on pupil self-esteem.

Communication and interaction

Learning is a social process and learners can develop greater knowledge and skills when working with others than they can on their own. There is
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therefore an increasing appreciation and promotion of the use of paired and group work. Being a member of a class community requires the ability to listen, to understand, speak clearly, respond appropriately, express thoughts coherently, play and work co-operatively and empathise. Learning in a social context presents challenges for pupils with problems in the area of communication and interaction. The range of difficulties is wide and includes pupils with speech and language difficulties; specific learning difficulties such as dyslexia and dyspraxia; hearing impairment; those who are on the autistic spectrum; and those with moderate, severe or profound learning difficulties. Overcoming speech, language and communication barriers to learning is recognised as crucial to enabling children to access the whole curriculum (DfES 2004a).

Behaviour, emotional and social development

There are a range of social and emotional skills that pupils need in order to become confident, motivated and independent learners. These are summarised in Excellence and Enjoyment: Social and Emotional Aspects of Learning (DfES 2005) as self-awareness, managing feelings, social skills, empathy and motivation. These five aspects of affective learning are taken from the work of Daniel Goleman (1995), who promoted and popularised the concept of emotional intelligence. He asserted that emotional intelligence was more important than cognitive abilities in predicting academic success. It is recognised that for some children lack of motivation, fear of failure, difficulties in recognising and managing feelings and handling relationships can create significant emotional and social barriers to learning. It is important to realise too that children with learning difficulties can suffer from low selfesteem in an educational context. Children can demonstrate a range of emotional, social and behavioural responses to difficulties arising from medical, mental or environmental causes or a combination of these factors. Difficulties in this area can be temporary; for example, as a child adjusts to loss of a significant person in their lives, or they can be more persistent over time. Some pupils have more complex needs arising, for example, from attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and autistic spectrum disorder. Pupils express their emotional and social needs in different ways. Some can be withdrawn, isolated and lack concentration while others can be challenging, hyperactive and disruptive.

Sensory and physical needs

There are a wide range of sensory, multi-sensory and physical difficulties which pose potential barriers to learning. Sensory difficulties can extend from profound and permanent deafness or visual impairment through to lesser levels of loss, which may be only temporary. Physical difficulties can arise
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from physical, neurological or metabolic causes that only require appropriate access to educational facilities and needs, while some pupils will have more complex learning and social needs. A few children will have multi-sensory difficulties, some with associated physical difficulties. For children with the most complex physical needs and the most severe sensory losses, access to specialist teaching and equipment will be needed.

Overcoming barriers to learning

PRACTICAL TASK
Think about the pupils in a class that you support. What actual or potential barriers to learning exist? Try to categorise them in the table below. Which seem to be the most commonly presenting difficulty in the class? Which are the most difficult to cater for and why? How do you work with the class teacher to overcome them?

Communication and interaction

Cognition and learning

Behaviour, social and emotional

Physical and sensory

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Overcoming barriers to learning

Cognition and learning
Your role as a TA in this key area of SEN is to enable pupils to:

develop their understanding store and retrieve information (memory) overcome difficulties in reading, writing and numeracy.

It is important that you are clear about what the learning intention is and not just what the pupils have to do, and that you promote independence as much as possible. There are a variety of ways in which you can help pupils to access the curriculum. A few strategies are offered here but the needs of individual pupils and the context in which you are working will prompt you to develop a range of creative ways to help pupils learn. You may find the information in Chapters 6 and 7 helpful. Understanding

Use the pre-teaching strategy to introduce new vocabulary and concepts (see Chapter 3). Use gesture, visual cues or help pupils to read and interpret instructions correctly. Play devils advocate by raising questions or problems or pretending not to understand so the teacher can go through the sequence of instructions. Check for understanding by asking the pupil to explain what they have to do. Make abstract concepts more concrete by using real objects, signs and symbols, photographs, number lines and threaded beads and computer animations. Scaffold tasks by providing cloze procedure, writing frames, multiple choice formats.

Memory

Remind pupils of teaching points. Use pictures and artefacts where possible. Provide prompt cards using objects, pictures, signs or key words where there are a sequence of steps to follow in a task. Use a dictaphone to record instructions which pupil can play back. Model and encourage pupils to use sticky notes, jottings, individual whiteboards to record key words as an aide-mmoire.

