COGNATE 2

English for Specific Purposes

Prepared by: Lileth C. Cawas, Kei D. Inansugan, Neil May Vincent L.
Quirante, and Gemma M. Razon

i
 PREFACE
English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is a tertiary-level cognate course for
Bachelor of Secondary Education major in English students. This course is one of the
required courses by the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) of the Republic of
COGNATE 2: the Philippines.
The course description is "The course introduces students for English for
ENGLISH
Specific Purposes (ESP), a learner-centered approach to teaching English a foreign
and second language. It also explores methodologies in line with the learners' needs in
FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES
their specific fields such as Science, Technology, Medicine, Leisure, and academic
learning. It also improves language competence through the use of discipline-based
materials to develop academic proficiency in academic studies or the teaching of
PREPARED BY:
English for academic and occupational purposes."
LILETH C. CAWAS, KEI D. INANSUGAN, NEIL MAY VINCENT L. QUIRANTE, AND GEMMA M. RAZON

The general objectives of the course are the following:

1. Familiarize the origins and development of ESP, and explain why ESP became
such an essential part of English Language Teaching.
2. Build and demonstrate an understanding of how ESP becomes an approach
and not a product.
3. Distinguish principles and techniques in course design
4. Determine the role of a syllabus play in the course design process, and
examine the criteria needed in organizing a syllabus.
5. Evaluate materials, and acknowledge the different parts of the Material
Design, Methodology and Evaluation in ESP.
6. Create standards in evaluating materials.
7. Plan and design a material that fits the needs of a particular group of the
learner.
8. Carry-out a demonstration teaching for ESP class.

In general, this course considers the kind of writing, speaking, and viewing
tasks required in the academe and the professional world.

ii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Title Page i
Preface ii
Table of Contents iii
Learner's Guide iv
Introduction v
Module 1- What is ESP? 1
Lesson 1- The Origin of ESP and the Development of ESP 3
Lesson 2- ESP: Approach not product and how is 9
ESP different for ESL
Module Assessment 14
Module Summary 14
Module 2- Course Design 15
Lesson 1- The difference between the content-based 17
and student-centered ESP
Lesson 2- Language Descriptions 21
Lesson 3- Theories of Learning 29
Lesson 4- Needs Analysis 36
Lesson 5- Instructional Approaches and Approaches to Course 41
Lesson 6- Problems in Teaching and Learning ESP 46
Module Assessment 49
Module Summary 49
Module 3- Application 50
Lesson 1- The syllabus 52
Lesson 2- Materials Evaluation 60
Lesson 3- Materials Design, Methodology, and Evaluation 70
Module Assessment 74
Module Summary 74
Appendices 75
Appendix A- Rubric for Essay 76
Appendix B- Rubric for Action Plan 77
Appendix C- Rubric for Demonstration Teaching 79
References 81

iii
 BEFORE YOU PROCEED with the first module of this course pack,

L
I encourage you to familiarize yourself with how the modules and
lessons are structured. Each module comprises a Module Overview,
the Lessons, a Module Assessment, and a Module Summary.
Consequently, each lesson is developed through the following phases:
E Activity, Analysis, Abstraction, and Application. This structure is
designed systematically to help you take in the lessons with ease and
ensure the lesson's objectives.
A
ACTIVITY

R
Every lesson begins with an activity. Through these learning activities,
you are expected to apply what you already know and acquire new
knowledge and skills. These will explain what you learned from the
previous lessons or courses and clarify what you are about to learn as
N you go further in the lesson.

ANALYSIS

E Analysis precedes every activity. This section will enable you to

process or analyze the knowledge gained in the previous exercise. It
promotes a broader view of the lesson and, at the same time, draws
you closer to the main topics. Questions will be provided to you to
R facilitate this particular thought process. You are encouraged to write
your answer in the spaces provided for each question. You can use
additional sheets of paper if necessary.

‘ ABSTRACTION
The discussion properly begins in the abstraction. This section is

S
entirely focused on the presentation of the lesson reinforced with
readings. In this section, you are expected to demonstrate an
understanding of the lesson.
APPLICATION
The last section of each lesson is the application. This section
encourages the practical application of the lessons previously
discussed. It describes how you are going to use what you have yet
G learned. For this module, this section shall be considered as your
graded task

U The writers sincerely encourage you to accomplish this course pack, its
tasks, and requirements, from which your progress will be evaluated,
with fairness and honesty through fair and honest means. Spend your
I time wisely, and do not think that you are alone in this learning
process. You are encouraged to consult your instructor, form study
groups with your classmates, and browse the internet for additional
D resources, tutorials, and practice tests. We are in this together.

E
iv
 INTRODUCTION

ESP, like any form of language teaching, is primarily concerned with learning.
It is our view that in its development, ESP has paid scant attention to the question of
how people learn, focusing instead on the question of what people learn. ESP must be
founded in the first instance on sound principles of learning, and it is with this
purpose, we have proposed a learning-centered approach to ESP. In the following
pages, we shall explain what this focus entails for the ESP practitioner.
The course pack is divided into three modules:
Module 1 is an overview of the origins and development of ESP, why ESP became
such an essential part of English Language Teaching, and how ESP becomes an
approach and not a product.
Module 2 looks at basic principles and techniques in course design. How do we create
a course to fit the needs of a particular group of a learner?
Module 3 is concerned with the course designs practical applications, in the form of a
syllabus, materials, methodology, and assessment.
The course pack is intended to be very much a practical guide, and to this end,
we have supplied tasks at the end of each module. These are to get thinking about the
issues raised in that module and, in particular, to help relate our necessarily general
points to a specific situation.
A guide, route, and mode of travel presented, it remains only to wish an
exciting and enjoyable journey.

v
MODULE 1

What is ESP?

1
 MODULE OVERVIEW

What is ESP?

English for Specific Purposes (ESP) refers to language research and instruction that focuses
on particular social groups' specific communicative needs and practices. ESP started life as a
branch of English language teaching, promising a stronger descriptive foundation for
pedagogic materials. In the years since, ESP has consistently been at the cutting-edge of both
theory development and innovative practice applied linguistics, making a significant
contribution to our understanding of the varied ways language is used in particular
communities. ESP has consistently provided grounded insights into the structures and
meaning of texts, the demands placed by academic or workplace contexts on communicative
behaviors, and pedagogic practices by which these behaviors can be developed.

OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the module, you are expected to:
 define ESP;
 explain why ESP became such an essential part of English
Language Teaching; and
 build an understanding of how ESP becomes an approach and
not as a product.

LESSONS:
Lesson 1- The Origin of ESP and the Development of ESP
Lesson 2- ESP: Approach not product and how is ESP different for ESL

2
 Lesson 1: The Origin of ESP and
The Development of ESP

Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:

a. operationally define ESP; and

b. explain the relevance of ESP.

Hello Learners! Welcome to the first lesson of this module.

"English for Specific Purposes is a teaching which has
specified objectives." English Language world got along well
enough without it for many years. To help you with this, the
lesson deals with ESP's origin and development, which
enables you to be more prepared. Are you excited? Go ahead
and explore the world of ESP!

ACTIVITY
K-W-L Chart. In this activity, you will fill out the columns below with what you
know, what you want to know, and what you've learned about English for Specific
Purposes (ESP). Five or more ideas on each column are much appreciated.

What I Know What I Want to Know What I Learned

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

ANALYSIS:
ANALYSIS
Think about it!
1. Operationally define what ESP is.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
3
2. Why ESP became such an important part of English Language Teaching?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

ABSTRACTION
As with most human activity developments, ESP was not a planned and
coherent movement but rather a phenomenon that grew out of several converging
trends. These trends have operated in various ways around the world, but we can
identify three main reasons common to all ESP emergence.

