LANDMARK UNIVERSITY

University Wide Courses Unit

LECTURE NOTES

Program: General Studies

Course Title: Communication in English 1

Course Code: GST 111

Unit: 2

Lecturers: Dr. Olushola Akanmode, Mrs. A.T. Alaiyemola

Session: 2022/2023

Semester: Alpha

Time: Wednesdays: 10a.m-12noon

Venue: MPH/LT2

Brief Overview of the Course

Communication in English 1 is part of the General Studies programme in English which aims at
inculcating basic language and study skills required for a successful university education. This
first part focuses on the study of receptive skills i.e. the ability to retrieve information from oral
and written texts with emphasis on reading and summarization. Other study skills such as time
management, effective listening, note-taking, vocabulary development etc. will be examined.

Course Objectives

At the end of the course, students should be able to:

i. Organize their study time effectively

ii. Listen to lectures and effectively manage lecture notes
iii. Develop effective reading habits and increase their reading speed
iv. Apply effective methods of summarizing reading materials
v. Develop a wide range of vocabulary for a successful academic career

Method of Lecture Delivery/Teaching Aids

Guided instructions, interactive sessions, group works/projects.

Multimedia-assisted power-point presentation may also be used.

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Course Outline

Module A: ELEMENTS OF STUDY SKILLS

Week 1 Preparing for Academic Success

Week 2 Tools and Facilities for Effective Study/Challenges to Effective Study

Week 3 English in Nigeria Today

Module B LISTENING SKILLS & NOTE TAKING

Week 4 Conditions for Effective Listening

Week 5 The Nature of the Lecture

Week 6 Aspects of Effective Note Taking

Module C EFFECTIVE READING SKILLS

Week 7 Overcoming Poor Reading Habits

Week 8 Increasing the Speed of Reading

Week 9 Types of Reading Materials

Week 10 Understanding and Summarizing Reading Materials

Week 11 Further Works on Summarizing

Module D ASPECTS OF VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT

Week 12 Sources of English Vocabulary

Week 13 Ways of Increasing the Vocabulary

Week 14 Revision

Week 15 Examination

Structure of Programme/Method of Grading

Continuous Assessment 30%

Examination 70%

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 Ground Rules

Students are to be seated at least 5minutes to the time of lecture. Lecture door closes 5minutes
after the commencement of lecture. Students are to attend lectures with relevant materials and
texts. No form of misconduct would be permitted in class. Side-talks, rude language, improper
dressing, eating, drinking, playing computer games, sleeping, side –attractions etc. will not be
tolerated.

Topic for Assignments/Students’ Activities

i. Group project works (topics to be decided) will test language and study skills
ii. Other assignment topics will be decided by lecturers at the various study groups

Alignment with Landmark University Vision

As part of the vision of Landmark University with regard to raising a new generation of leaders
in Nigeria and beyond, this course is intended to produce competent communicators, especially
where language skills are of utmost importance. This course is specially designed to equip
students with advanced skill in listening and reading.

Contemporary Issues/Industry Relevance

There is an ever increasing need for highly qualified personnel with corporate skills in oral and
written communication in English. The products of this course are expected to satisfy the needs
for placement in the academia, the mass media- the corporate world and indeed all other fields
where a high degree of proficiency in communication and language skills are required.

Recommended Reading

Adegbija, Efurosibina, ed (1998). Effective Communication in Higher Education: The Use of

English. Ilorin: The General Studies Unit, University of Ilorin.

Adegbija, Efurosibina, ed (2004). Language, Communication and Study Skills. Ilorin: Dominion
Publishing.

Adetugbo, Abiodun (1997). Communicative English and Study Skills. Lagos: University of
Lagos Press.

Akere, Funso. (1990). English Across Disciplines. Lagos: Pumarks Nig. Ltd. The World Book of
Study Power. Chicago: World Book Inc.

Alabi, Victoria and Babatunde, Sola eds (2009). The Use of English in Higher Education. Ilorin:
General Studies Division, University of Ilorin.

Ogbulogo, Charles and Olasehinde, Martha eds (2017). Effective Communication in English (for
Higher Education). Omu-Aran: Directorate of University Wide Courses, Landmark
University.

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Ogbulogo, Charles. (2004) Problem Areas in English Grammar & Usage. Lagos: Sam Iroanusi
Publications.