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Literacy difficulties

Read questions to the pupil. Encourage peer support and interaction. Cue the pupil in to reading task by highlighting or pointing out new vocabulary. Alternatives to writing include: mind-mapping, oral presentation, sorting and ordering symbol cards, predictive or voice-operated word-processing software, labelling diagrams, dictation to a helper, making 2D or 3D displays. Case study Sam is a Year 5 pupil who is verbally bright (his understanding of vocabulary as measured by the British Picture Vocabulary Scale is 13:10 at age 10:00). He has a wide general knowledge and a particular skill in demonstrating magic tricks which he has performed in front of the whole school. He does, however, have significant problems with personal organisation, reading and writing and is beginning to develop avoidance tactics in lessons where these skills are required. His TA, Jane, and teacher have put in place a number of access strategies for Sam but which are available to everyone. Displays around the room give prompts and reminders about what to do, where to find things, and lists of useful words which are colour-coded and organised so children can find words easily. Everyone has word lists, prompts and personal targets on their tables. A visual timetable is displayed to help everyone to anticipate and plan what they need for different activities and homework tasks. Careful consideration has been given to where to seat Sam and which groups to place him in so that he has opportunities to work with peers who will benefit from his ideas and knowledge and who can support his literacy needs, e.g. by reading instructions. Opportunities are made available to enable Sam to access information in a variety of different ways, e.g. pictures, flow charts, drama, and through the use of computer software. Alternative ways of recording ideas enable Sam to demonstrate his knowledge, skills and understanding. Sometimes Sam dictates his work to the TA. It is important that he has opportunities to do this now as he is likely to need this access arrangement in the National Curriculum tests next year. In group or paired activities, a fluent writer often does the scribing. Sam enjoys giving oral presentations and also likes to record his ideas using mind-mapping and posters. Sam is learning to touch type and to use talking word processing software. As he becomes more competent in this skill, it is likely to be his preferred means of recording in the future.

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In this case study the TA and the teacher have worked together to adapt the classroom and curriculum arrangements to enable Sam to become an independent learner. Sams individual needs have actually been the catalyst in the development of an inclusive classroom which is not just not just meeting Sams needs but benefiting everyone. Note also how access planning for Sam is taking into consideration his long-term needs, for example, ensuring that word-processing skills are sufficiently developed to enable him to rely on this method of recording as normal practice in the future.

Communication and interaction

As a professional TA you may implement specific programmes to improve speech articulation, understanding and expressive language, or the social uses of language (pragmatics), under the guidance of a speech and language therapist. You may help pupils to use augmentative and alternative methods of communication such as Makaton sign language. As a TA you can support pupils access to learning by enabling them to participate in whole-class and group activities, using their developing skills or alternative methods of communication. Examples include:

using visual instructions, e.g. key words or symbols to accompany speech using short, precise sentences where the important information is given at the beginning helping a pupil to rehearse verbal contribution to group or class discussion offering forced alternatives, was it night or day? creating posters with pupils to present key vocabulary which is then available as a reference. Case study Suzanne is a TA in a unit for pupils with moderate learning difficulties within a primary school. She attends a series of Makaton training workshops because some of the pupils coming into the unit are using Makaton sign language. To ensure that this system of communication can be shared by other members of the school community she teaches Makaton signs to the whole school at Friday assemblies. Suzanne attends singing practice and uses Makaton as a visual support to include all pupils, including those with EAL and those who cannot see or read the words on the OHP. Makaton sign language is used by the head teacher as she greets the whole school at assembly and has been so successful that a Makaton club has been formed which is open to all pupils.

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Again, note how in endeavouring to meet the individual needs of pupils with communication difficulties, Suzanne has been instrumental in ensuring that the whole-school curriculum reflects disability awareness, and in promoting the development of an inclusive school community.

Overcoming barriers to learning

Behaviour, emotional, social development

There are a number of strategies that you can fairly easily implement which benefit all children, but which are particularly important for the inclusion of children with emotional, social and behavioural barriers to learning.

The first and most important way is by giving pupils recognition and acceptance. This can be achieved by showing an interest in their hobbies, using their interests in teaching activities and by offering unobtrusive assistance in the classroom. For pupils who for a variety of reasons do not receive the attention and nurturing they need, meeting and greeting them in the morning can get the day off to a positive start. Sitting alongside a pupil with concentration difficulties can help them settle and get involved in the lesson. Focusing the attention of inattentive pupils on the teacher by directing them to look and answer questions. Providing positive feedback to encourage learning and build self-esteem. It is important to set short-term, easily achievable goals and gradually increase expectations to avoid increasing stress. Providing take-up time to enable the pupil to engage with a task is important. The language that you use rather than any specific programmes or methods can help to create a secure learning environment.

Hughes and Vass (2001) describe the importance of using the language of possibility, the language of hope and the language of success. They give an example of how you could respond to I always get X wrong with Yes, you did get it a bit mixed up but lets see which bit is causing you problems. These approaches, along with structured curriculum activities to develop social and emotional competencies, for example, the DfES (2005) Social and Emotional Aspects of Learning (SEAL) programme and circle time, will meet most pupils emotional and social needs. Those pupils with more complex needs will require additional support. As a professional TA you may find yourself working with Behaviour Support Services, educational psychologists, and staff from child and adolescent mental health services. You may be able to provide useful information and observations about a childs behaviour which can help everyone in identifying the antecedents and triggers for unwanted behaviours.

