SCHEME OF EVALUATION

II Semester B.Tech. – END SEMESTER EXAMINATION

SUBJECT: PHY 1051-ENGINEERING PHYSICS – 25-11-2019

1A. What are Newton rings? Why they are circular? With a neat geometry, obtain an expression for the
radii of dark rings. Mention two applications of Newton rings experiment. (5)
Newton rings are the circular interference patterns obtained due to the thin film formed
between glass plate and plano-convex lens. 1 MARK
For a given thickness, air film around the lens has a circular symmetry. Hence they are
circular.

1 MARK

For the thin air film trapped between the two glass surfaces as shown in the figure above, the conditions
for destructive (dark rings) interference are given by equation:
Consider the dark rings (destructive interference)
2nt  m , m  0, 1, 2, 3...

For air film, n  1 ,  2t  m

From the above figure, t  R  R 2  r 2 ½ MARK

12
  r 2 
t  R  R 1     ½ MARK
  R  

n(n  1) 2
Binomial theorem is, 1  y   1  ny  y  .......
n

2!
If r / R  1, using binomial theorem and neglecting higher order terms,

 1  r 2  r2
t  R  R 1     ........  1 MARK
 2  R   2 R
1
 SCHEME OF EVALUATION

Substituting the value of t , we get

rdark  mR (m  0, 1, 2, ...)

Newton rings can be used to find the (i) radius of curvature of a given lens (ii) Wavelength of a given source
(iii) irregularities of the surface (iv) refractive index of a given medium etc. – 1 MARK

1B. The first-order diffraction maximum is observed at 12.6° for a crystal having a spacing between planes
of atoms of 0.250 nm. (a) What wavelength X-ray is used to observe this first-order pattern? (b) At what
angle, second order maximum is observed (c) How many orders can be observed for this crystal at this
wavelength? (3)

(1+1+1 )

1C. Monochromatic light of wavelength 538 nm falls on a slit with width 0.10 mm. Consider a point on the screen at
9.0° from the central maximum. Calculate the ratio of the intensity at this point to the intensity at the central
maximum.(2)

(1+1)

2
 SCHEME OF EVALUATION

2A. Explain Compton Effect. Derive the Compton shift equation. For what value of photon scattering angle,
we obtain maximum Compton shift (5)

When X-rays are scattered by free/nearly free electrons, they suffer a change in their wavelength which
depends on the scattering angle. This scattering phenomenon is known as Compton Effect.
- 1 MARK

Compton could explain the experimental result by treating the X-rays not as waves but rather as point like
particles (photons) having energy E = hfo = hc/o , momentum p = hf/c = h/ and zero rest energy.
Photons collide elastically with free electrons initially at rest and moving relativistically after collision.
Let o , po = h/o and Eo = hc/o be the wavelength, momentum and energy of the incident photon
respectively. ’, p’ = h/’ and E’ = hc/’ be the corresponding quantities for the scattered photon.
We know that, for the electron, the total relativistic energy
Kinetic energy K = E − m c2
1
And momentum p =  mv. where  
1  vc 2
2

v and m are the speed and mass of the electron respectively.

- 1 MARK
In the scattering process, the total energy and total linear momentum of the system must be conserved.
For conservation of energy we must have, Eo = E’ + K
ie, Eo = E’ + (E − m c2)

Or Eo − E’ + m c2 =
Squaring both the sides, 1.5 Marks
For conservation of momentum, x-component:
y-component:
Rewriting these two equations

Squaring both the sides and adding,

3
 SCHEME OF EVALUATION

Substituting this in the equation :

, one gets

Substituting photon energies and photon momenta one gets

1 MARK

Simplifying one gets

i.e.,

OR,

Compton shift:

The Compton shift is maximum whenever the scattering angle (θ) is 180o. ½ MARK

2B. Explain the polarization phenomena by a) reflection b) double refraction (3)

a) When an unpolarized light beam is reflected from a surface, the polarization of the reflected light
depends on the angle of incidence. If the angle of incidence is 0°, the reflected beam is unpolarized. For
other angles of incidence, the reflected light is polarized to some extent, and for a particular angle of
incidence, the reflected light is completely polarized. - ½
Mark