GST 111: Communication in English 1

Module A: Elements of Study Skills

(i) PREPARING FOR ACADEMIC SUCCESS

 Purpose (right choice of Courses)

• Time Management
• Effective use of the Library
• Friendship with teachers/Mentors
• Active use of the four basic language skills
• Effective note taking/note making
• Team work – project participation/extra-curricular activities
• Have the I CAN attitude

(ii) TOOLS AND FACILITIES FOR EFFECTIVE STUDY

An effective study is usually enhanced by procuring relevant tools/facilities that are needed. Such tools
include:


Text books
•
Reference books (dictionaries, commentaries, encyclopaedia, charts, atlas, thesaurus, graph
books, yearbooks etc. Other materials/publications like newspapers, magazines, abstracts etc.
may be useful)
Study Tools

• Journals
• Personal PCs with Internet resources
• Stationery
• Files
• Other peculiar course requirements
• Note: you are supposed to acquire at least two text books for every course.

(iii) CHALLENGES TO EFFECTIVE STUDY HABITS

Most challenges to effective study arise as a result of students’ inability to organise:

• Their time
• Their environment or location for study
• Their learning resources
• A systematic and coherent approach
• The records and notes they keep for future reference.

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Organizing your Time

One of the best ways of organizing your time is to draw out a time-table of your waking hours for the
whole day/week. Then fill in those times taken up with eating, lectures, fellowships, relaxing or resting.
Then you will be left with times for:

• Private study period between lectures

• Time after breakfast or dinner
• Time during weekends

In our context, a student should be prepared to commit some 12-15 hours per week to studying and
assignment production. Your schedule should have at least the following 4 main types of times:

 For writing up your notes at the end of each day

• For accessing reference books in the library and for doing research
• For extended uninterrupted periods to do assignments
• For leisure/recreation/rest

(iv) ENGLISH IN NIGERIA TODAY

 Language and Communication

 Varieties of English
 Use of English in Nigeria Today

Module B: Listening Skills and Note Taking

(i) CONDITIONS FOR EFFECTIVE LISTENING

Language skills

 Receptive Skills (Listening & Reading)

 Expressive Skills (Writing & Speaking)

Listening & Hearing

Hearing – (a biological) process by which sound waves are received, modified and relayed along the
nervous system – done effortlessly - (passively) perceiving sounds. Listening – Psychological (conscious)
processes of selecting sounds – concentrating and getting desired information from sound frequencies. It
is active (the first and the most important language skill). It involves the application of the listener’s:

 language skill
 general knowledge
 cognitive reasoning
 evaluation skills

Types of Listening

Types of information being anticipated and the context, determine the appropriate listening type.

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  Attentive listening – basic for all types of contexts–full concentration/attention e.g. lectures
 Critical/analytic listening – requires evaluating a message/information using explicitly stated
points, context/discourse to arrive at point not stated. You listen objectively-questioning points in
the light of existing information
 Reflective listening – listening with positive thinking; reflecting on main points of the message,
their implication –their general impact etc. e.g. sermon.
 Appreciative listening – engaging in feelings/emotion in listening able to identify the mood of the
speaker in the event - how the speaker use words to add effect to meaning-forming image of
certain expressions
 Empathic listening – identifying with the mood of the speaker – i.e. responding to his/her feeling

Conditions for Effective Listening

 Take a correct sitting position

 Concentrate – discipline your mind – avoid distractions, mind wandering or day dreaming
 Pay attention to the speaker’s verbal performance appreciate his/her use of language (if you
can) - note his/her voice modulations.
 Stay alert to speaker’s pauses or falls of speech rhythm for position response, interposing, or
follow-up questions
 Repeat keywords or phrases in your mind in order to retain them, especially names, items,
dates etc.
 Look at the speaker’s face, posture and gesture interpret NVCs correctly
 Be ready to ask questions or remark that will provide further explanation/amplification of
information
 Provide regular feedback responses
 Give appropriate NVC (nonverbal communication) feedbacks to reinforce the speaker’s
confidence, establish rapport and strengthen confidence e.g. smiles, especially actions that
will reduce breakdown, indifferences or tiredness
 Take notes for future reference

Poor Listening

Poor listening is characterized by:

 Intermittent dozing
 Mind-wandering or day dreaming
 Distractions, such as talking, or doing something else during lectures
 Feedback responses that communicate tiredness or resentment
 Actions, such as intermittent gazing at the wrist watch, tapping the foot on the floor or hissing,
which imply that the speakers is not wanted
 A negative opinion of the speaker and his or her message thereby giving a negative response

(ii) NATURE OF THE LECTURE

A lecture is a body of information, which may consist of instructions, procedures, processes or practice on
any aspect of human knowledge. Generally a lecture mirrors what is on the mind of the lecturer to offer to
his students or learners. Most academic lectures are instructional and some are interactive, generally
aimed at equipping the learner with certain skills and requisite knowledge. Some train the learner to be
able to perform certain assignment or jobs in order to practice certain professions. Therefore a lecture is
NOT just about passing academic examinations; rather it is for imparting knowledge, skills and values for
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a successful living. Here in Landmark University our goal is to produce capacity-based new generation of
leaders that will be entrepreneurially self-reliant, intellectually robust and visionary oriented.

What to expect from a lecture

 Life- applicable knowledge or information

 Procedures for performing certain knowledge-based activities
 Results of proven processes and procedures
 Precaution against possible failures (i.e. how not to perform/approach certain activities) etc.

Right Attitude to a Lecture

 An inquisitive mind
 A question (s) to be answered in the lecture
 An attentive heart and ears
 A positive attitude towards the lecture and the lecturer
 Active participation in class
 A sense of alertness and vigilance
 A determination to leave the lecture with a new knowledge

Structure of a Lecture

Every lecture has a topic and consists of key points and goals/objectives, which lecturers often share with
their students at the beginning of the lecture. Lectures are usually organized sequentially and logically.
Ideas are sometimes presented in a chronological order, transiting from one level to another. Most
lectures are divided into three segments namely:

 The introduction: gives an insight of what the entire lecture is about. Some introductions define
key concepts and purpose of the lecture
 The Body: comprising the content of the lecture. Here main ideas and key points are explored,
illustrated and exemplified. Subordinate ideas are also explored.
 Conclusion: comprising a summary of the lecture. Students are reminded of the key points of the
lecture. Sometimes practical demonstrations of certain main points are carried out here.

Identifying key points in a Lecture

A student must watch out for guides to new points at the point of transitions. Words such as next, firstly,
secondly or thirdly, moreover are good guides to new ideas. As you will find in the next lecture on note-
taking, words that indicate cause and effects relationship (e.g. therefore) and contrast (e.g. on the
contrary) are also very helpful. You must participate in practical demonstrations and applications and pay
attention to models or examples.

Lecture paragraphs are usually tied together coherently by certain discourse markers or cohesive devices
such as although, similarly, in addition, etc are also good guides to key points in the lecture.

Identifying patterns of Lecture Organization

You may begin by asking yourself the following questions about the lecturer and the lecture, particularly
about how the lecture is organized.

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  Does s/he order, list or itemize facts?
 Does s/he narrate events sequentially?
 Does s/he relate cause to effect?
 Does s/he make a general statement followed by examples?

Being able to recognize the organization of a lecture aids understanding and note-taking

Conclusion

Lectures should therefore not leave you the way they met you. There is always sometime new to learn. It
is always good to prepare for a lecture by:

 reading ahead (with the course outline of the lecture, you can begin to read around the topic)
 arming yourself with relevant questions
 providing study materials e.g. relevant texts and writing materials
 approaching a lecture with a ready mind in order to have your questions answered.

(iii) ASPECTS OF EFFECTIVE NOTE TAKING

Recording frees your mind from the stress of the memory

Mike Murdock

Human beings forget more than half of what they hear within 24 hours

Research findings

Consider these Realities:

 There is a great mass of new information to be assimilated in the university

 There are urgent mental tasks competing for time.
 Lectures must be complemented by personal reading.
 Assignments and projects are tied to deadlines
 Success is indexed on completion of assignments and the fulfilling of requirements
 Non-compliance leads to frustration

Note-Taking

Note-taking involves the following related activities:

 Listening attentively to lectures;

 Reading carefully through a passage, a part of a book or the entire book
 Making amend of the major point heard or read; and
 Organizing these points for easy understanding.