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An important role for the professional TA can be in supporting pupils to use strategies and arrangements identified on their IEPs either at School Action or at School Action Plus. You may be asked to help implement specialised behavioural and cognitive approaches. Behavioural approaches require consistent implementation of planned strategies. It will be important to notice, affirm and reinforce good behaviour as often as possible using descriptive praise and maybe stickers or tokens. These can be traded for a reward that the pupil has chosen. For example, a reward might be a five-minute game of football in the playground or a table game to be played with a chosen friend. Cognitive approaches include helping a child to recognise problems and develop problem-solving approaches to managing tricky situations. The child may need help to access and apply taught strategies, for example, using angermanagement techniques such as a quiet place or time out. They will also need help in reflecting on their behaviour, making reparation if necessary and rebuilding self-esteem after loss of control. Professional TAs who have trained in behaviour management may be asked to implement self-esteem programmes or organise social skills or anger management groups but it is important to have been trained to use such materials. Case study Lucy is a TA in a Year 1 class and has been supporting James, a pupil who can display aggressive behaviour when playing with other children in unstructured situations. James has been attending a special school for one day a week for observation and teaching. His parents have attended a parents group at the school. Lucy attends a meeting with James parents and staff from the local special school to review his progress and to revise his IEP in the light of the work he has been doing. She discusses the triggers for his aggressive behaviour and the strategies which are helping James to play more successfully with other children. Lucy learns that James poor communication skills are preventing him from interacting with other children appropriately, causing him to push and hit children. Lucy plans with the SENCo and class teacher to implement the strategies that are proving effective in the special school setting in managing James behaviour. She plans to use stories and role play to model appropriate ways of demonstrating how to join in activities. She will also help James practise these skills in games with a group of children from his class. Appropriate behaviour will be rewarded with descriptive praise, e.g. Good I like the way you asked if you could play. Furthermore she will liaise with James parents to share his achievements with them using a homeschool diary and they will maintain a sticker chart to reward good behaviour in school. They in their turn will keep Lucy informed of progress towards home targets to establish bedtime and meal routines, thereby raising James and his parents self-esteem.
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In this case study Lucy has been able to draw on the work James and his parents have been doing in a special school setting. After discussion with the SENCo and other professionals she has been able to implement a specific programme to address James difficulties in his own school. The programme is teaching James the skills he needs to join in and integrate successfully with his peers as well as managing his behaviour through the use of descriptive praise and stickers. Crucially, the parents are actively involved in the programme through the homeschool diary and donating the stickers. This is important for their self-esteem too. Lucy has enabled James to continue developing the social skills he needs to become a respected and valued member of his classroom community, thereby improving his self-esteem.

Overcoming barriers to learning

Sensory and physical needs

Pupils with sensory and physical difficulties need a physical environment which has been designed and organised to help them move around the school and access learning support and resources easily, safely and as independently as possible. The kinds of arrangements that may be needed are detailed in the Special Needs Code of Practice, p. 88, and include:

appropriate furniture to enable pupils to participate with their peers in all parts of the curriculum good lighting alternative or augmentative forms of communication appropriate acoustics and access to amplification systems access to low-vision aids tactile and kinaesthetic materials access to specialist support, e.g. physiotherapists.

