DEFINITION OF TERMS

Structural engineering - focuses on the framework of structures, and on designing those

structures to withstand the stresses and pressures of their environment and remain safe, stable
and secure throughout their use.

Structural analysis is the determination of the effects of loads on physical structures and their
components.

Dead loads - due to the weight of the structural system itself and other material permanently
attached to it.

Live loads - which are movable or moving loads due to the use of the structure.

Environmental loads – are caused by environmental effects, such as wind, snow, and
earthquakes.

Plane framework or truss is defined as a structure composed of a number of bars, all lying in
one plane and hinged together at their ends in such a manner as to form a rigid configuration.

Joint method - is consists of selecting a joint with no more unknown forces on it and applying
the two equilibrium equations to determine the unknown forces.

Section method - involves cutting the truss into two portions by passing an imaginary section
through the members whose forces are desired by applying the three equations of equilibrium to
the free body diagram of one of the two portions of the truss.

Maxwell diagram is a combined diagram of loads and stresses. It is used to determine the stress
analysis of a truss. It is made by combining the force polygon acting at each joint into a common
polygon.

Space truss is a structure whose members lie in different plane like domes, transmission- line
towers, derricks, and steel off-shore oil drilling platforms. They are consisting of trusses
arranged in multiple planes, and their structural integrity depends upon the three-dimensional
interaction of the members.

Arches are buildings where larger clear spans are required like gymnasiums, hangars, churches,
warehouses, and convention halls.

Steel cables are used to support loads over long spans, such as for suspension bridges, cable car
systems, and similar structures. Cables support concentrated vertical loads, horizontal uniform
loads or loads that are uniform along its length.
Bridge is a structure that spans horizontally between supports to carry vertical loads. It can be
divided into two categories namely standard overpass bridges or unique design bridges over
rivers, chasms, or estuaries.

Double-integration method - is accomplished using the concept of a general moment equation

where before the deflection at a particular point can be found, complete slope and deflection
equations must be determined.

Area-moment method - uses the area-moment theorems that requires the area and the moment
of area of moment diagrams be calculated. Drawing the moment diagram by parts is then
necessary.

Conjugate-beam method - shows how the definitions of shear and moment may be applied to a
fictitious loading to determine the slope and deflection at any point.
Castigliano’s method is a method for determining the displacements of a linear elastic system
based on the partial derivatives of the energy. It is named after an Italian engineer, Carlo Alberto
Castigliano, who is known for his two theorems for linear elastic structures in 1879. The basic
concept is that a change in energy is equal to the causing force times the resulting displacement.

Virtual Work - is the work done by a real force acting through a virtual displacement or a
virtual force acting through a real displacement. A virtual displacement is any displacement
consistent with the constraints of the structure, i.e., that satisfy the boundary conditions at the
supports.

Continuous beam is a structural element that provides resistance to bending when a load or
force is applied on it. It has more than two supports along its horizontal length.

Three-Moment Equation - is a relationship among the bending moments at three consecutive

supports of a horizontal beam and their relative vertical distances or deviations. In this method, it
is necessary to find a general relation between the bending moments at any three sections in a
beam.

Moment distribution method - is a structural analysis method for statically indeterminate

beams and frames developed by Hardy Cross. It was widely used from 1930s until computers
were famous in designing and analyzing of structures.

Fixed End Moments (FEM) - are the moments produced at member ends by external loads.

Rotational stiffness or beam stiffness (K) - is the flexural rigidity of the member and needed is
not the specific values but the ratios of bending stiffness between all members.

Distribution factors (DF) - can be defined as the proportions of the unbalanced moments
carried by each of the member.
Lateral Stiffness (LS) - It is the measure of resistance to lateral displacement of one end of the
member when both of its ends are fixed against rotation.

Carry-Over Factor (COF) - it is the ratio of the moment at the fixed end to the moment
producing rotation at the other end if both ends of a member are on unyielding supports, with one
end fixed and the other end rotated by an applied moment.

Slope-deflection method - relies on the use of the slope-deflection equation, which expresses
the moment at the end of the member in terms of the following parameters: the fixed end
moments due to the external loads, the rotation of the tangent at each end of the elastic curve of
the member, and the rotation of the chord joining the ends of the elastic curve.

Factor Method - For the application of this method, the relative stiffness (k = I/i), for each beam
and column should be known or assumed, where I is the moment of inertia of cross section and L
is the length of the member.

Cantilever Method - gives good result for high-narrow buildings compared to those from the
portal method and it may be used satisfactorily for buildings of 25 to 35 stories tall.

Portal Method - This method is satisfactory for buildings up to 25 stories, hence is the most
used approximate method for analyzing tall buildings.