1.

Fuel Cell

A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that produces electricity without combustion by

combining hydrogen and oxygen to produce water and heat.

A fuel cell is like a battery in that it generates electricity from an electrochemical reaction. Both

batteries and fuel cells convert chemical energy into electrical energy and also, as a by-product

of this process, into heat. However, a battery holds a closed store of energy within it and once

this is depleted the battery must be discarded, or recharged by using an external supply of

electricity to drive the electrochemical reaction in the reverse direction. A fuel cell, on the other

hand, uses an external supply of chemical energy and can run indefinitely, as long as it is

supplied with a source of hydrogen and a source of oxygen (usually air). The source of hydrogen

is generally referred to as the fuel and this gives the fuel cell its name, although there is no

combustion involved. Oxidation of the hydrogen instead takes place electrochemically in a very

efficient way. During oxidation, hydrogen atoms react with oxygen atoms to form water; in the

process electrons are released and flow through an external circuit as an electric current. Fuel

cells can vary from tiny devices producing only a few watts of electricity, right up to large power

plants producing megawatts. All fuel cells are based around a central design using two electrodes

separated by a solid or liquid electrolyte that carries electrically charged particles between them.

A catalyst is often used to speed up the reactions at the electrodes. Fuel cell types are generally

classified according to the nature of the electrolyte they use. Each type requires particular

materials and fuels and is suitable for different applications.

1.1 Working Principle of a Fuel Cell

A fuel cell is a device that uses hydrogen (or hydrogen-rich fuel) and oxygen to create electricity

by an electrochemical process. A single fuel cell consists of an electrolyte sandwiched between

two thin electrodes (a porous anode and cathode). Hydrogen, or a hydrogen-rich fuel, is fed to

the anode where a catalyst separates hydrogen's negatively charged electrons from positively

charged ions (protons). At the cathode, oxygen combines with electrons and, in some cases, with

species such as protons or water, resulting in water or hydroxide ions, respectively. The electrons

from the anode side of the cell cannot pass through the membrane to the positively charged

cathode; they must travel around it via an electrical circuit to reach the other side of the cell. This

movement of electrons is an electrical current. The amount of power produced by a fuel cell

depends upon several factors, such as fuel cell type, cell size, the temperature at which it

operates, and the pressure at which the gases are supplied to the cell. Still, a single fuel cell

produces enough electricity for only the smallest applications. Therefore, individual fuel cells are

typically combined in series into a fuel cell stack. A typical fuel cell stack may consist of

hundreds of fuel cells. Fuel cells are classified primarily by the kind of electrolyte they employ.

This determines the kind of chemical reactions that take place in the cell, the kind of catalysts

required, the temperature range in which the cell operates, the fuel required, and other factors.

There are several types of fuel cells currently under development, each with its own advantages,

limitations, and potential applications

1.1.1 Advantages of fuel cell over conventional energy sources

 They produce zero or very low emissions, especially Green House Gases (GHGs)

depending on the fuel used.

  Have few moving parts and thus require minimal maintenance, reducing life cycle costs

of energy production.

 Modular in design, offering flexibility in size and efficiencies in manufacturing.

 Can be utilized for combined heat and power purposes, further increasing the efficiency

of energy production

1.2 Types of Fuel Cells

1.2.1 Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFC)

The alkaline fuel cell uses an alkaline electrolyte such as 40% aqueous potassium hydroxide. In

alkaline fuel cells, negative ions travel through the electrolyte to the anode where they combine

with hydrogen to generate water and electrons. It was originally used by NASA on space

missions. NASA space shuttles use Alkaline Fuel Cells. Alkaline fuel cells (AFCs) were one of

the first fuel cell technologies developed, and they were the first type widely used in the U.S.

space program to produce electrical energy and water onboard spacecraft. These fuel cells use a

solution of potassium hydroxide in water as the electrolyte and can use a variety of non- precious

metals as a catalyst at the anode and cathode. High- temperature AFCs operate at temperatures

between 100ºC and 250ºC (212ºF and 482ºF). However, more-recent AFC designs operate at

lower temperatures of roughly 23ºC to 70ºC (74ºF to 158ºF). AFCs are high-performance fuel

cells due to the rate at which chemical reactions take place in the cell. They are also very

efficient, reaching efficiencies of 60 percent in space applications.

The disadvantage of this fuel cell type is that it is easily poisoned by carbon dioxide (CO2). In

fact, even the small amount of CO2 in the air can affect the cell's operation, making it necessary

to purify both the hydrogen and oxygen used in the cell. CO2 can combine with KOH to form
potassium carbonate which will increase the resistance. This purification process is costly.