As Tilstone et al. (2000) note, it is not simply a matter of ensuring wheelchair access and appropriate toileting facilities. A pupil who needs a Rollator to move around the school has needs which are the same as any other pupil in the school, for example, to participate fully in school and class activities and to be able to work and to play with other pupils. Case study Patrick is 10 years old. He has Duchenne muscular dystrophy. His muscle strength is deteriorating and he can no longer bear his weight effectively. This means that he needs to use a wheelchair to access playtimes and school trips. Matt, a TA, provides discreet additional staff supervision on the playground. He has instructed Patrick and his friends on the safety
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aspects of using a wheelchair on the playground. The friends are allowed to push him and have organised a buddy system during playtimes. There is also a bench where Patrick can sit safely and communicate at the same eye level with his friends. As Patrick is eventually going to use an electric-powered wheelchair, Matt has been in touch with the Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents to organise a wheelchair proficiency programme for Patrick which will run parallel to the cycling proficiency scheme for pupils in Year 6. Patrick uses a special chair on a wheeled base in the classroom. This is height-adjustable, enabling him to work alongside his peers. Matt has done moving and handling training to support him in assisting Patrick to move safely from chair to wheelchair or toilet. Patrick uses his standing frame (as prescribed by the physiotherapist) during art and DT when the other children are standing up. Some of Patricks exercises and routines are included in warm-ups during PE lessons. Where the class activities are not appropriate, Patrick acts as referee or scorekeeper. Patrick has a quiet voice and speaks very slowly. The teacher uses a strategy, think, pair, share (30 seconds to think, 1 minute to share with a partner) outlined in the Primary Strategy for encouraging classroom talk. This strategy gives everyone, including Patrick, time to think and to formulate a response. Matt supports Patrick and his talking partner by starting off the discussion, and scribing ideas on a whiteboard, ensuring that he is able to contribute to class discussion. Although Patrick learnt keyboard skills during Key Stage 1, in anticipation that his upper body strength would weaken, he quickly tires. Matt has found the software program Clicker 4 to be an effective way of enabling Patrick to write more easily and independently. Matt produces grids which enable Patrick to input keywords and phrases into his writing. Sometimes Matt will scribe for him. Matt has built up a trusting relationship with Patricks parents and they work together to support Patricks emotional needs as he becomes more aware of his condition and its impact on his life. Matt is working closely with Patrick, his parents, the class teacher and outside agencies to plan and manage Patricks inclusion within the class. The focus is on helping Patrick to be as independent as possible, while managing a deteriorating medical condition. Note the emphasis on including Patrick in the social life of the school and in enabling him to access the curriculum, and not on Patricks physical disability.

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Access arrangements for National Curriculum tests

These are based on a pupils history of need and on what is normal classroom practice. The purpose of access arrangements is to remove any disadvantage arising from a pupils disability without compromising the assessment of their skills, knowledge or understanding. There are a range of access strategies to enable pupils with visual impairment, hearing impairment, physical difficulties, medical problems and specific learning difficulties to access the tests. Some of the arrangements are at the schools discretion and some have to be applied for. As a professional TA you may be asked to be a prompter, reader or an amanuensis (scribe), to supervise rest breaks and, if you have the appropriate skills, to sign or communicate for a pupil with hearing impairment. There are strict regulations governing how these roles are performed and training should be provided. Information about access arrangements is available from the QCA annually.

PRACTICAL TASK

Identify a pupil with a statement of special educational need and ask if you can see a copy of their statement and their current IEP. What are the main objectives (long-term aims) of the statement? What facilities, equipment, staffing arrangements and curriculum are specified? What IEP objectives have been identified? Does the IEP specify particular strategies or teaching styles which will enable the pupil to access the curriculum and, if appropriate, National Curriculum tests? Ask if the teacher will spend some time with you to look at how the teacher annotates short- and/or medium-term planning to include access arrangements in support of this pupils learning and social inclusion. You will find Section 4 of Including All Children in the Literacy Hour and Daily Mathematics Lesson (DfES 2002) helpful.

Summary
Teachers and professional TAs need to work in partnership to respond to pupils diverse needs. This can be achieved through careful school and curriculum planning which anticipates potential barriers to learning and the creative use of access strategies to overcome any difficulties. Professional TAs offer discreet support so that pupils can work independently, interact with their peer group and participate fully in school life.

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References
Department for Education and Skills (2001a) Special Educational Needs: Code of Practice. London: DfES. Department for Education and Skills (2001b) Guidance to Support Pupils with Specific Needs in the Daily Mathematics Lesson. London: DfES. Department for Education and Skills (2001c) Inclusive Schooling: Children with Special Educational Needs. London: DfES. Department for Education and Skills (2002) Including All Children in the Literacy Hour and Daily Mathematics Lesson. London: DfES. Department for Education and Skills (2004a) Removing Barriers to Achievement: The Governments Strategy for SEN. London: DfES. Department for Education and Skills (2004b) Excellence and Enjoyment: Learning and Teaching in the Primary Years. London: DfES. Department for Education and Skills (2005) Excellence and Enjoyment: Social and Emotional Aspects of Learning. London: DfES. Goleman, D. (1995) Emotional Intelligence: Why it Can Matter More Than IQ. New York: Bantam. Gross, J. (1993) Special Educational Needs in the Primary School: a Practical Guide. Buckingham: Open University Press. Hughes, M. and Vass, A. (2001) Strategies for Closing the Learning Gap. Stafford: Network Educational Press. Long, R. and Fogell, J. (1999) Supporting Pupils with Emotional Difficulties: Creating a Caring Environment for All. London: David Fulton. Qualifications and Curriculum Authority. Years 3-6: Assessment and Reporting Arrangements. Norwich: QCA Publications. Available at www.qca.org.uk Tilstone, C., Lacey, P., Porter, J. and Robertson, C. (2000) Pupils with Learning Difficulties in Mainstream Schools. London: David Fulton.

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