BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS AND MEDICAL APPLICATION OF RADIATION

BY

AUWALU BELLO IBRAHIM

A SEMINAR PRESENTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE

IN PARTIALFULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD

MAY, 2022
ABSTRACT

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Radiation is energy that travels in the form of waves or particles and is part of our everyday
environment. People are exposed to radiation from cosmic rays, as well as to radioactive
materials found in the soil, water, food, air and also inside the body. Human-made radiation
sources are widely used in medicine, industry, and research. There are two types of radiation:
ionizing and non-ionizing radiation.

INTRODUCTION

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Radiation is energy that comes from a source and travels through space at the speed of light. This

energy has an electric field and a magnetic field associated with it, and has wave-like properties.

You could also call radiation “electromagnetic waves”. There is a wide range of electromagnetic

radiation in nature. Visible light is one example. Radiation with the highest energy includes

forms like ultraviolet radiation, x-rays, and gamma rays.X-rays and gamma rays have so much

energy that when they interact with atoms, they can remove electrons and cause the atom to

become ionized. Radioactive atoms have unstable blends of protons and neutrons.

Radioactivity is the spontaneous release of energy from an unstable atom to get to a more stable

state. lonizing Radiation is the energy that comes out of a radioactive atom.

Radioactive isotopes are radioactive atoms of the same element that have different numbers of

neutrons. Radioactive atoms can give off four types of ionizing radiation: alpha particles, beta

particles, gamma rays, and neutrons, (Vatansever and Hamblin, 2015).

Each type of radiation has different properties that affect how we can detect it and how it can

affect us. Radioactive decay happens when an unstable atom gives off radiation and changes into

a more stable atom of a different element. The length of time it takes for half of the radioactive

atoms in a group of radioactive isotopes to decay is called a half-life, (Tsai, 2006).

Exposure Pathways

Understanding the type of radiation received, the way a person is exposed (external vs. internal),

and for how long a person is exposed are all important in estimating health effects. The risk from

exposure to a particular radionuclide depends on: The energy of the radiation it emits. The type

of radiation (alpha, beta, gamma, x-rays). Its activity (how often it emits radiation), (Tsai, 2006).

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Whether exposure is external or internal: External exposure is when the radioactive source is

outside of your body. X-rays and gamma rays can pass through your body, depositing energy as

they go. Internal exposure is when radioactive material gets inside the body by eating, drinking,

breathing or injection (from certain medical procedures). Radionuclides may pose a serious

health threat if significant quantities are inhaled or ingested. The rate at which the body

metabolizes and eliminates the radionuclide following ingestion or inhalation. Where the

radionuclide concentrates in the body and how long it stays there, (Barolet et al, 2018).

Ionizing radiation is a type of energy released by atoms that travels in the form of

electromagnetic waves (gamma or X-rays) or particles (neutrons, beta or alpha). Ionizing

radiation can remove electrons from the atoms, i.e. they can ionize atoms. In terms of natural

radiation sources, there are more than 60 different naturally occurring radioactive materials

present in the environment, with radon gas being the highest contributor to people’s exposure.

Artificial radiation sources are used for nuclear power generation and many other industrial and

research applications, with the medical use of ionizing radiation being today the highest

contributor to people’s exposure (e.g. diagnostic radiology, image-guided interventions, nuclear

medicine and radiotherapy), (Oosterveld, 2018).

Non-ionizing radiation is radiation in the part of the electromagnetic spectrum where there is

insufficient energy to cause ionization. It includes electric and magnetic fields, radio waves,

microwaves, and optical radiation, which consists of infrared, visible, and ultraviolet radiation.

Non-ionizing radiation encompasses both natural and human-made sources of electromagnetic

fields. Electrical power supplies and appliances are the most common sources of low frequency

electric and magnetic fields in our living environment. Everyday sources of radiofrequency

electromagnetic fields include telecommunications, broadcasting antennas and microwave ovens.

research and medicine. Non-ionizing radiation also encompasses mechanical waves such as

infrasound and ultrasound.

Biological effects

Radiation with so much energy it can knock electrons out of atoms. Ionizing radiation can affect

the atoms in living things, so it poses a health risk by damaging tissue and DNA in genes. has

sufficient energy to affect the atoms in living cells and thereby damage their genetic material

(DNA). Fortunately, the cells in our bodies are extremely efficient at repairing this damage.

However, if the damage is not repaired correctly, a cell may die or eventually become cancerous.

Exposure to very high levels of radiation, such as being close to an atomic blast, can cause acute

health effects such as skin burns and acute radiation syndrome (“radiation sickness"). It can also

result in long-term health effects such as cancer and cardiovascular disease. Exposure to low

levels of radiation encountered in the environment does not cause immediate health effects, but

is a minor contributor to our overall cancer risk, (Tuby et al, 2009).

Radiation doses are commonly expressed in millisieverts (international units) or rem (U.S. units).

A dose can be determined from a one-time radiation exposure, or from accumulated exposures

over time. About 99 percent of individuals would not get cancer as a result of a one-time uniform

whole-body exposure of 100 millisieverts (10 rem) or lower.1 At this dose, it would be

extremely difficult to identify an excess in cancers caused by radiation when about 40 percent of

men and women in the U.S. will be diagnosed with cancer at some point during their lifetime.