1. The Demands of a Brave New World

The end of the Second World War in 1945 heralded an age of enormous and
unprecedented expansion in scientific, technical, and economic activity on an
international scale. This expansion created a world unified and dominated by two
forces (technology and commerce), which soon generated a global language demand
in their relentless progress. For various reasons, most notably the United States'
economic power
The effect was to create a whole new mass of people wanting to learn English,
not for the pleasure or prestige of knowing the language, but because English was the
key to the international currencies of technology and commerce. It became the
accepted international language of technology and business. Then it created a new
generation of learners who knew explicitly why they were learning a language. For
example, the doctors who needed to keep up with developments in their field and a
whole range of students whose course of study included textbooks and journals only
available in English.
The development was accelerated by the Oil Crises of the early 1970s, which
resulted in a massive flow of funds and Western expertise into the oil-rich countries.
Time and money constraints created a need for cost-effective courses with clearly
defined goals. English now became subject to the wishes, conditions, and demands of
people other than language teachers.

2. A Revolution in Linguistics

Simultaneously, as the use of English, which was growing up for specific

needs, it also influenced the study of language itself. In the past, the purpose of
Linguistics was only for the usage of the language, which is well known as grammar.
However, as time goes by, the early studies began to find out that language

4
grammatically is different from real-life usage. One example is how we speak and
write the language.
In real life, there are some differences in language usage in some parts of life,
e.g., engineering, hospital, and more. Then it developed that if the use of language
varies from one situation to another, it should be possible to decide the features of
specific conditions and make these features the basis for learning the language. Since
then, especially in the late '60s and '70s, the research was developed into language
varieties. In conclusion, by analyzing linguistic characteristics of the specialist area of
language study, a particular group of learners could be identified. These areas the ESP
principle that "Tell me what you need English for, and I will tell you the English that
you need."

3. Focus on the Learner

The developments in educational psychology contribute to the rise of ESP by

emphasizing the learners' central importance and their attitudes to learning. Learners
were seen to have different needs and interests, which would significantly influence
their motivation to learn and, therefore, on their learning effectiveness. This lent
support to the development of courses in which relevance to the learners' needs and
interests was paramount. The assumption underlying this approach was that the
English course's clear relevance to their needs would improve the learners' motivation
and make learning better and faster. A combination of three essential factors brought
about the growth of ESP. The expansion of demands for English to suit particular
needs and developments in linguistics and educational psychology. All three aspects
seemed to point towards the need for increased specialization in language learning.

The development of ESP

From its early beginning in the 1960s, ESP has undergone three main phases
of development. It is now in a fourth and fifth phase starting to emerge. We shall
describe each of the five phases in greater detail in this lesson. It should be pointed
that ESP is not a monolithic universal phenomenon. ESP has developed at different
speeds in different countries.

1. Register Analysis
In linguistics, a register is a variety of language used for a particular purpose
or social setting. Register analysis analyzes grammatical and lexical features of the
language used for a particular purpose or in a particular social environment. This
concept comes from the ESP principle that English of a specific science differs from
each other in terms of its grammatical and lexical features of the registers. By register
analysis, the lecturer or teacher can produce a syllabus that gave high priority to the
language forms students would meet in their Science studies and would provide a low
priority to forms they would not complete. Ewer and Hughes-Davies (1971), for
example, compared the language of the texts their Science students had to read with
the language of some widely used school textbooks. They found that the school
textbooks neglected some of the language forms commonly found in Science texts,
5
for example, compound nouns, passives, conditionals, anomalous finite, (i.e., modal
verb). They concluded that the ESP course should, therefore, give precedence to these
forms.
2. Rhetorical/ Discourse Analysis
In this stage, the second phase of development shifted attention to the sentence
level, as ESP became closely involved with the emerging field of discourse or
rhetorical analysis. It focuses on understanding how sentences were combined in
discourse to produce meaning. Therefore, the concern of research was to identify the
organizational patterns in texts and specify the linguistic means by which these
patterns are signaled. These patterns would then form the syllabus of the ESP course.
Stages of ESP development:
1. the First stage focused on language at the sentence level.
2. the Second phase-shifted attention to the level above the sentence (putting into
play discourse or rhetorical analysis).
As in stage 1, there was a more or less implicit assumption in this approach
that the rhetorical patterns of text organization differed significantly between
specialist areas of use: the rhetorical structure of science text was regarded as
different from commercial texts. The typical teaching materials based on the discourse
approach taught students to recognize textual patterns and discourse markers mainly
using text-diagramming exercises.
If we take this simple sentence: "I don't have enough money," and put it into
two different dialogues, we can see how the meaning changes.
Do you want a cup of milk?
I don't have enough money
Have you got lunch?
I don't have enough money
3. Target situation analysis
According to Hutchinson and Waters (1987), target situation analysis aimed to
take students' existing knowledge and set it on a more scientific basis by establishing
procedures for relating language analysis more closely to learners' reasons for
learning. In the ESP course, there will be a process of knowing students' purpose to
learn English known as need analysis or target situation analysis. The target situation
analysis will lead the teacher to form a syllabus. John Munby, in Communicative
Syllabus Design, produces a detailed profile of the learners' needs in terms of
communication purposes, communicative setting, the means of communication,
language skills, functions, structures, etc.
4. Skill and Strategies
In this stage, we are concerned about the two things, thinking process underlie
language use and focusing on underlying interpretative strategies. Some experts have
made significant contributions to work on reading skills to describe this process where
the medium of instruction is the mother tongue. Still, students need to read several
specialist texts which are available only in English.
6
 The principal idea behind the skill centered approach is that underlying all
language use, there are common reasoning and interpreting processes, which,
regardless of the surface forms, enable us to extract meaning from the discourse.
The focus should instead be on the underlying interpretative strategies, which will
allow the learners to cope with the surface forms, for example, guessing the meaning
of words from context, using visual layout to determine the type of the text, exploiting
cognates, (i.e., words which are similar in the mother tongue and the target language),
etc. A focus on specific subject registers is unnecessary in this approach because the
underlying processes are not particular subject to any subject register.
5. A Learning-Centered Approach
ESP concern with language learning rather than language use. The importance and
the implications of the distinction that we have made between language use and
language learning will hopefully become clear as we proceed through the following
chapters. There are some main points that to be the main focus in this stage:
This is, not the primary concern of ESP since describing and exemplifying what
people do with the language will not automatically enable someone to learn it.
Therefore, a correct approach to ESP must be based on an understanding of
language learning processes.

Application:
APPLICATION
Essay
Direction: Read and answer the following questions.
1. Why ESP become more critical in teaching language in various fields?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

2. "Tell me what you need English for, and I will tell you the English that
you need" How justifiable do you think this claim is for ESP?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
3. "The clear relevance of the English course to their needs would improve
the learners' motivation and thereby make learning better and faster."
7
 a. Give three ways in which "relevance" can be achieved.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

b. In what way can motivation affect language learning?

____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

Well-done! You have finished Module 1, Lesson 1!

Reference:
Hutchinsons, T., Waters, A. (1991). English for specific purposes, a learning-centered
approach. pp. 5-9.

8
 Lesson 2: ESP: Approach not product
and how is ESP different for ESL

Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:
a. explain ESP as an approach and not as a product.

Hello, there! Welcome to Lesson 2. Since the purpose of

ESP is to prepare you for your professional life, and to
develop your use of English as the means of communication
in your future vocation, you are encouraged to take
wholeheartedly the given activities. Thus, the lesson will
help you get acquainted on how ESP views as an approach
and not as a product.

ACTIVITY
ACTIVITY

Think of at least five smart ways on how to learn the English language.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

ANALYSIS: Answer the given questions briefly.

1. What are the benefits of learning English?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
2. As a Filipino citizen, why do you need to learn English?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

9
 ABSTRACTION

ESP: Approach, not product

Several surveys show that there have been several major shifts in the
development of ESP in its relatively brief history both in theory and practice. Despite
their differences, the successive stages have all concentrated on the linguistic aspect
of ESP: they are all essentially language-centered approaches. Let us return to the
question: What is ESP? To answer this question fully, we need to establish a context
that will help us see how ESP at present relates to the rest of ELT. What exactly is the
status of the citizens of ESP and its satellite settlements about the general world of
ELT?
In the time-honored manner of linguistics, we shall represent the relationship in the
form of a tree.