Note-taking can also be used as a plan of:

 What to say as a speech, or

 What to write as a text, an essay or an examination answer

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Uses of note-taking

Note-taking has been found to be useful in the following areas:

 Research – involving review of relevant sources on specific topics

 Examination preparation – with good points from our lectures and relevant books
 Memory help.

Achieving Success in Note-taking

 Find out the subject of the lecture or the text and make it the title of your notes – e.g. The Core
Values of Landmark University
 Identify the main points of the lecture or the text
 Look out for the logic of the text or the speech
 Follow specific markers as guides such as listing, sequencing and time relatives e.g. first, next,
lastly, then, which etc. Or
 For indicating a cause and effect relationship – so, because, therefore, since, thus, etc.
 For contrast – but, nevertheless on the contrary, on the other hand, although, yet etc.
 For summing up – to sum up, to conclude, in other words, finally.

It is advisable when taking notes from a text to start with a quick survey of the text. This is followed by
another quick reading within which to make a mental note, and bearing in mind the connectivity between
the points. It is important to understand the whole text before taking notes. Emphasis should be placed on
the paragraph, rather than on the sentence.

You may use abbreviations to represent information, e.g. e.g., i.e., c.f. pp. dt. esp. Etc.

Forms of the note

There are a variety of ways of taking notes. While some of them are highly personalized others are quite
standardized. Most of the personalized ones occur as diagrams, charts, designs. The standard methods
are the outline, and the summary in connected sentences.

Summary as a form of note-taking

The summary is an advancement of the outline. The points jotted are used in writing connected and co-
ordinated sentences. These sentences must be cohesive and coherent. To achieve success in summarizing,
the following guidelines should be adopted:

 Select relevant points

 Present the points briefly and accurately.
 Write the points in short sentences and in your own words

Conclusion

Reading and listening to lectures will not achieve the desired result without note-taking. Students who
take notes concentrate better, create records for future use and enhance their memory. These are
requirements for becoming great students in a world-class university.

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Module C: Effective Reading Skills

Reading makes a man – Francis Bacon

Today a reader, tomorrow a leader - Fusselman

(i) OVERCOMING POOR READING HABITS

Reading of relevant texts and materials complement lectures as an important study skill. Active reading
helps solve the problems associated with poor reading habits.

Active reading therefore must involve:

 Reading with a purpose

 Reading with a focus
 Reading with guide questions
 Adopting a flexible reading speed
 Employing memory enhancing devices
 Having attitudinal adjustments

The general reading process involves:

 The eyes and the mind decoding encoded information

 The mind absorbing the ideas stated or implied

Types of Reading

 Intensive reading – painstaking

 Extensive reading covering wide areas of knowledge
 Skimming – general overview
 Scanning – for specific information
 Detailed reading for general information

Techniques for Effective Reading

SQ3R

 Survey
 Question
 Read
 Review
 Recall

(ii) INCREASING THE SPEED OF READING

 Skimming – very fast – surveying for general impression

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  Fairly rapid reading – for review materials/revision/recreation
 The average reading – for leisure
 Contemplative reading – for sake of memorizing

Eye Movements

 The ‘saccadic’ movement followed by a stop

 The regressive or backward movement – eyes go backward - re-read parts to reinforce memory

Poor Reading Habits

 Reading all materials at the same speed

 Saying word to yourself (vocalizing)
 Moving the lips while reading
 Using a finger or pen to trace words
 Moving the head or shoulder
 Reading word by word
 Reading aloud

Rather:

 Vary your reading speed to suit context

 Read with your mind
 Control backward eye movement
 Read critically
 Let your eyes move and not your head

Conclusion

 Take enough rest

 Eat well
 Plan your reading
 Read with a focus

(iii) TYPES OF READING MATERIALS

Reading materials include:

 Books (recommended texts)

 Reference Materials (dictionaries, encyclopedias, year books, journals, abstracts, indexes, internet
resources etc.)
 Newspapers, magazines and other media
 Lecture Notes
 Etc.