Risks that are low for an individual could still result in unacceptable numbers of additional

cancers in a large population over time. For example, in a population of one million people, an

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average one-percent increase in lifetime cancer risk for individuals could result in 10,000

additional cancers. The EPA sets regulatory limits and recommends emergency response

guidelines well below 100 millisieverts (10 rem) to protect the U.S. population, including

sensitive groups such as children, from increased cancer risks from accumulated radiation dose

over a lifetime, (Tuby et al, 2009).

MEDICAL APPLICATION

X-Rays are one of the most common uses of radiation in medecine, providing valuable

information to doctors and other medical professionals on patient injuries or maladies X-Rays

are one of the most common uses of radiation in medicine, providing valuable information to

doctors and other medical professionals on patient injuries or maladies Hospitals use radiation in

a wide range of ways. X-Ray, CT, and PET machines use X-ray (X-ray and CT) and Gamma

radiation (PET) to produce detailed images of the human body, which provide valuable

diagnostic information for doctors and their patients. Radionuclides are also used to directly treat

illnesses, such as radioactive iodine, which is taken up almost exclusively by the thyroid, to treat

cancer or hyperthyroidism. Radioactive tracers and dyes are also used to be able to accurately

map a specific area or system, such as in a cardiac stress test, which may use a radioactive

isotope like Technetium-99 to identify areas of the heart and surrounding arteries with

diminished blood flow, (Alghamdi et al, 2007).

RADIOGRAPHY

Essentially high-powered versions of the types of X-Ray machines used in medicine, industrial

radiography cameras use X-rays or even gamma sources (such as Iridium-192, Cobalt-60, or

Cesium-137) to examine hard to reach or hard to see places. This is frequently used to examine

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welds for defects or irregularities, or examining other materials to locate structural anomalies or

internal components (Alghamdi et al, 2007).

NUCLEAR MEDICINE

Nuclear medicine procedures help detect and treat diseases by using a small amount of

radioactive material, called a radiopharmaceutical. Some radiopharmaceuticals are used with

imaging equipment to detect diseases. Radiopharmaceuticals can also be placed inside the body

near a cancerous tumor to shrink or destroy it. A positron emission tomography (PET) scan is an

example of a nuclear medicine procedure used to diagnose disease. A PET scan uses a

radioactive substance that is inserted into the bloodstream and travels to a specific organ.

Doctors use a special camera to watch how the tracer moves. The camera sends information to a

computer, which takes pictures as the tracer moves thorough the organ. Doctors use the images

to detect problems with the organ, (Schiffer, 2020).

Radiopharmaceuticals are also used to treat disease by shrinking tumors and killing cancerous

cells. During a brachy therapy procedure doctors surgically place small radioactive “seeds” near

or inside a cancerous tumor. The radiation from the seeds helps destroy the nearby cancer cells.

Different radioactive elements are absorbed differently by different organs. For example, iodine

is absorbed by the thyroid gland, so iodine-131 is used to diagnose and treat thyroid cancer. The

doctors choose the best radiopharmaceutical for the part of the body they need to diagnose or

treat.

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Radiation Therapy

Radiation therapy is a cancer treatment that uses focused beams of radiation to shrink or kill

tumors.

Radiation therapy uses ionizing radiation to shrink or kill tumors. Focused beams of radiation are

produced by a machine outside the body and are aimed at tumor cells inside the body, damaging

cells and destroying their ability to divide.

During radiation therapy radiation beams target tumors but can also damage healthy cells. Before

starting therapy, doctors carefully plan where to aim the radiation beam to damage the tumor as

much as possible, while doing as little damage to healthy cells as possible, (Johnstone, 2019).

Radiation therapy does not make the patient receiving the treatment radioactive. Like shining a

flashlight at your skin, your skin is illuminated where the beam hits your skin. When you turn the

flashlight off, your skin returns to its normal shade and is no longer illuminated. There are many

different types of radiation therapy that can be used to treat tumors. Some examples of radiation

therapy include:

Three-dimensional Conformal Radiation Therapy (3D-CRT): 3D-CRT is a type of radiation

cancer treatment that uses special computers to get an accurate picture of the size, shape and

location of the tumor. 3D-CRT can use single or multiple x-ray beams to target the tumor.

Proton therapy: Proton therapy uses a beam of protons to target tumors. Unlike x-rays, which

deposit energy along their path, protons deposit the majority of their energy at the end of their

path. Doctors use proton therapy to minimize damage to healthy tissue while still targeting the

tumor (Anders, et al, 2007).

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Radiation therapy can cause acute side effects, such as hair loss or nausea, which can occur

during treatment. Most acute effects disappear after treatment. Because radiation damages cells,

it can also increase the risk of cancer. There is a small chance that the cancer treatment itself will

produce another cancer years later. Radiation therapy patients are screened frequently for cancer

after successful treatment of their primary tumor, (Passarella, 2008).

Doctors and scientists continue to research radiation therapy methods to increase accuracy,

decrease damage to healthy tissue, and reduce side effects to the patient.

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Conclusion

Modern medicine would be impossible without ionizing radiation. X-ray imaging, computed

tomography scans, diagnostic and therapeutic nuclear medicine, brachytherapy, the gamma

knife, and linear accelerators are a few of the technologies that have revolutionized medical

diagnosis and treatment. As discussed in Chapter 2, radiation's benefits for human health can be

measured in thousands of lives saved and even greater numbers of persons whose quality of life

has been improved each year by these technologies. Even though the use of ionizing radiation in

medicine offers enormous benefits, however, it also poses potential risks to patients, medical

personnel, and the general public. The diagnostic and therapeutic tools that cure also can cause

acute injuries and chronic illness, such as cancer.

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