The tree
represents some
of the standard
divisions that are
made in ELT.
The topmost
branches of the
tree show the
level at which
individual ESP
courses occur.
The branches just
Source: ELT Tree (Hutchinsons and Waters, 1987, p.17 below this level

Indicate that these may conveniently be divided into two main types of ESP
differentiated according to whether the learner requires English for academic study
(EAP: English for Academic Purposes) or work/training (EOP/EVP/VESL: English
for Occupational Purposes/ English for Vocational Purposes/ Vocational English as a

10
Second Language). This is, of course, not a clear-cut distinction: people can work
and study simultaneously; it is also likely that in many cases, the language learned for
immediate use in a study environment will be used later when the student takes up or
returns to a job.
At the next level down, it is possible to distinguish ESP courses by the general nature
of the learner's specialism. Three large categories are usually identified here: EST
(English for Science and Technology), EBE (English for Business and Economics),
and ESS (English for the Social Sciences). This last is not common, probably because
it is not thought to differ from more traditional humanities-based, General English.
As we go down the tree, we can see that ESP is just one branch of EFL/ESL, which
are themselves the main branches of English Language Teaching in general. ELT, in
turn, is one variety of the many possible kinds of language teaching.
Of course, there is more to a tree than is visible above ground: a tree cannot survive
without roots. The roots which nourish the tree of ELT are communication and
learning.

The Tree of ELT certainly does not suggest that any of the tree levels should
be considered more important than the others. Hutchinson and Waters state what ESP
is not, rather than it is:
a) ESP is not a matter of teaching, specialized varieties of English. The fact that
language is used for a specific purpose does not imply that it is a particular form of
the language, different from other forms. There are some features which can be
identified as typical of a particular context of use and the learner is more likely to
meet in the target situation.
b). ESP is not just a matter of Science word and grammar for Scientists, Hotel word
and grammar for Hotel staff, and so on. As Chomsky did with regard to grammar, we
need to distinguish between performance and competence that is between what people
actually do with the language and the range of knowledge and abilities that enable
them to do it (Hutchinson and Waters, 1981).
c). ESP is not different from any other form of language teaching. (Hutchinson and
Waters, 1993, 18).
What is ESP?
ESP is a kind of English that relates to learners' professional or personal needs,
somewhat modulating the General English curriculum extent. The General English
curriculum teaching deals mainly with teaching the language system. In contrast, the
English for Specific Purposes is teaching focuses on how the language is used in real
discourse.
Course design is the process by which information about learning needs and
learning theories is interpreted to produce materials depending on the syllabus to
develop a methodology for teaching to establish evaluation procedures to lead the
learner to detain the state of knowledge. Robinson (1991) stated that course design
refers to the planning and structuring a course to achieve the needed goals. The result
of the needs analysis, the course designer's approach to syllabus and methodology,
and existing material. An approach to language teaching which aims to meet the needs
of particular learners. In practice, much of the work done by ESP teacher is concerned
11
with designing appropriate courses for various group of learners to provide a
reasonable basis for the subsequent processes of syllabus design, materials writing,
classroom teaching, and evaluation. It is essential to concern about the 5W+1H
question to know whether the processes are reasonable or not. All questions should
include the three main headings, namely: language description, theories of learning,
and need analysis.
The language description is how the language system is broken down and describes
for learning. The terms such as 'structural,' 'functional,' 'national' properly belong to
this area; those refer to the way of analyzing and describing a language. In the area of
learning theories, the relevant term we shall consider is 'behaviorist,' 'cognitive,'
'affective.'
Need analysis is generally regarded as a criterion to the ESP. Conducting the need
analysis is an essential stage in the ESP since it will determine how our ESP course is,
in terms of teaching material, learning situation, teaching methodologies, and
evaluation. Besides, by doing the need analysis, the teacher will get two kinds of
information: the students' current level of knowledge and motivation, and the second
is the students' need.
Management issues include the timing and location of the proposal course, the teacher
and facilities available, and the time available for planning. The first issue is the
timing; in this case, the timing and the timetable of the course may not be negotiated.
It may dictate the nature of some teaching activities; for example, if the class sessions
are infrequent (once a week), each session may need to be treated as self-contained,
with no carry-over expected from one week to the next. The second is the location; an
important consideration is the location of the course. The nature of the classroom and
their distance from the student's other places of work may influence the decision
related to the syllabus and, even more, the methodology. In the ESP course, the
location can be in a school and the company. Those are usually done based on the
contract with the sponsor. The last specific issue is the facilities, for example, a
sufficient and a good typist and functioning photocopying machines. It will support to
create an adequate learning condition. The facilities should be based on the students'
needs and also up to date.

Application :
APPLICATION

Answer the following:

1. A remedial grammar for business people, with each unit based on a particular
grammatical weakness identified by tests.
Question: is it ESP? Why or why not?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
2. It teaches undergraduate engineering students from various branches (civil,
electrical, mechanical, etc.) to write reports on design projects.
Question: is it ESP? Why or why not?

12
 _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

3. ESP is an approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to content

and method are based on the learner's reason for learning. TRUE or FALSE.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

4. ESP is an approach to language learning based on learner needs. TRUE or

FALSE
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
5. ESP is concerned with designing appropriate courses for various groups of
learners. TRUE or FALSE
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

Well-done! You have finished Module 1, Lesson 2!

Reference:
Hutchinsons, T., Waters, A. (1991). English for specific purposes, a learning-centered
approach. pp. 16-20.

13
 MODULE ASSESSMENT

COMPREHENSION CHECK:
Instruction: State what you have learned from module 1 by completing the statement
below.
I have learned that ESP
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

MODULE SUMMARY

ESP refers to language research and instruction that focuses on social groups' specific
communicative needs and practices. As with most developments in human activity, ESP
was not a planned and coherent movement but rather a phenomenon that grew out of
several converging trends. These trends have operated in a variety of ways, and the
three main reasons common to the emergence of all ESP were identified, namely:

1. The Demands of a Brave New World;

2. A Revolution in Linguistics; and
3. Focus on the Learner.
From its early beginning in the 1960s, ESP has undergone five main phases of
development.
1. Register Analysis - analyzes grammatical and lexical features of the language
used for a particular purpose or in a particular social setting.
2. Rhetorical/ Discourse Analysis – ESP became closely involved with the
emerging field of discourse or rhetorical analysis.
3. Target situation analysis - aimed to take students' existing knowledge and set
it on a more scientific basis by establishing procedures for relating language
analysis more closely to learners' reasons for learning.
4. Skill and Strategies - thinking process underlie language use and focus on
underlying interpretative strategies.
5. A Learning-Centered Approach - ESP concern with language learning
rather than language use.

14
MODULE 2

MODULE 2- C OURSE
DESIGN

COURSE DESIGN

15
 MODULE OVERVIEW

Course design is the process by which the raw data about a learning need is
interpreted to produce an integrated series of teaching-learning experiences, whose
ultimate aim is to lead the learners to a particular state of knowledge. It refers to the
planning and structuring of a course to achieve the needed goals.

OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the module, you are expected to:
 differentiate content-based and student-centered ESP;
 give a brief outline of the various ideas about language that have
influenced ESP in some way;
 distinguish the two categories of needs analysis;

LESSONS:
Lesson 1- The difference between the content-based and student-centered ESP
Lesson 2- Language Descriptions
Lesson 3- Theories of Learning
Lesson 4- Needs Analysis
Lesson 5- Instructional Approaches and Approaches to Course
Lesson 6- Problems in Teaching and Learning ESP

16
 Lesson 1: The difference between the
content-based and student-centered ESP

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:

a. differentiate content-based and student-centered ESP; and
b. carry-out a short essay about their preferred approach in ESP.

Welcome to Lesson 1! In this lesson, you will be introduced

to two instructions in ESP. Get ready to familiarize and
differentiate the two so that you will be able to use them in
your future ESP class. Enjoy learning!