½ Mark

Now suppose the angle of incidence 1 is varied until the angle between the reflected and refracted beams
is 90° as in Figure. At this angle of incidence, the reflected beam is completely polarized (with its electric
4
 SCHEME OF EVALUATION

field vector parallel to the surface) and the refracted beam is still only partially polarized. The angle of
incidence at which this polarization occurs is called the polarizing angle p. Using Snell’s law of refraction

½ Mark

But, 2 = 90 - p. So, we can write,

This expression is called Brewster’s law, and the polarizing angle p is sometimes called Brewster’s angle,
after its discoverer, David Brewster. Because n varies with wavelength for a given substance, Brewster’s
angle is also a function of wavelength.
b) In certain class of crystals like calcite and quartz, the speed of light depends on the direction of
propagation and on the plane of polarization of the light. Such materials are characterized by two indices
of refraction. Hence, they are often referred to as double-refracting or birefringent materials. When
unpolarized light enters a birefringent material, it may split into an ordinary (O) ray and an extraordinary
(E) ray. These two rays have mutually perpendicular polarizations and travel at different speeds through
the material. There is one direction, called the optic axis, along which the ordinary and extraordinary rays
have the same speed. - ½ Mark

1 Mark

Figure: Unpolarized light incident at an angle to the optic axis in a calcite crystal splits into an ordinary (O) ray and an
extraordinary (E) ray

2C. An electron has a kinetic energy of 3.0 eV. (a) Find its wavelength. (b) Also find the wavelength of a
photon having the same energy. (2)

(1+1 Mark)
5
 SCHEME OF EVALUATION

3A. Sketch the potential-well diagram of finite height U and length L, obtain the general solution of
the Schrödinger equation for a particle of mass m in it. (5)

- 1 MARK
Consider a particle with the total energy E, trapped in a finite potential well of height U such that
U(x) = 0 , 0 <x<L,
U(x) = U , x≤ 0, x≥L -1 MARK
Classically, for energy E<U, the particle is permanently bound in the potential well. However, according to
quantum mechanics, a finite probability exists that the particle can be found outside the well even if E<U.
That is, the wave function is generally nonzero in the regions I and III. In region II, where U = 0, the allowed
wave functions are again sinusoidal. But the boundary conditions no longer require that the wave function
must be zero at the ends of the well.
Schrödinger equation outside the finite well in regions I & III
or where
General solution of the above equation is
(x) = AeCx + B e−Cx - 1 Mark
where A and B are constants.
A must be zero in Region III and B must be zero in Region I, otherwise, the probabilities would be infinite
in those regions. For solution to be finite,
I = AeCx for x≤ 0 1 Mark
III = Be -Cx for x≥L
This shows that the wave function outside the potential well decay exponentially with distance.
Schrodinger equation inside the square well potential in region II, where U = 0
,
General solution of the above equation
- 1 Mark

3B. A quantum simple harmonic oscillator consists of an electron bound by a restoring force proportional
to its position relative to a certain equilibrium point. The proportionality constant is 8.99 N/m. Calculate its
energy in level n = 3. What is the longest wavelength of light that can excite the oscillator? (3)

6
 SCHEME OF EVALUATION

1 Mark

1 Mark

1 Mark

3C. A tungsten target is struck by electrons that have been accelerated from rest through a 40.0-kV
potential difference. Find the shortest wavelength of the radiation emitted. (2)

1 Mark

½ Mark

½ Mark

4A. Explain the following terms: a) population inversion b) meta stable states. With relevant diagrams,
briefly explain the working principle of laser. (5)
If there are more atoms are in an excited state than in the ground state, such condition is called population
inversion. - 1 Mark

The ‘metastable states’ are the states where the average life time of the atom is 10-3 s which is much
longer than that of the ordinary excited state ( 10-8s). These are the states from which stimulated

7
 SCHEME OF EVALUATION

emission is likely to occur much frequently before spontaneous emission.

