218 ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEMS

Adding the two equations (9.36) and (9.37),

θm – θa = nI2R {S1 + (1 + λ)(S4 + S5 + G)}
θm − θa
∴ I= .
nR { S1 + (1 + λ) ( S4 + S5 + G)}

9.8 OVERHEAD LINES VERSUS UNDERGROUND CABLES

Electric energy can be transmitted from one place to another through either the overhead
lines or the underground cables. The inductance is more predominant in case of overhead lines
whereas capacitance is in case of underground cables.
1. The large charging current on very high voltage cables limits the use of cable for long
length transmission. Where a long distance transmission is required, overhead transmission
lines are used.
2. The conductor in the overhead line is less expensive than the underground cable. The
size of the conductor for the same power transmission is smaller in case of overhead lines than
the cables because of the better heat dissipation in overhead lines.
3. The insulation cost is more in case of cables than the overhead lines. Overhead lines
use bare conductors supported on steel towers insulated from the towers through the porcelain
insulators. There is sufficient spacing between the conductor depending upon the operating
voltage; the air between the conductors provides insulation. The insulation in underground
cables is provided by various wrappings of high grade paper tapes. A metal sheath is applied
over the insulation to prevent moisture from entering the insulation. Oil or inert gas is
introduced to fill the voids. Storage vessels containing a reservoir of the oil or gas are installed
at intervals along the route of the cable to take up the expansion and contraction of the oil or
gas in the cable. Thus for high voltage underground transmission, the insulation problem is
quite complicated and expensive.
4. The erection cost of an overhead line is much less than the underground cable.
There are certain situations where underground cables are used notwithstanding the
cost. They are:
(i) Underground cables give greater safety to the public, less interference with amenities
and better outlook to the city.
(ii) For power station and substation, connections or a link in overhead lines.
(iii) For submarine crossings.

9.9 TYPES OF CABLES

Cables are classified depending upon the material used for insulation such as paper, rubber or
asbestos. Paper tapes of about 10 cms to 15 cms thickness can be wound on to a conductor in
successive layers to achieve a required operating voltage and is used for voltages of 10 kV and
above. In the mass-impregnation construction the paper is lapped on in its natural state and is
then thoroughly dried by the combined application of heat and vacuum. It is then impregnated

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with insulating compound. The cable is heated in a hermetically sealed steam-heated vessel to
a temperature of 120°–130°C before vacuum is applied. The compound to be used for
impregnation is heated to almost 120°C in a separate vessel and is then admitted in the cable
vessel. The compound fills all the pores in the paper and all the spaces in the cable assembly.
After impregnation the cable is allowed to cool down in the compound in order to minimize
void formation due to shrinkage. The metal sheath is then applied.
In case of pre-impregnated construction the papers are dried and impregnated before
application to the conductor and after that there is no drying or impregnation process. The
cables are further subdivided into solid, oil-filled or gas-filled types depending upon how the
paper insulation is impregnated.
For mass impregnated cables when they are laid on a gradient, the compound used for
impregnation tends to migrate from the higher to lower level. Thus voids are formed in the
cable at the higher level and because of higher pressure of oil in the lower level cable, the
compound will try to leak out. For voltages more than 10 kV, it is the void formation which has
been responsible for breakdown.
Three-phase solid paper insulation cables are of two
types: (i) the belted type and, (ii) shielded type. The belted type Sheath
consists of three separately insulated conductors with an overall A
insulating tape enclosing all the three conductors and finally
the metallic sheath is applied. The major disadvantage of belted
type construction is that the electric stress is not purely radial. B C

The existence of tangential stresses forces a leakage current

(not the charging current) to flow along the layers of paper and
the loss of power sets up local heating. It is to be noted that the
resistance and dielectric strength of laminated paper is much Fig. 9.25 Breakdown of a
3-phase belted cable.
less along the layers as compared to that across the layers. The
local heating of the dielectric may result in breakdown of the material. The breakdown
phenomenon due to tangential electric stress is shown in Fig. 9.25.

Conductor

Single wire
armoured

Serving

Metallized paper

Sheath

Compound jute
warmings

Fig. 9.26 Cross section of shielded cable.

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 220 ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEMS

The tangential stresses are eliminated in case of the shielded construction. In this each
conductor is individually insulated and covered with a thin metallic non-magnetic shielding
tape. The three shields are in contact with each other and the three conductors behave as
three single phase conductors. The three conductors are then cabled together with an additional
shield wrapped round them. There is no belt insulation provided but it is lead covered and
armoured. All the four shields and the lead sheath are at earth potential and, therefore, the
electric stresses are radial only; thereby, the tangential stresses are completely eliminated.
The 3-phase shielded construction cable is shown in Fig. 9.26.
The following are the methods for elimination of void formation in the cables:
(i) The use of low viscosity mineral oil for the impregnation of the dielectric and the
inclusion of oil channels so that any tendency of void formation (due to cyclic heating and
cooling of impregnant) is eliminated.
(ii) The use of inert gas at high pressure within the metal sheath and in direct contact
with the dielectric.
The first method is used in oil-filled cables. Oil ducts are provided within the cable itself
and they communicate with oil tanks provided at suitable locations along the cable route so as
to accommodate any changes in the oil volume during heating and cooling process (Fig. 9.27).