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(iv) SUMMARISING READING MATERIALS AND NOTE TAKING

Summarizing means reducing the structural length of a reading material while retaining its original
meaning. You generally apply the principles of summarizing in note making. The general assumption in
summarizing and note-making is that a text exists which can be reduced in length without tampering with
the content or meaning. It is also assumed that the writer of a summary understands thoroughly the
content of the message or information contained in the material. In summary writing therefore, you are
required to:

 Read the passage until you understand it thoroughly. You may have to read it at least twice.
 Capture the essence and main points of the passage in one or two phrases
 Underline the essential points of the material if necessary (note: Do not underline library books)
 Identify subordinate points
 Put the main points in your own words; arrange them systematically
 Include only the information in the text. However in note-making you may compare information
from supplementary materials and include important points to enrich your note.
 Give your summary a title
 Avoid such phrases like ‘the author says that…’ or ‘the writer appears to think that…’

As a matter of fact, your summary of a material forms your note. It is recommended that for effective
note-making, you read up to three materials on the same subject or topic before making your
note/summary. Certain materials are lengthy because the author has included some items which are
merely there as illustrations or repetition for emphasis. In your note or summary therefore, you don’t
include them. In a nutshell, do not include:

 Illustrations
 Repetitions
 Detailed explanations
 Comparisons etc.

Conclusion

Re-telling a story or information without leaving out the most important points has been a very important
part of our everyday life. It is a skill worth developing. You need summary writing skills not only for a
fruitful academic career but also for other endeavors later in life.

Module D: Aspects of Vocabulary Development

(i) SOURCES OF ENGLISH VOCABULARY

What is known today as the English vocabulary is a product of historical and social developments.

Historical Developments

Historically, the old English which was the native Anglo-Saxon language was introduced in England
following the conquest of the Jutes and Angles between the 5 th and 10th centuries. Before this period, the
Romans had conquered and occupied Britain between AD 43 and AD 410. The Danes or Vikings (from

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modern Denmark) also plundered and occupied English in the 11 th century. These conquests brought their
cultures and civilization, including language to Britain. Latin was the language of the Romans and
became a national language of Britain. Many English place names today such as Dorchester, Manchester,
Lancaster, Newport, Portsmouth, Oakmont, Torbridge etc. are of Latin origin. Most words associated
with religion are also Latin, e.g. alms, chalice, altar, angel, anthem, epistle, hymn, litany, cleric, martyr,
nun, minister, organ, pope, priest, psalm, provost, shift, shrine, deacon etc.

The Vikings also introduced places names especially those that end with ‘waite’ (e.g. Braithwaite), ‘by’
(e.g. Derby), ‘thorpe’ (e.g. Althorp) into the old English. The French conquered and governed England
between the 11th and 13th centuries. This period is known as the Middle English period. French had the
dominant influence on the Middle English vocabulary contributing about 10,000 words associated with
administration e.g. authority, empire, crown, liberty, majesty, palace, parliament etc; Law e.g., accuse,
arrest, assault, execute, attorney, evidence, crime, fine, fraud etc. Religion, e.g. cathedral, chaplain,
clergy, communion, confess, convert, prayer, salvation, saviour, sermon, temptation, theology, virtue etc.
Military e.g. ambush, army, besiege, captain, lieutenant, battle, sergeant, soldier, spy, etc. Food and
Drink e.g., beef, biscuit, cream, dinner, feast, fruit, fry, herb, lemon, orange, plate, pork, appetite etc.

Below are examples of words (or lexemes) with their French and Latin equivalents. The French and Latin
words are today used alongside the old English ones as synonyms but are often more ‘bookish’ and
formal in their usage.

Old English French Latin

Guts courage -

Clothes attire -

Climb - ascend

Sweat perspire -

Happiness - felicity

House mansion -

Wish desire -

Weariness - lassitude

Rise mount ascend

Ask question interrogate

Fast firm secure

Kingly royal regal

Holy sacred consecrated

Fire flame conflagration

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 (Source: Crystal 2002)

Social Developments

The 19th century to the present time (the period of modern English) has witnessed a great deal of social
changes and developments which have turned out to be important sources of modern English vocabulary.
These include growth in Science and technology; growth in automobile and transport industry;
development of broadcasting, information technology and computing. Other sources of new words
include borrowings from other modern European languages; creation of words through self-explaining
compounds, prefixes and suffixes; coinages; forming of words from Greek and Latin elements and slang.