- 1 Mark

- 1 Mark
Lasing medium (active medium), resonant cavity and pumping system are the essential parts of any lasing
system. Lasing medium has atomic systems (active centers), with special energy levels which are suitable
for laser action. This medium may be a gas, or a liquid, or a crystal or a semiconductor. The
atomic systems in this may have energy levels including a ground state , an excited state and a
metastable state. The resonant cavity is a pair of parallel mirrors to reflect the radiation back into
the lasing medium. Pumping is a process of exciting more number of atoms in the ground state
to higher energy states, which is required for attaining the population inversion.
- 1 Mark
In He-Ne laser, the mixture of helium and neon is confined to a glass tube that is sealed at the ends by
mirrors. A voltage applied across the tube causes electrons to sweep through the tube, colliding with the
atoms of the gases and raising them into excited states. Neon atoms are excited to state E3* through this
process (the asterisk indicates a metastable state) and also as a result of collisions with excited helium
atoms. Stimulated emission occurs, causing neon atoms to make transitions to state E2. Neighbouring
excited atoms are also stimulated. The result is the production of coherent light at a wavelength of 632.8
nm.
- 1 Mark

4B. Explain briefly (a) ionic bonding, (b) covalent bonding, (c) van der Walls bonding (3)

Ionic Bonding: When two atoms combine in such a way that one or more outer electrons are transferred
from one atom to the other, the bond formed is called an ionic bond. Ionic bonds are fundamentally
caused by the Coulomb attraction between oppositely charged ions.
- 1 Mark

8
 SCHEME OF EVALUATION

Covalent Bonding: A covalent bond between two atoms is one in which electrons supplied by either one or
both atoms are shared by the two atoms. Many diatomic molecules such as H2, F2, and CO—owe their
stability to covalent bonds. - 1 Mark

van der Walls bonding: While being electrically neutral, a molecule has a charge distribution with positive
and negative centers at different positions in the molecule. As a result, the molecule may act as an electric
dipole. Because of the dipole electric fields, two molecules can interact such that there is an attractive
force between them. These are van der Waals bonding. There are three types of van der Waals forces. (i)
dipole-dipole force (ii) dipole-induced dipole force and (iii) dispersion force - 1
Mark

4C. For copper at 300 K, calculate the probability that a state with an energy equal to 99.0% of the Fermi
energy is occupied. Fermi energy of copper is 7.05 eV. (2)

-1 Mark

-1 Mark

5A. Obtain an expression for rotational energy of a diatomic molecule. Sketch schematically these
rotational energy levels. (5)
Let’s consider the rotation of a diatomic molecule around its center of mass (Figure). A diatomic molecule
aligned along a y axis has only two rotational degrees of freedom, corresponding to rotations about the x
and z axes passing through the molecule’s center of mass.
½ Mark
If  is the angular frequency of rotation about one of these axes, the rotational kinetic energy of the
molecule about that axis can be expressed as
1
Erot  I 2
2 (1) - ½ Mark

In this equation, I is the moment of inertia of the molecule about its center of mass, given by
9
 SCHEME OF EVALUATION

 mm 
I   1 2  r2   r2 (2) - ½ Mark
 m1  m2 

where m1 and m2 are the masses of the atoms that form the molecule, r is the atomic separation, and  is
the reduced mass of the molecule
mm
 1 2
m1  m2 (3) - ½ Mark

(1+1 Marks)

The magnitude of the molecule’s angular momentum about its center of mass is L=Iω, which can attain
quantized values given by,
L  J  J  1 J  0, 1, 2, ... (4)

where J is an integer called the rotational quantum number. Combining Equations 6.5 and 6.2, we obtain
an expression for the allowed values of the rotational kinetic energy of the molecule:
2
Erot  EJ  J  J  1 J  0,1, 2, ... (5) - 1 Mark
2I
The allowed rotational energies of a diatomic molecule are plotted in Figure b. The allowed rotational
transitions of linear molecules are regulated by the selection rule ΔJ = 1.

5B. Sodium is a monovalent metal having a density of 971 kg/m 3 and a molar mass of 0.023 kg/mol.
Use this information to calculate (a) the density of charge carriers and (b) the Fermi energy. (3)

10
 SCHEME OF EVALUATION

1.5 Marks

1.5 Marks

5C. A light-emitting diode (LED) made of the semiconductor GaAsP emits red light ( λ= 650nm). Determine
the energy-band gap Eg in the semiconductor. Calculate the frequency of the emitted photon. (2)

1 Mark

1 Mark

************************************************************************************

11