ACTIVITY

Remember Me!
In this activity, you have to list down five (5) teachers you had before. You
may select your favorite ones. Then, try to describe how they present a lesson in your
class. Use at least 3-4 sentences only.
Teacher's Name Descriptions

ANALYSIS

1. What teaching styles do you like best based on your answers on the previous
activity? Why?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
17
 _______________________________________________________________

2. Do you consider yourself an independent learner? Why or why not?

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

ABSTRACTION
Teaching English for a diverse kind of audience requires not a single
approach. Instead, it demands flexibility on the part of the teacher. Learning a
language for specific purposes implies the active participation of learners in various
learning stages. Language as a tool of expressing different meanings should act as a
direct means of communication among individuals.
In this respect, a teacher's role can be confined to several dimensions about the
purposes and approaches used while delivering knowledge. A recent shift from a
content approach to a learner-centered approach has redefined teaching and learning
from the perspective of a new strategy based on Communicative Language Teaching.
There are two instructions in ESP that is mostly used. These are Content-
Based Instruction and Student-Centered ESP.

Content-Based Instruction

Content-based Instruction (CBI) in ESP is effective instruction in combining

language and content learning. Further, Widdowson (1981), cited by Ying and Chen
(2015), asserted that CBI focuses on integrating language learning with content
learning. When these two areas are integrated, English is learned in the context of the
subject matter.
The notions behind content-based instruction (CBI) complement objectives in
settings where the language is taught with a particular purpose in mind. At the heart of
CBI is the lofty ideal that language instruction cannot be devoid of the context in
which it is presented. Moreover, that content rather than language structures should be
the driving force in curriculum development.
Moreover, according to Brinton, Snow, and Wesche (1989), CBI is the
"integration of content learning with language teaching aims. More specifically, it
refers to the concurrent study of language and subject matter, with the form and
sequence of language presentation dictated by content material." Such an approach
contrasts sharply with many practices in which language skills are taught virtually in
isolation from substantive content. When language becomes the medium to convey
interest and relevance to the learner, the learners are pointed toward matters of
intrinsic concern—language takers on its appropriate role as a vehicle for
accomplishing a set of content goals.
18
 A recent surge of research and material on CBI (Snow 1998, Brinton & Master
1997, Snow & Brinton 1997, among others) has given us new opportunities and
challenges. Content-based classrooms may increase intrinsic motivation and
empowerment since students are focused on subject matter that is important to their
lives. Students are pointed beyond transient extrinsic factors, like grades and tests, to
their competence and autonomy as intelligent individuals capable of actually doing
something with their new language. Challenges range from a demand for a whole new
genre of textbooks and other materials to the training of language teachers to teach the
concepts and skills of various disciplines, professions, occupations, and/or lead in
teams across disciplines.

Student-Centered ESP

The new student-centered methodology engages a new vision on the learning

experience that students receive concerning their communicative and real-life goals.
In this respect, a curriculum and course design model should be viewed and be
estimated from the point of view of successful communication during an ESP lesson.
To define how different learning techniques affect the role of a teacher,
specific attention should be paid to the nature and purpose of language. In this respect,
"teachers…started to adopt the role of communication facilitator instead of being the
source of information" (Kucuroglu-Tirkes, 2011).
Student-centered ESP includes:
techniques that focus on or account for learners' needs, styles, and goals;
courses that give some control to the students (group work or strategy training,
for example);
curricula that include the consultation and input of students and that do not
presuppose objectives in advance;
techniques that allow for student creativity and innovation; and
techniques that enhance a student's sense of competence and self-worth.
Because language teaching is a domain that so often presupposes classrooms
where students have very little language proficiency with which to negotiate with the
teacher. Some teachers shy away from the notion of giving learners the "power"
associated with a student-centered approach. Such restraint is not necessary because
even in beginning level classes, teachers can offer students individual choices.

19
 APPLICATION

Answer as required.
1. The Venn diagram lists at least five (5) differences and five (5) similarities of
Content-based Instruction and Student-centered Approach.

2. Suppose you are teaching English to Agriculture or Business significant

students; which of the two approaches will you employ? Choose only one (1)
of the mentioned specializations.

Example: If I am going to teach English for Agriculture students, I will

employ ________________________________________.

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

Well-done! You have finished Module 2, Lesson 1!

References:

Brown, D. (2000). Principles of language learning and teaching. pp. 67–68.

Corpuz, B., Salandanan, G. (2015). Principles of teaching (with TLE). pp. 12

20
 Lesson 2: Language Descriptions

Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:

a. give a brief outline of the various ideas about language that have influenced
ESP in some way;
b. answers the grammatical exercise, identify six main stages of development;
and
c. critically evaluate their influence or value in ESP.

Hello Learners! Welcome to Module 2, Lesson 2. In this lesson,

we will learn that any ESP course uses explicit or implicit ideas
about language nature. These ideas are drawn from the various
language descriptions that have been developed by succeeding
schools of thought in Linguistics. We now have several ways of
describing language available to us. Therefore, it is essential to
understand each of these descriptions' main features to consider
how they can be used most appropriately in ESP courses. Good
luck and Enjoy!

ACTIVITY
Task I- Write nine sentences from the table below. Remember that there are many
different possibilities, not just nine correct sentences. Write your answers in the space
provided.
Diabetes mellitus Unconsciousness.
Inadequate heat Cause Shock.
loss Bad teeth.
Some foods Result in Death.
A dog bite Can Heatstroke.
An electric shock may Lead to Blisters.
Insufficient calcium Allergies.
Several shocks Asphyxia.
Burns Rabies.
A hemorrhage
(from Nucleus: Nursing Science by R. Kerr and J. Smith, Longman, 1978)

1. ____________________________________________________________________

2. ____________________________________________________________________

3. ____________________________________________________________________

4. ____________________________________________________________________
21
 5. ____________________________________________________________________

6. ____________________________________________________________________

7. ____________________________________________________________________

8. ____________________________________________________________________

9. ____________________________________________________________________

Task II- Consider these two texts and answer the questions below.
Text A
Now I have to change to the final size drill I require, which is three-quarters of an inch
diameter, and this is called a Morse-taper sleeve.
A slower speed for a large drill.
Nice even feed should give a reasonable finish to the hole.
Applying coolant periodically. This is mainly for lubrication rather than cooling.
Almost to the depth now.
Right. Withdrawing the drill.

Text B

1 Select required drill.

2 Mount drill in tailstock. Use taper sleeves as necessary.
3 Set speed and start machine spindle.
4 Position tailstock to workpiece.
5 Apply firm even pressure to tailstock hand wheel to feed drill into workpiece.
6 Apply coolant frequently
7 Drill hole to depth
8 Withdraw drill
9 Stop machine
(Hutchinson and Waters, 1981)

1. What is the similarities and difference between Texts I to Texts II?

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

2. What is the message that they are trying to convey?

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

22
 ANALYSIS
Direction: After your activity, consider the questions below.
1. What are the exercises trying to teach?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

2. What sort of learners do you think would benefit from these activities?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

ABSTRACTION
They have been a sumptuous feast of language and stolen the scraps.
(Shakespeare: Love's Labour's Lost)

Any ESP course makes use of explicit or implicit ideas about the nature of
language. These ideas are drawn from the various language descriptions that have
been developed by succeeding schools of thought in Linguistics. We now have
several ways of describing language available to us. Therefore, it is important to
understand the main features of each of these descriptions to consider how they can be
used most appropriately in ESP courses.

SIX MAIN STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

 Classical or Traditional Grammar

Descriptions of English and other languages were based on the grammars of the
classical languages, Greek and Latin. These descriptions were based on an analysis of
the role played by each word in the sentence. The language was described in this way
because the classical languages were case-based languages where the grammatical
function of each word in the sentence was made apparent by the use of appropriate
inflections. Thus, the form of a word would change according to whether it was a
subject, object, indirect object, and so on.
Since ESP emerged after the classical form of description had been largely
abandoned, its influence on ESP has never been strong. Nevertheless, it has continued
to provide the teacher with a useful indirect source of guidance.
Teachers who wish to maintain a balanced view of linguistics should not overlook the
fact that traditional grammar has many useful virtues. The traditional handbook
provided an array of terms and distinctions, which most of us used in learning to talk
about our language and which many people continue to find serviceable throughout
their lives. Thus, a knowledge of the classical descriptions can still deepen our
understanding of how languages operate.
23
  Structural Linguistics
The first real challenge to the classical description of languages came in the 1930s
with the advent of structuralism, associated with linguists such as Leonardo
Bloomfield (1935). The structural or 'slot and filler' form of language description will
be familiar to most language teachers due to the enormous influence it has had on
language teaching since the Second World War.