Susceptibility to poisoning also affects the cell's lifetime (the amount of time before it must be

replaced), further adding to cost. Cost is less of a factor for remote locations such as space or

under the sea. However, to effectively compete in most mainstream commercial markets, these

fuel cells will have to become more cost effective. AFC stacks have been shown to maintain

sufficiently stable operation for more than 8,000 operating hours.

Anode Reaction: 2H2 + 4OH- »» 4H2O + 4e-

Cathode Reaction: O2 + 2H2O + 4e- »» 4OH-

1.2.2 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFC)

The molten carbonate fuel cell uses a molten carbonate salt as the electrolyte. It has the potential

to be fuelled with coal- derived fuel gases, methane or natural gas. These fuel cells can work at

up to 60% efficiency. In molten carbonate fuel cells, negative ions travel through the electrolyte

to the anode where they combine with hydrogen to generate water and electrons. Molten
carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs) are currently being developed for natural gas and coal-based

power plants for electrical utility, industrial, and military applications. MCFCs are high-

temperature fuel cells that use an electrolyte composed of a molten carbonate salt mixture

suspended in a porous, chemically inert ceramic lithium aluminum oxide (LiAlO2) matrix. Since

they operate at extremely high temperatures of 650ºC and above, nonprecious metals can be used

as catalysts at the anode and cathode, reducing costs.

Unlike alkaline, phosphoric acid, and polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells, MCFCs don't

require an external reformer to convert more energy-dense fuels to hydrogen. Due to the high

temperatures at which they operate, these fuels are converted to hydrogen within the fuel cell

itself by a process called internal reforming, which also reduces cost. Although they are more

resistant to impurities than other fuel cell types, scientists are looking for ways to make MCFCs

resistant enough to impurities from coal, such as sulfur and particulates. The primary

disadvantage of current MCFC technology is durability. The high temperatures at which these

cells operate and the corrosive electrolyte used accelerate component breakdown and corrosion,

decreasing cell life. Scientists are currently exploring corrosion-resistant materials for

components as well as fuel cell designs that increase cell life without decreasing performance
Anode Reaction: CO3-2 + H2 → H2O + CO2 + 2e-

Cathode Reaction: CO2 + ½O2 + 2e- → CO3-2

1.2.3 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFC):

A phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC) consists of an anode and a cathode made of a finely

dispersed platinum catalyst on carbon and a silicon carbide structure that holds the phosphoric

acid electrolyte. In phosphoric acid fuel cells, protons move through the electrolyte to the

cathode to combine with oxygen and electrons, producing water and heat. This is the most

commercially developed type of fuel cell and is being used to power many commercial premises.

Phosphoric acid fuel cells use liquid phosphoric acid as an electrolyte— the acid is contained in a

Teflon-bonded silicon carbide matrix—and porous carbon electrodes containing a platinum

catalyst. The phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC) is considered the "first generation" of modern fuel

cells. It is one of the most mature cell types and the first to be used commercially, with over 200

units currently in use. This type of fuel cell is typically used for stationary power generation, but

some PAFCs have been used to power large vehicles such as city buses. PAFCs are more

tolerant of impurities. They are 85 percent efficient when used for the co-generation of electricity

and heat, but less efficient at generating electricity alone (37 to 42 percent). PAFCs are also less

powerful than other fuel cells, given the same weight and volume. As a result, these fuel cells are

typically large and heavy. PAFCs are also expensive. Like PEM fuel cells, PAFCs require an

expensive platinum catalyst, which raises the cost of the fuel cell.
Anode Reaction: H2 → 2H+ + 2e-

Cathode Reaction: ½O2 + 2H+ + 2e- → H2O

1.2.4 Polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells (PEMFC)

In polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells, protons move through the electrolyte to the

cathode to combine with oxygen and electrons, producing water and heat. Polymer electrolyte

membrane (PEM) fuel cell uses a polymeric membrane as the electrolyte, with platinum

electrodes.

These cells operate at relatively low temperatures. These cells are the best candidates for cars,

for buildings and smaller applications. Polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells—also

called proton exchange membrane fuel cells—deliver high power density and offer the

advantages of low weight and volume, compared to other fuel cells. PEM fuel cells use a solid

polymer as an electrolyte and porous carbon electrodes containing a platinum catalyst. They only

hydrogen, oxygen from the air, and water to operate and do not require corrosive fluids like some
fuel cells. They are typically fueled with pure hydrogen supplied from storage tanks or onboard

reformers.

Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells operate at relatively low temperatures, around 80°C

(176°F). Low temperature operation allows them to start quickly (less warm-up time) and

results in less wear on system components, resulting in better durability. However, it requires

that a noble metal catalyst (typically platinum) be used to separate the hydrogen's electrons

and protons, adding to system cost. The platinum catalyst is also extremely sensitive to CO

poisoning, making it necessary to employ an additional reactor to reduce CO in the fuel gas if

the hydrogen is derived from an alcohol or hydrocarbon fuel. This also adds cost. Developers are

currently exploring platinum/ruthenium catalysts that are more resistant to CO.

Anode Reaction: H2 → 2H+ + 2e-

Cathode Reaction: ½O2 + 2H+ + 2e- → H2O

1.2.5 Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC)

SOFC work at higher temperatures. They use a solid ceramic electrolyte, such as zirconium

oxide stabilized with yttrium oxide, instead of a liquid and operate at 800 to 1,000°C. In solid

oxide fuel cells, negative ions travel through the electrolyte to the anode where they combine

with hydrogen to generate water and electrons. Efficiencies of around 60 per cent and are

expected to be used for generating electricity and heat in industry and potentially for providing

auxiliary power in vehicles.

1.2.5.1 Advantages of SOFC

  Since the electrolyte is a solid, the cells do not have to be constructed in the plate-like

configuration typical of other fuel cell types.

 High temperature operation removes the need for precious-metal catalyst, thereby

reducing cost.

 They are not poisoned by carbon monoxide (CO), which can even be used as fuel.

 Sulphur resistant. This allows SOFCs to use gases made from coal.

Scientists are currently exploring the potential for developing lower- temperature SOFCs

operating at or below 800ºC that have fewer durability problems and cost less.

1.2.6 Methanol Fuel Cells

1.2.6.1 Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC)

Similar to any other type of fuel cell, methanol fuel cells consist of two electrodes (anode and

cathode), which are separated from each other through an electrolyte. The electrodes are

conductive for electrons, while the electrolyte is only permeable for positively charged hydrogen

atoms.

Typically, methanol fuel cell systems build on a polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM). In terms

of design, a distinction can be made between two modes of operation: Fuel cells that use

methanol directly and those that use methanol indirectly. Direct methanol fuel cells (DMFC) are

the most common form of methanol fuel cell. Compared to other methanol fuel cells, they are

characterized by a simple system design and fast start-up times. They are usually low-power

systems with an output of < 200 Watts.

Electrical efficiency: 20 – 30%

Operating temperature: 70 – 90°C

Reaction: 2 CH3OH + 3 O2 -> 4 H2O + 2 CO2

DMFCs supply a methanol-water mixture at the anode side. The mixture is split into hydrogen

and carbon dioxide. A catalyst (platinum) divides the hydrogen molecules into positively

charged hydrogen atoms (protons). The hydrogen protons pass through the electrolyte (a proton

exchange membrane) to the cathode and react with oxygen to form water. The process takes

place at a comparatively low cell temperature of 70 to 90°C, which enables fast start-up times.

DMFCs are used both in commercial and private settings. The fields of application include

remote monitoring stations, video surveillance systems or smaller electrical systems in traffic

control – mostly with a demanded power of less than 150 Watts. In the leisure sector, DMFCs

are used for on-board power supply in caravans and boats.

Advantages

 Fast start-up time

 Simple and compact system design

 Widely used and well-established for low power applications

Disadvantages

 Require high purity methanol

 Comparatively low efficiency (20 – 30%)

 Storage temperature at sub-zero temperatures problematic, as formation of water crystals

can damage the membrane.

 Methanol “cross-over” on membrane can affect lifetime and system efficiency

 High platinum content required as catalyst

1.2.6.2 Indirect methanol fuel cell

The indirect methanol fuel cell (also reformed methanol fuel cell or RMFC) uses hydrogen as

fuel. The hydrogen is extracted from methanol in a pre-process. This system design allows for a

higher power output and improved electrical efficiency compared to DMFCs.

Electrical efficiency: 35 – 50%

Operating temperature: depending on membrane 70 – 90°C (LT-PEM) or 160 – 200 °C (HT-

PEM)

Reaction: CH3OH + H2O -> 3 H2 + CO2 (Reformer) 2 H2 + O2 -> 2 H2O (Fuel cell)
RMFCs can differ with regard to their membrane. Some systems use conventional low-

temperature polymer electrolyte membranes (LT-PEM), while others use high-temperature

polymer electrolyte membranes (HT-PEM). However, the basic working principle is similar:

In the first step, methanol is converted into a hydrogen-containing gas (reformate gas). This so-

called steam reformation process takes place at temperatures between 200 – 220°C. More about

the process can be found below in the text. Methanol serves as a liquid hydrogen carrier.