1
4 4 4

2 3 2

Fig. 9.27 Diagram of route of oil filled cable: 1. End coupling;

2. Connecting coupling; 3. Stopper coupling and 4. Pressure tank.

Single phase oil filled cables consist of a concentric

stranded conductor built around an open helical spring core
which serves as a channel for the flow of oil. The cable is insulated
and sheathed in the same manner as the solid type cables. The
3-phase cables are normally of the shielded design type and
consist of three oil channels composed of helical springs that
extend through the cable in spaces normally occupied by filler
material (Fig. 9.28). Another design of three-core oil filled cable
is the flat type as shown in Fig. 9.29. The flat sides are reinforced
with metallic tapes and binding wires so that during increase in
pressure of oil, due to heating, the flat side is deformed and the Fig. 9.28 3-core oil filled
section of the cable becomes slightly elliptical. Yet another compact sector conductor.
construction of 3-core oil filled cables uses 3-core paper insulated
cable without a lead sheath. The cable is pulled into a steel pipe which then is filled with oil.
Pumps are then used to maintain a specified oil pressure and allow it to expand and contract
with the loading cycle.

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 INSULATED CABLES 221
Impregnated paper dielectric
Metallized paper screen
Lead sheath

Stranded copper
conductor

Oil Hessian serving

Fig. 9.29 Flat oil filled pressure cable.

Leakage or oil in these cables is a very serious problem. Automatic signalling is, therefore,
installed to indicate the fall in oil pressure in any of the phases. Oil filled cables require relatively
smaller amount of insulation as compared to solid type for the same operating voltage and are
recommended for all voltages ranging between 66 kV and 400 kV.
To obviate the disadvantages of oil filled cables in terms of expansion and contraction of
oil during loading cycles, the gas filled cables are used which have a self-contained compensating
arrangement within the confines of the lead sheath. The compression cable is fundamentally a
solid type construction with two important modifications; (i) the cable cross section is non-
circular and (ii) the sheath thickness is reduced to allow the cable to breathe more easily. The
cable is then surrounded with an envelope and the space between the two is filled with an
inert gas at a nominal pressure of 14 kg/cm2 which compresses the cable dielectric via the
diaphragm sheath. During heating, the cable compound expands and travels radially through
the dielectric and a space is provided by it by movement of the sheath, the non-circular shape
becomes circular there. When the cable cools down, the gas pressure acting via the metallic
sheath, forces the compound back into the paper insulation.

Sheath

Conductor

Pipe

Fig. 9.30 3-phase impregnated pressure cable.

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 222 ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEMS

The gas cushion cable consists of stranded conductor, paper insulated, screened, lead
sheathed, metallic reinforced and with a rubber-containing water proof covering. A continuous
gas space throughout the length of the cable is provided. The inert gas introduced is at high
pressure within the lead sheath and in contact with the dielectric in order to suppress gaseous
ionization.
The impregnated pressure cable is similar to solid type except that provision is made for
longitudinal gas flow. The cable has a mass-impregnated insulation design and is maintained
under a gas pressure of 14 kg/cm2. In single core cables the sheath clearance is about 0.175
cm, and in 3-core cables about 0.075 cm. In case of 3-core cables, a lead gas channel pipe is
provided which is located in the space normally occupied by the filler (Fig. 9.30). The object of
this pipe is to provide low resistance path between joints.
Because of the good thermal characteristic and high dielectric strength of the gas SF6, it
is used for insulating the cables also. SF6 gas insulated cables can be matched to overhead
lines and can be operated corresponding to their surge impedance loading. These cables can be
used for transporting thousands of MVA even at UHV whereas the conventional cables are
limited to 1000 MVA and 500 kV.

PROBLEMS

9.1. Determine the operating voltage of a single core cable of dia 2 cm and having three insulating
material of permittivities 5, 4, 3. The overall diameter of the cable is 5 cms and the maximum
working stress is 40 kV/cm. Compare the operating voltage with the voltage if the cable were not
graded and the material with same working stress was used.
9.2. A single core cable has an inner diameter of 5 cms and a core diameter of 1.5 cm. Its paper
dielectric has a working maximum dielectric stress of 60 kV/cm. Calculate the maximum
permissible line voltage when such cables are used on a 3-phase power system.
9.3. Show that for a concentric cable of given dimensions and given maximum potential gradient in
the dielectric, the maximum permissible voltage between the core and the sheath is independent
of the permittivity of the insulating material.
9.4. What is ‘void formation’ in a cable ? How does this affect the performance of a cable ? What steps
are taken to prevent the formation of these voids ?
9.5. A 1-phase concentric cable 5 km long has a capacitance of 0.2 µF per km, the relative permittivity
of the dielectric being 3.5. The diameter of the inner conductor is 1.5 cm and the supply voltage
is 66 kV at 50 Hz. Calculate the inner diameter of the outer conductor, the rms voltage gradient
at the surface of the inner conductor and the rms value of the charging current.
9.6. Describe with a neat sketch, the construction of a 3-core belted type cable. Discuss the limitations
of such a cable.
9.7. The capacitances of a 3-core cable belted type are measured and found to be as follows:
(i) between 3-cores bunched together and the sheath 8 µF.
(ii) between conductor and the other two connected together to the sheath 5 µF.
Calculate the capacitance to neutral and the total charging kVA when the cable is connected to
a 11 kV 50 Hz 3-phase supply.
9.8. An H-type cable, 40 km long has a capacitance per km between any two-conductors of 0.15 µF.
The supply voltage is 3-phase 33 kV at 50 Hz. Determine the charging current.

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