Peculiarities:
1. The language's grammar is described in terms of syntagmatic structures that
carry the fundamental propositions (Statement, interrogative, negative,
imperative) and notions (time, number, gender). By varying words with these
structural frameworks, sentences with different meanings can be generated.
2. With the help of the structural linguistic, the structural syllabus was created. In
such a syllabus, items are graded, so that simpler and more immediately
useable structures precede the more complex ones.
Examples: ESP syllabus based on structural principals
1. Simple present active
2. Simple present passive
3. Simple present passive and active
4. –ing forms
5. Present Perfect; Present Continuous
6. Infinitives
7. Anomalous Finite
8. Past Perfect
At its best, the structural syllabus provides the learners with a systematic description
of the generative core of the language, the finite range of structures that make it
possible to generate an infinite number of novel utterances. For this reason, the
structural syllabus continues to be widely used despite criticism for advocates of
functional, notional, or use-based descriptions of English.

 Transformative Generative (TG) Grammar

The structural view of language as a collection of syntagmatic patterns held sway
until the publication in 1957 of Syntactic Structures by Noam Chomsky. Chomsky
argued that the structural description was too superficial because it only described the
surface structure of the language and could not explain relationships of meaning that
were quite clearly there but which were not realized in the surface structure. Therefore
these two sentences:
1. Bea is easy to please.
2. Bea is eager to please.
Would, according to a structural description, indicate the same relationship between
the words in the sentence. Still, obviously, the relationship is not the same: in the first
sentence, Bea is the receiver of pleasing, while in the second, she is doing the

24
inviting. Similarly, the identity of meaning between an active and passive sentence
would not be shown.

Chomsky concluded that these problems arose because the language was being
analyzed and described in isolation from the human mind which produces it. He
maintained that if we want to understand how language works, it cannot be viewed as
a phenomenon in itself. It must be considered to be a reflection of human thought
patterns. He proposed that there must be two levels of meaning:
1. Deep level, which is concerned with the organization of thoughts.
2. Surface level, where these thoughts are expressed through the syntax of the
language.
Therefore, the grammar of the language is not the surface structures themselves but
the rules that enable the language used to generate the surface structures from the
deep level of meaning.
Chomsky's work had an enormous and direct influence on the world of Linguistics.
He re-established the idea that language is rule-governed. He widened the view of
language to incorporate the relationship between meaning and form. For ESP, the
most important lesson to be drawn from Chomsky's work was the distinction between
performance (i.e., the surface structures) and competence (i.e., the deep level rule).
Chomsky's definition of performance and competence was narrowly based, being
concerned only with syntax. In ESP, we need to take a much broader view, but the
primary distinction is still valid.

 Language Variation and Register Analysis

Consider these two texts.
Text A
Now I have to change to the final size drill I require, which is three-quarters of an inch
diameter, and this is called a Morse-taper sleeve.
A slower speed for a large drill.
Nice even feed should give a reasonable finish to the hole.
Applying coolant periodically. This is mainly for lubrication rather than cooling.
Almost to the depth now.
Right. Withdrawing the drill.

Text B
1 Select required drill.
2 Mount drill in tailstock. Use taper sleeves as necessary.
3 Set speed and start machine spindle.
4 Position tailstock to workpiece.
5 Apply firm even pressure to tailstock hand wheel to feed drill into workpiece.
6 Apply coolant frequently
7 Drill hole to depth
8 Withdraw drill
9 Stop machine
(Hutchinson and Waters, 1981)

25
The illocutionary force of these two texts is the same: to say, they are both conveying
the same message, and they both have the same purpose, namely to give instructions
in carrying out the particular job. But the language of text A differs from that of text B
in several significant ways. Language then varies according to the context of use, and
it is this fact that enables us to distinguish, for example, formal from informal, written
from the spoken, self-sufficient language from context-dependent.
The concept of language variation gives rise to the type of ESP, that was based on
register analysis. If language varies according to text, it was argued. It should be
possible to identify the kind of language associated with a specific context, such as an
area of knowledge. (Legal Eng., social Eng., Medical Eng., Business Eng., etc.), or an
area of use (technical manuals, academic texts, business meetings, advertisements,
doctor-patient communication, etc.).

 Functional/Notional Grammar
Functions are concerned with social behavior and represent the speaker or writer's
intention, for example, advising, warning, threatening, describing, etc. It is equated
with the communicative acts that are carried out through language.
Notions reflected how the human mind thinks. They are categories into which the
mind and language divide reality, for example, time, frequency, duration, gender,
number, location, quantity, quality, etc.
The move towards a functionally based syllabus has been solid in ESP development,
mainly on the pragmatic grounds that the majority of ESP students have already done
a structurally organized syllabus, probably at school. Their needs, therefore, are not to
learn the basic grammar but rather to learn how to use the knowledge they already
have.
The functional syllabus's attractive is that it appears to be based on language in use, in
contrast to the structural syllabus, which shows the only form.
Structure + Context= Function
The functional syllabus, however, has its drawback. It suffers in particular from a lack
of systematic conceptual framework, and as such does not help the learners organize
their knowledge of the language.
 Discourse (Rhetorical) Analysis
This next development has also had a profound effect on ESP. The emphasis moved
to look at how meaning is generated between sentences. In this, the context of the
sentence is essential in creating the definition.

If we take this simple sentence: 'It is raining,' and put it into three different dialogues,
we can see how the meaning changes.
 Can I go out to play?
It's raining.
 Have you cut the grass yet?
It's raining
 I think I'll go out for a walk.

26
 It's raining.
In each case, the propositional meaning (statement) of the sentences is the same. The
notions in it are also the same (present time, neuter). But the sentence is fulfilling
three different communicative purposes.
The meaning of this same sentence changes with the different contexts—this change
was brought about by two factors.
1. Sociolinguistic context: who is speaking to whom and why. The meaning
changes according to the relationship between participants in the dialogue and
their reason for speaking.
2. The relative positions of the utterances within the discourse. A word acquires
meaning by what reports it precedes or follows. We might call this the
discourse meaning.
There are two ways that we can identify the results of studies into the nature of
discourse that have been used in ESP teaching materials:

1. Learners are made aware of the stages in certain set-piece transactions

associated with particular specialist fields.
2. The second use of discourse analysis in ESP has been through materials that
aim to explain how meaning is created by the sentences' relative positions in a
written text. This has become the central feature of many ESP textbooks
aimed at developing a knowledge of how sentences are combined in texts to
produce a particular meaning (Allen and Widdowson, 1974). This approach
has led, in particular, to the text-diagramming type of exercise found in many
ESP materials. The ultimate aim of such an approach is to make the learners
into more efficient readers by making them aware of the underlying structure
of a text and how language has been organized to create this structure.

APPLICATION
Direction: After the abstraction, evaluate and answer the questions below. Use
another sheet of paper for your answers.
1. Enumerate and give a brief outline of the various ideas about language that
have influenced ESP. Use the table below.

27
 2. Do you think classical and structural descriptions still have a value in ESP
today? Why?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

3. What do you think is the importance of the concept of communicative

competence in ESP? Why?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

4. Do you think Language variation and Register analysis are valuable in ESP?
Why?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

Well-done! You have finished Module 2, Lesson 2!

Reference:
Hutchinsons, T., Waters, A. (1991). English for specific purposes, a learning-centered
approach. pp. 24-38.

28
 Lesson 3: Theories of Learning

Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:

a. compare and contrast theories of learning;

b. supply one-sentence summary in each theory; and
c. identify which are of relevance to the modern language teacher.

Hello Learners! Welcome to Module 2, Lesson 3. In this lesson,

we will explore the Theories of learning. We will learn that
language can only be properly understood as a reflection of
human thought processes. Also, language learning is conditioned
by how the mind observes, organizes, and stores information. In
other words, the key to successful language learning and
teaching lies not in the analysis of the nature of language but in
understanding the structure and processes of the mind. Enjoy and
Good luck!