In contrast to a DMFC, no watery methanol is fed to the anode, but gaseous hydrogen. However,

since LT-PEMs – a fuel cell type commonly used in the automotive industry – require high-

purity hydrogen, the reformate gas must be purified before being used for power generation. This

may be accomplished by means of a palladium membrane.

In contrast to LT-PEMs, HT-PEMs are tolerant to impurities in the reformate gas due to their

elevated operating temperature. The step of conditioning is therefore not required for this system

design.
Applications

RMFCs are predominantly used for stationary power generation, as well as in the automotive

sector. Fields of application include remote telecommunication sites or backup power supply for

critical infrastructure. Systems and modules vary from 150 watts to several hundred kilowatts,

depending on the field of application.

Compared to a DMFC, the system design of the RMFC is more complex. However, the

requirements regarding the methanol purity are lower. In addition, a higher efficiency can be

achieved.

Advantages

 High efficiency (35- 50%)

 Cold storage since no liquid is in direct contact with the membrane

 Lower platinum content

 Use of industrial methanol (for example according to IMPCA)

Disadvantages

 Slower startup time due to warm-up phase

 More complex system design

Off-road vehicles are essential for agriculture, construction, and mining. The hallmark equipment

of these industries are tractors, wheel loaders, and excavators [8]. Tractors tow and power

implements that enable the agricultural cycle of growing and harvesting crops. Wheel loaders

and excavators both accomplish earthmoving, but wheel loaders travel during most their duty
cycle while excavators often remain stationary, only rotating and moving the implement arm. 6.7

M tractors were sold in the US in 2018, projected to increase to 8.6 M in 2025, and the US

agricultural industry spent $13.5 B on fuel, gas, and oil [9]. The global excavator market size in

2018 was $44 B and projected to reach $63 B in 2026 [10]. The global loader market size in

2018 was $27 B, projected to reach $38 B in 2026 [11]. Nearly all tractors, wheel loaders, and

excavators are powered by diesel powertrains that emit carbon dioxide and criteria pollutants

inconsistent with emerging environmental and health standards [12]. Transiently operated diesel

engines can emit one or two orders of magnitude more NOx and particulate matter versus quasi-

steady engines [13]. Hydraulic excavators comprise 60% of all construction equipment CO 2

emissions [14]. Mining was responsible for 4%e7% of all greenhouse gas emissions, globally, as

reported in January 2020 [15]. In a Korean study, on-site construction equipment was found

responsible for 6.8% of the total emissions generated in the country [16]. Off-road equipment

emitted 20% - 40% of all 2.5 μm aerosolized particulate matter in USA and Europe in 2011 [16].

A 2014 study in Finland found that off-road mobile machinery emitted 49% of all CO and 42%

of all particulate matter [17]. Toward meeting decarbonization goals, hydrogen production and

electrification for vehicle applications have received considerable research attention.

Description of Non-Road Mobile Machinery (NRMM)

Non-road mobile machinery encompasses various machine applications from gardening vehicles

to agricultural tractors and from reach trucks to heavy-duty mining vehicles. NRMM are wheeled
or tracked mobile machines that are well suitable to operate in off-road conditions. A common

aspect for all of these machines is their purpose for intensive use (often professional) to carry out

predefined tasks in a specific environment. In professional use, these machines are typically

operated for several hours per day and often more than a typical eight-hour work shift. In some

environments, such as mines and harbors, the work shifts can be considerably longer, even up to

24 h per day. These machines can be divided into different categories by their primary intended

use. The most common machinery types are construction machines or earth-moving machines.

The following classification of machine applications has been often used for NRMM:

 Construction or earth-moving machines: all kinds of loaders, dumpers, excavators, land

rollers, bulldozers, etc.

 Transportation of goods or material handling equipment: forklifts, Automated Guided

Vehicles (AGVs), mobile cranes, Rubber Tired Gantry (RTG) cranes, straddle carriers,

etc.

 Municipal or property maintenance machines: different types of gardening and cleaning

machines often targeted also at on-road operations, snow removal machines, etc.

 Tractors and agricultural machines: agricultural tractors, forest machines (forwarders,

harvesters, etc.), combine harvesters, field choppers, self-propelled manure spreaders, etc.

Historically, internal combustion engines (ICEs), mostly diesel engines, have dominated the

power production in NRMM. Diesel engines have good efficiency among the ICE family, and
the emission regulations have not generated technical challenges or increased significantly the

cost of the engine technology. Mobile machinery are often operated at low driving speeds when

high torque capacity is demanded at the wheels.