(i) Growth in Science and Technology: In every field of science, there has been a growth in technical
words in the 19th and 20th centuries which have since become part of everyday usage. In medicine for
example we are familiar with terms like Anaemia, Diarrhoea, Appendicitis, Bronchitis, Bacteriology,
Virology, Immunology, Paediatrics, Orthodontics, etc. AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome)
which has become a household term was unknown in the 19 th century. We can easily talk of clinics, anti-
biotic, paracetamol, aspirin, iodine, panadol, penicillin etc.

In physics and electricity we can easily identify words like relativity, calorie, ultra-violet rays, light, etc.
The development of atomic energy and nuclear weapons following the World Wars and international
conflicts gave rise to words like atomic bomb, hydrogen bomb, air raid, ballistic missiles, chain reaction,
fallout, etc.

Chemistry has given the English lexicon, nitrogen, alkali, biochemical, petro-chemical etc. Aviation and
space science have also contributed terms such as astronaut, cosmonauts, space craft, space shuttle, count
down etc.

(ii) Growth in Automobile and Transport Industry: Scientific discoveries and inventions have proved to
be an important source of new words. Words associated with transport technology include trailer
limousine, mustang, jeep, Mercedes-Benz, Ford, Volkswagen, etc. some of the cars are named after their
inventors, e.g., Ford or Mercedes. We have learnt new words with the evolution of vehicles like
carburetor, sparking plug, (American(Ame) spark plug) choke, clutch, gear liver (Ame-gear shift),
gearbox, steering wheels, differential, shock absorber, chassis, automatic transmission, radial tyres,
spare tyres, convertible, or station wagon etc .And a car is usually parked in a garage. We now talk of the
traffic, speeding, traffic light, petrol (Ame gas), bus-stop, terminus, ticket, etc. You may supply more
examples to illustrate further how these technical terms have become part of our everyday language.

(iii) Development in Broadcasting, Information Technology and Computing. Communication and

computer technology are other aspects of science development that have contributed new words to
English vocabulary such as broadcasting, newscaster, aerial, transmitter, transmission, antenna, lead-in,
loud speaker, standby, announcer, reception, microphone, camera, etc. Terms like cable TV, cable
network, teleprompter, video tape, UHL channel, colour programming, digital TV, super thin TV, VCD,
DVD are peculiar to the television. Computer technology introduced terms such as RAM (random-access
memory), ROM (read-only memory) DOS (disk operating system), microprocessor, byte, gig, modem,
software, mouse, keyboard etc. and with the growth of the internet, we now use terms like www (World
Wide Web), browse, hack, down load, upload, hypertext, browser, search engine, LAN (local area
network, WAN (wide area network), e-mail, yahoo etc.

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Other Sources of New Words

 Borrowings from modern European languages. The English language has further extended its
vocabulary with new words like aperitif, chauffeur, garage etc (French), ciao, vendetta etc
(Italian), bonanza, canyon, cantina etc (Spanish) festschrift, angst, etc (German), troika, vodka,
glasnost, perestroika (Russia), robot, (Czech), loot, thug etc (India), pyjamas (Persia), sake, yen,
soy etc (Japan).

 Forming words through self-explaining compounds. Compound words such as fire-

extinguisher, finger-print etc. (often with hyphens) represent the old method of creating words in
English language. In the 20 th century, it continued to provide cheap method of forming new
words. Words such as know-how, lip-stick, streamline, hitchhike, e-mail, babysitter, life style,
greenhouse effect, etc. are familiar examples.

 Compounds from Greek and Latin Elements. The suffix scope in telescope, stethoscope, etc. is
from the Greek word meaning water, while ‘tele’ in telescope, telephone, television etc., is
adopted from Greek element meaning far. The word automobile is from both Greek and Latin.
Auto in Greek represents self while mobile is Latin mobilis meaning moveable. Many scientific
words in the English language can actually be traceable this way with their roots in Greek or
Latin.

 Prefixes and suffixes. Another method for forming words has been by adding familiar prefixes
and suffixes to existing words. Thus in the Modern period, words such as transatlantic,
transcontinental, transformer, transmarine, post classical, postgraduate, prenatal, counterattack,
superman etc. have become part of the English vocabulary.