ACTIVITY

Task- Schema: Enumerate learning theories that you have remembered and give a
one-sentence summary in each.
Theories of One Sentence Summary
learning

29
 ANALYSIS

Direction: Analyze and answer the following questions.

1. What does it mean "Learners are Alike"?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
____________________________________

2. Is there any best approach in the teaching-learning process? Why?

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
____________________________________

ABSTRACTION

Give a man a fish, and you feed him for a day.

Teach a man how to fish, and you feed him for a lifetime.

(Chinese Proverbs)

Developments in learning theory have followed a similar pattern to those in language

descriptions, and each has had some effect on the other. But, if we are to see the
importance of each language teaching, it is best to consider the theories relating to
language and learning separately. As with language descriptions, we shall describe the
main developments in theories of how learners learn and relate each to the ESP
learner and teacher's needs.

SIX THEORIES OF LEARNING

 Behaviorism: learning as habit formation

The first coherent theory of learning was the behaviorist theory based mainly on
Pavlov's work in the Soviet Union and of Skinner in the United States. This
simple but powerful theory said that learning is a mechanical process of habit
information and proceeds using the frequent reinforcement of a stimulus-response
sequence.
30
 The simplicity and directness of this theory had an enormous impact on learning
psychology and language teaching. It provided the theoretical underpinning of the
widely used Audiolingual Method of the 1950s and 1960s. This method, which
will be familiar to many language teachers, laid down a set of guiding
methodological principles, based first on the behaviorist stimulus- response
concept. Secondly, it is based on the assumption that second language learning
should reflect and imitate the perceived process of mother tongue learning. Some
of these precepts were:

 Never translate.
 The new language should always be dealt with in the sequence: hear,
speak, read, and write.
 Frequent repetition is essential to effective learning.
 All errors must be immediately corrected.
The basic exercise technique of a behaviorist methodology is pattern practice,
particularly in language laboratory drills. Such drills are still widely used in ESP.
Pattern practice exercises always have a useful role in language teaching, but only as
part of the whole learning process.

 Mentalism: thinking as a rule-governed activity

There was considerable empirical evidence from the Audio-lingual method among
language teachers because the technique was not delivering a excellent result. They
argued that because in the language learning process, the learners still translating
things, asked for rules of grammar, found repeating things, and sometimes failed to
learn something even though they already learn the thing so many times.

The first successful assault on the behaviorist theory came from Chomsky (1964). He
tackled behaviorism on how the mind was able to transfer what was learned in one
stimulus-response sequence to other novel situations. There was a vague concept of
'generalization' in behaviorist theory, but this was always skated over and never
adequately explained. Chomsky dismissed the generalization idea as unworkable. His
conclusion of the theory was thinking must be rule-governed: a finite, reasonably
small set of rules enables the mind to deal with the potentially infinite range of
experiences it may encounter.

In learning language, having thinking as rule-governed activity was also the step in
learning which learning not only consist of forming a habit, but also acquiring rules
where the process in which the mind is using the experience of somebody to
formulate a hypothesis. Then, the hypothesis will be tested and modified by
subsequent knowledge. The reason that is being used responds to a stimulus, but in
here, the individual stimuli are used to find the underlying pattern or system in
learning the language. The knowledge then being used of the course to predict what is
going to happen, what is an appropriate response for it.

 Cognitive Code: learners as thinking beings

31
 In the behaviorist theory, the learners pretend to be passive receivers of information,
but in cognitive theory, the learners are the active processor of data. The learning
process and using a rule make the learners think and use their mental power to
understand the rule from the mess data and find the appropriate time or situation to
use the rule. Therefore, in cognitive theory, learning is how the learner tries to make
sense of data. Learning can also mean that the learner has managed to force some sort
of meaningful interpretation or pattern on the data. In other words, we learn by
thinking and trying to make sense of what we see, feel, and hear.

In cognitive theory, the primary teaching technique that is usually used is the
problem-solving task. More recently, the cognitive view of learning has a significant
impact on ESP through the development of the course to teach reading strategies. The
ESP projects have made the students aware of theory regarding strategies to
consciously apply them to understanding text in a foreign language.
The cognitive view has already solved the problem that appears in behaviorist theory
because here, students are the focus of the learning process. But in itself, a cognitive
idea is not sufficient. To complete the process, we need an affective idea too.

 The affective factor: learner as emotional beings

The emotional factor's importance is easily seen when we consider the relationship
between the cognitive theory tells as that learners will learn when they actively think
about what they are learning. But this mental factor presupposes the affective factor of
motivation. Before learners can actively think about something, they must want to
think about it. The emotional reaction to the learning experience is the essential
foundation for the initiation of the cognitive process. How the learner perceives the
learning will affect what education, if any, will take place.
We can represent the cognitive/affective interplay in the form of a learning cycle. This
can either be a negative or a position cycle. A reasonable and appropriate course will
engender the kind of positive learning cycle represented here:
Therefore, the relationship between the cognitive and emotional aspect of learning is
vital to the success or otherwise of a language learning experience. This brings us to a
matter that has been one of the most important elements in ESP development –
motivation. The most influential study of motivation in language learning has been
Gardner and Lambert's (1972) study of bilingualism in French-speaking Canada. They
identified two terms of motivations instrumental and integrative.
a) Instrumental motivation is the reflection of an external need.
b) Integrative motivation derives from a desire on the learners to be members of
the speech community that uses a particular language. It is an internally
generated want rather than an externally imposed need.
Gardner and Lambert's conclusion was that both forms of motivation are probably
present in all learners, but each exercises a varying influence, depending on age,
experience, and changing occupational or social needs.
 Learning and Acquisition

32
Much debate has recently centered on the distinction made by Stephen Krashen
(1981) between learning and acquisition. Learning is seen as a conscious process,
while acquisition proceeds unconsciously. We have not in this section paid much
attention to this distinction, using the two terms interchangeably. This reflects our
view that both processes are likely to play a useful part for the second learners and
that a right ESP course will try to exploit both.
 A model of learning
In the light of the ideas, we have discussed, we will now present a learning process
model, which will provide a valuable source of reference for the ESP teacher and
course designer.
The reason why we have pictured the mind as operating:
a) Individual items of knowledge, like the towns, have little significance on their
own. They only acquire meaning and use when they are connected to the
network of existing knowledge.
b) It is the existing network that makes it possible to construct new connections.
So in acquiring new knowledge, it is the learner's existing knowledge that
makes it possible to learn new items.
c) Items of knowledge are not of equal significance. Some things are harder to
acquire but may open up vast possibilities for further learning.
d) Road and railways are not built haphazardly. They require planning. The
learner will make better progress by developing strategies for solving the
learning problems that will arise.
e) A communicative network is a system. Language is a system. If the learners
see it as just a haphazard set of an arbitrary capricious obstacle, learning will
be difficult, if not possible.
f) With learning, a need to acquire knowledge is a necessary factor, but of equal,
if not greater importance, is the need actually to enjoy the acquisition process.

APPLICATION

Direction: Analyze and answer the following questions below.

1. Look at the rules of a behaviorist methodology. In what ways do they conflict
with the cognitive/affective view of learning?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

33
2. Compare and contrast Behaviorism and Mentalism and their value in ESP
using the Venn diagram below. List at least five (5).

3. What is the importance of language teaching of the view of language behavior

as a rule-governed activity?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

4. Consider the motivation of your future learner. What does it resemble

integrative or instrumental motivation?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

5. Consider theories of learning, identify which are of relevance to the modern

language teacher. Provide reasons and possible situations.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

34
 _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

Well-done! You have finished Module 2, Lesson 3!

Reference:
Hutchinsons, T., Waters, A. (1991). English for specific purposes, a learning-centered
approach. pp. 39-52.

35
 Lesson 4: Needs Analysis

Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:
a. identify the needs in language learning;
b. distinguish the two categories of needs analysis; and
c. carry-out analysis papers using the framework target and learning needs.

Welcome to Lesson 4! In this lesson, you will discover the

different necessities of language learning, and when and where
will they take place. Enjoy learning!