 Coinages. Some new words in the language are as a result of deliberate coinages. Words like
Xerox, Frigidaire and Kodak were initially used as trademarks, but today you can hear someone
saying “I would like to Xerox the whole paper”. Acronym is another method through which new
words were invented. Examples include OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Countries) ECOWAS
(Economic Community of West African States) UNICEF (United Nations Children’s fund) etc. In
some coinages you can guess the combination that is made. For examples travelogue (travel and
dialogue), electrocute (electricity and execute) etc. Words like travelogue and electrocute are
called blends or portmanteau words.

 Slang. Slang could be said to be common words or expressions that do not belong to the standard
variety but are generally used in some informal contexts, with some special meaning. Earlier in
the history of the English language slang was rejected as vulgar, or ‘vagabond’. But in modern
times, many slang words like joke, boom, slum, fad, scram, buzz, put-down, vamoose etc are
finding their way into formal writing.

(ii) WAYS OF INCREASING THE VOCABULARY

You can develop and increase your vocabulary by making conscious effort to do so. Develop the
habit of reading on specific and general subjects. Encounter new words or registers through new
experiences.

Types of Vocabulary Development.

 Recognition vocabulary - meaning derived from contexts (reading/lectures)

(Endeavour to go back to look up the meaning of recognized vocabulary)
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  Active vocabulary - stock of words a student actively uses
Procedure

 Mark every new word

 Provide a vocabulary notebook
 Enter each new word in your notebook
 Consult a good dictionary for explanation of new words
 Consult the thesaurus for possible synonyms/antonyms
 Practice creating new words using affixes
 Make sentences with new found words.

Using the Dictionary

A good dictionary provides meaning, a guide to pronunciations and usage of words. Some words have
more than one entry showing different shades of meanings, and usages based on the context. Some good
dictionaries give the etymology (history and development) of some words, and give insight to their
structures and inflections. Most dictionaries give information on:

 The grammatical contexts of words and their place in usage

 Information on parts of speech,
 Spelling variations
 Whether countable or uncountable (noun), and
 Possible collocations of words

Definitions of words are given with variations of meanings based on the context of use, e.g. shoot – shoot
(sports), shoot (armed forces), shoot (films industry). Context associated with phrases, clauses, sentences,
idiomatic expressions are also listed. Words are normally arranged alphabetically. So, a dictionary is not
all about meanings of words. But also:

 A guide to good pronunciation of words

 A guide to correct usage
 Insight to register/context variations
 Insight to origin/etymology of words
 Guide to grammatical context/parts of speech.
 Guide to spelling
NOTE: do not study dictionaries in isolation of application. Do not depend solely on the dictionary
explanation of meaning. Study how certain words are used within contexts and suggest meanings
according to situations. Some big words can easily be explained without the dictionary if you look at
them closely. You may discover that if you remove the affixes (prefix/suffix), the stem becomes obvious
and meaningful e.g.

 Malfunction (function)
 Hypersensitive (sensitive)
 Incomprehensible (comprehend)
 Indefensible (defend), etc.

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Note the ‘meaning’ of the following affixes:

 Ante- before (ante-natal, i.e. before birth)

 Anti-against (anti-malaria)
 Demo- of the people (demography)
 Mis- wrong (mismanage)
 Multi- many (multinationals)
 Post- after (post-independence)
 Semi- half (semi-circle)
 Trans- across (trans-Atlantic)
 Pseudo- false (pseudo limbs)
 De- reverse (deforestation)

Try to form nouns from verbs and adjectives: adjectives from nouns: verbs from nouns e.g.

Verb Noun Noun Adjective

Collect collection attraction attractive

Civilize civilization custom customary

Confuse confusion beauty beautiful

Decide decision affection affectionate

Defend defence industry industrious

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Exercises- Form nouns from the following words:

 Accurate
 moral
 mission
 free
 gay
 Persuade
 prosper
 proud
 prove
 pursue

Form adjectives from:

 law
 learn
 life
 sense
 mourn
 music
 storm
 youth
 nature
 neglect

Form verbs from:

 imitation
 sharp
 force
 friend
 colony
 actual
 creator
 camp
 terror
 trial

Words often misspelt

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Parallel occasion coolly

Mischievous description proceed

Precede comparison ecstasy

Rhythm rhyme possesses

Vacuum tyrannise(ze) panicky

Sustenance leisure receive

Superintendent definitely privilege

Tranquility newsstand believe

Pronunciation noticeable argument

Corroborate accessible maintenance

Indigenous committee seize

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