ACTIVITY

Shopping List
In this activity, you will have to assume that you are going to the mall. Can
you list the things inside the box according to their necessity? Let's find out!

make-up meat cellphone laptop shoes face mask

rice shampoo smart TV salt sanitizer vitamins

soda slippers fruits cooking oil soap bag

milktea dress vegatables fish umbrella deodorant

Shopping List

36
 ANALYSIS

1. How did you categorize your shopping list?

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
2. Can you relate the activity to language learning? How?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
3. What do you think are the necessities in language learning?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

ABTSRACTION

Needs Analysis

Needs Analysis is the ability to comprehend and produce the target situation's
linguistic features, for example, the ability to understand the passive voice. We can
make a fundamental distinction between target needs and learning needs. We shall
consider learning needs later, but even within the category of target needs, we can
identify further divisions under the general heading.
1. TARGET NEEDS
It is something of an umbrella term, which in practice hides some essential
distinctions. It is more useful to look at the target situation in terms of
necessities, lacks, and wants.
a. Necessities
We can call 'necessities' the type of need determined by the
demands of the target situation, that is, what the learner has to know to
function effectively in the target situation.
For example, an entrepreneur might need to understand
business letters, communicate effectively at sales conferences to get
the necessary information from sales catalogs, etc. He or she will also
presumably need to know the linguistic features – discoursal,
functional, structural, and lexical – commonly used in the situations
identified. This information is relatively easy to gather. It is a matter of
observing what conditions the learner will need to function in and then
analyzing the constituent parts of them.

37
 b. Lacks
However, to identify necessities alone is not enough, since the
concern in ESP is with the needs of particular learners. You also need
to know what the learner already knows so that you can then decide
which of the necessities the learner lacks.
One target situation necessity might be to read texts in a
particular subject area. Whether or not the learners need instruction in
doing this will depend on how well they can do it already. The target
proficiency, in other words, needs to be matched against the existing
ability of the learners. The gap between the two can be referred to as
the learner's lack (Hutchinson, Waters and Breen 1979).
c. Wants
So far, we have considered target needs only in an objective
sense, with the actual learners playing no active role. But the learners,
too, have a view as to what their needs are.
It has stressed above that it is an awareness of a need that
characterizes the ESP situation. But awareness is a matter of
perception, and perception may vary according to one's standpoint.
Learners may have a clear idea of the 'necessities' of the target
situation. They will certainly have a view as to their 'lacks.' But the
learners' view may conflict with the perceptions of other interested
parties: course designers, sponsors, and teachers.
Target Situation Analysis Framework
Why is the language needed?
— for study;
— for work;
— for training;
— a combination of these;
— some other purpose, e.g., status, examination, promotion.

How will the language be used?

— medium: speaking, writing, reading, etc.;
— channel, e.g., telephone, face to face;
— type of text or discourse: e.g., academic texts, lectures—, informal conversations,
technical manuals, catalogs.

What will the content areas be?

e.g., medicine, biology, architecture, shipping, commerce, — level: e.g., technician,
craftsman, postgraduate, secondary school.

Who will the learner use the language with?

— native speakers or non-native;
— level of knowledge of receiver: e.g., expert, layman, student;
— relationship: e.g., colleague, teacher, customer, superior, subordinate.

Where will the language be used?

— physical setting: e.g., office, lecture theatre, hotel, workshop, library;
— human context: e.g., alone, meetings, demonstrations, on the telephone;
— linguistic context: e.g., in own country, abroad.
2. LEARNING NEEDS
Using our analogy of the ESP course as a journey, what we have done
so far is to consider the starting point (lacks) and the destination (necessities).
38
 However, we have also seen that there might be some dispute as to what the
goal should be (wants). We have not considered yet is the route. How are we
going to get from our starting point to the goal? This indicates another kind of
need: learning needs.
To understand what is meant by learning needs, let us look a little more
closely at what happens in analyzing target situation needs. In looking at the
target situation, the ESP course designer asks the question: 'What does the
expert communicator need to know to function effectively in this situation?'
This information may be recorded in terms of language items, skills,
strategies, subject knowledge, etc.
Framework for Analyzing Learning Needs
Why are the learners taking the course?
— compulsory or optional;
— apparent need or not;
— Are status, money, promotion involved?
— What do learners think they will achieve? 1
— What is their attitude towards the ESP course? Do they improve their English or do
they spent the time they have to spend on it?

How do the learners learn?

— What is their learning background?
— What is their concept of teaching and learning?
— What methodology will appeal to them?
— What sort of techniques are likely to bore/alienate them?

What resources are available?

— number and professional competence of teachers;
— attitude of teachers to ESP;
— teachers’ knowledge of and perspective to the subject content;
— materials;
— aids;
— opportunities for out-of-class activities.

Who are the learners?

— age/sex/nationality;
— What do they know already about?
— What subject knowledge do they have?
— What are their interests?
— What is their socio-cultural background?
— What teaching styles are they used to?
— What is their attitude to English or the cultures of the speaking world?

Where will the ESP course take place?

— are surroundings pleasant, dull, noisy, cold, etc.?

When will the ESP course take place?

— time of the day;
— every day/once a week;
— full-time/part-time;
— concurrent with a need or pre-need.

39
 This lesson has looked at the most characteristic feature of ESP course design
– needs analysis. We have tried to show that it is a complex process, involving much
more than merely looking at what the learners will have to do in the target situation.
We have tried to stress that both target situations needs and learning needs are
concerned with language use. But language use is only part of the story. We also need
to know about language learning. Analysis of the target situation can tell us what
people do with language. What we also need to know is how people learn to do what
they do with language. We need, in order words, a learning-centered approach to
needs analysis.

APPLICATION

After learning the different categories under needs analysis, create either of the
two:
A. Analyze your own learners’ needs using the Framework for Analyzing Target
Needs.
B. Analyze your learning situation using the Framework for Analyzing Learning
Needs.

Well-done! You have finished Module 2, Lesson 4!

Reference:

Hutchinsons, T., Waters, A. (1991). English for specific purposes, a learning-centered

approach. pp. 53-64.

40
 Lesson 5: Instructional Approaches
and Approaches to Course
Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:
a. identify the different instructional approaches; and
b. explain the given approaches and their importance.

Welcome to Lesson 5! From here you will be able to

acknowledge the different instructional approaches that will help
you in the future. You will be able to internalize the list of
approaches that you see fit for yourself and for your future
students. The given approaches serve as a guide for teachers in
delivering their lessons, in fact, if used properly it encourages
students to think and learn from their lessons deeply and
comprehensively.

ACTIVITY

Think About It
As a future educator, how will you ensure quality learning to your students?

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

ANALYSIS
Consider the following questions and answer thoroughly:
1. As a teacher, what approaches do you think are necessary for delivering your
lessons? Why?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
41
 2. Do these approaches matter on the kind of students you have based on their
specializations? Explain.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

3. What are the facts you need to consider? Explain your views.

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

ABSTRACTION

Instructional Approaches
In planning instruction, teachers draw upon a repertoire of instructional approaches
and methods and use combinations of these in each lesson and unit. Instructional
approaches may be categorized as
 direct instruction
 indirect instruction
 experiential learning
 independent study
 interactive instruction

Most teachers draw from all of these categories to ensure variety in their classroom
activities, engage students with various intelligences and a range of learning
approaches, and achieve instructional goals.

In selecting instructional approaches and methods, teachers consider which

combination will help students achieve the learning outcomes targeted for a particular
lesson or unit. Teachers consider the advantages and limitations of the approaches and
methods and the interests, knowledge, skills, and strategies, and attitudes of their
students. Some of these elements are represented in the following chart.
42
 Instructional Approaches: Roles, Purposes, and Methods
- Direct Instruction -
Roles Purposes/Uses Methods Advantages/Limitations
 Highly teacher-  Providing information Teachers:  Effective in providing
directed  Explicit teaching students with knowledge of
 Developing step-by-
 Lesson overviews steps of highly sequenced
 The teacher step skills and
skills and strategies
ensures a degree strategies  Guest speakers
of student  Limited use in developing
 Introducing other  Instruction of strategic
involvement abilities, processes, and
approaches and processes
through didactic attitudes for critical
methods
questioning  Lecturing thinking and interpersonal
 Teaching active or group learning
 Didactic questioning
listening and note-
 Demonstrating and  Students may be passive
making
modeling before rather than active learners
guided practice
 Mini-lessons
 Guides for reading,
listening and viewing

Instructional Approaches: Roles, Purposes, and Methods

- Indirect Instruction -
Roles Purposes/Uses Methods Advantages/Limitations
 Mainly student-  Activating student Students:  Students learn effectively
centered interest and curiosity  Observing from active involvement
 Role of teacher  Developing creativity  Investigating  Allows for a high degree
shifts to the and interpersonal  Inquiring and of differentiation and
facilitator, skills and strategies researching pursuit of individual
supporter, interests
 Exploring diverse  Jigsaw groups
resource person possibilities  The teacher requires
 Problem-solving
 The teacher excellent facilitation and
 Forming hypotheses
monitors progress  Reading and viewing organizational skills
and developing
to determine or meaning
concepts  Focused instruction of
when intervention  Reflective discussion content and concepts may
or another  Solving problems
 Gallery walks be difficult to integrate
approach is  Drawing inferences
required  Concept mapping

Instructional Approaches: Roles, Purposes, and Methods

- Indirect Instruction -
Roles Purposes/Uses Methods Advantages/Limitations
 Student-centred  Activating student Students:  Student motivation and

43
 Teacher forms interest and  Discussing learning increase through
groups teaches curiosity active involvement in groups
 Sharing
and guides small-  Teacher’s knowledge and skill
Generating alternative 
Developing
group skills and 
creativity and in forming groups, instructing,
strategies ways of thinking and
interpersonal and guiding group dynamics
feeling
skills and are essential to the success of
strategies  Debates this approach
 Exploring diverse Role-playing  Useful in assisting students’
possibilities  Panels development of life skills in
co-operation and collaboration
 Forming  Brainstorming
hypotheses and
 Peer conferencing
developing
concepts  Co-operative learning
groups
 Solving problems
 Problem-solving
 Drawing
inferences  Talking circles
 Peer editing
 Interviewing

Instructional Approaches: Roles, Purposes, and Methods

- Experiential Learning -
Roles Purposes/Uses Methods Advantages/Limitations
 Student-centred  Focusing on Students:  Students understanding
processes of learning  Participating in and retention increase
 The teacher may
rather than products activities
wish to design the  Hands-on learning may
order and steps of  Developing students’  Field trips require additional
the process knowledge and  Simulations resources and time
experience
 Primary research
 Preparing students for
 Games
direct instruction
 Focused imaging
 Role-playing
 Surveys
 Sharing and
observations and
reflections
 Reflecting critically on
experiences
 Developing

44
 hypotheses and
generalizations
 Testing hypotheses
and generalization in
the new situation

Instructional Approaches: Roles, Purposes, and Methods

- Independent Study -
Roles Purposes/Uses Methods Advantages/Limitations
 Student-centred  Accessing and Students:  Students grow as
developing student  Inquiry and independent, lifelong
 The teacher guides
initiative research projects learners
or supervises
students’  Developing student  Using a variety of  Student maturity,
independent study, responsibility approaches and knowledge, skills, and
teachers knowledge,  Developing self- methods strategies are essential to
skills, and strategies  Computer-assisted the success
reliance and
that students require instruction
independence  Student access to resources
for independent
 Essays and reports is essential
learning, and
provides adequate  Study guides  The approach may be used

practice flexibly (it may be used

 Learning contracts
with individual students
 Homework while other students use
 Learning Centres other approaches)

Source: https://www.edu.gov.mb.ca/k12/cur/ela/docs/ela-instruct2-s1.html

APPLICATION
Explain the following based on your understanding and provide specific examples of
how the teacher does its approaches.

 direct instruction
 indirect instruction
 experiential learning
 independent study
 interactive instruction

Well-done! You have finished Module 2, Lesson 5!

Reference:
Hutchinsons, T., Waters, A. (1991). English for specific purposes, a learning-centered
approach. pp. 65-78.

45
 Lesson 6: Issues Involved in ESP
Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:

a. identify the problems in teaching and learning ESP; and

b. explain the importance of teaching ESP.

Hello! Welcome to Lesson 6. In this lesson, you will discover

what the different issues in ESP are. This will help you improve
yourselves as to how are you going to function well as a future
ESP teacher. Enjoy!

ACTIVITY

Picture Analysis
Analyze the pictures below and answer the questions in the analysis section.
Picture 1 Picture 2

Source: dailymail.co.uk

ANALYSIS

Direction: Answer the following questions below to ponder.

1. Cite the similarities and differences of the two pictures above.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

2. What makes picture 1 different from picture 2?

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

46
 _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

3. What do you think is the problem shown in picture 1?

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

ABSTRACTION
Problems in teaching English for Specific Purposes (ESP) are categorized into five
broad problems. They are (1) teaching pedagogy, (2) the teachers, (3) the design of
the course, (4) students’ ability, and (5) students’ needs.
1. Teaching pedagogy involves the unclear theoretical basis of ESP, whether
ESP should be viewed as a tool or a discipline or whether ESP should be
considered a practical skill or knowledge capital. Besides, teachers sometimes
are trapped in teaching English for General Purpose. About this problem, the
institution's authority should make a clear standard of the teaching of ESP in
higher education. Moreover, teachers sometimes only ask the students to
memories terminologies in the subject field. This could make students feel
stressed since they did not use its in authentic context. Jendrich & Wisniewska
(2011) argue that a task is a tool that makes language teaching more
communicative. They propose how to design tasks to make teaching more
meaningful for learners. One of the functions is a group project by taking
advantage of technology. They further argue that students enjoy interacting
with peers and engage willingly in meaningful communication.
2. The second problem is concerned with teachers. It is about the identity
crisis of the teachers. There is an argument about who should teach ESP,
whether it is language teachers or subject teachers. Language teachers
sometimes do not understand the material thoroughly, so they will get
difficulty explaining the content of, for example, reading text. Meanwhile, the
subject teachers sometimes have language problems which will block them
from teaching English for Specific Purposes. Anthony (2011) argues that the
best position to lead the learners is non-specialist ESP practitioners. He further
explains that “the target products that learners require can vary dramatically
and evolve rapidly over time, especially after the learners enter the workplace”
(Anthony, 2011) So, it is better to train the learners in the processes of
observation, recording, and analyzing text since it will result in skills they
need in the real world.
3. The third problem is about the design of the course. Sometimes there are
too many materials to be mastered in very little time. The method of the
course should be made in such a way to cover this problem. As has been stated
at the beginning that needs analysis plays a vital role in ESP. Therefore, before
designing the course, the authority should first conduct needs analysis to know
47
 what students’ goal is. Dudley- Evans and St. John (1998, as cited in
Songhori, 2008) offer a comprehensive concept of needs analysis, which
include environmental situation, personal information about learners, language
information about learners, learners’ lacks, learners’ needs from the course,
language learning needs, professional information about learners and how to
communicate in the target situation.
4. The next problem deals with the students’ ability. Authority should avoid
conducting ESP courses in an earlier semesters. This will lead to an
unsuccessful courses since the students have not mastered their subject fully,
let alone understand their subject in English. This is not by the learners’ needs
which should be considered first. The authority should also consider the time
and the amount of workload of the students. It is useless to have too many
materials, but there is not enough time to cover all the materials. The authority
should take the most critical parts of the material which meet the learners need
to be designed in the ESP course.
5. The studies explained before having proved that learners encountered
problems in reading, vocabulary, writing, and grammar. It happens due to
the lack of knowledge of basic language use, so they encounter ESP problems
that focus more on content. About this, cultural differences which lead to
negative transfer sometimes become a factor of unsuccessful ESP course. The
teachers should pay attention to teaching methodology to be able to help the
learners to be successful in ESP courses.

APPLICATION:
APPLICATION
Comprehension Check
Direction: Fill out the box below. Give at least five importance of learning and
teaching ESP.

Importance of Teaching ESP Importance of Learning ESP

Well-done! You have finished Module 2, Lesson 6!

Reference:
Andriani, G. (2014). Problems in teaching english for specific purposes (esp) in
higher education. Nobel: Journal of Literature and Language Teaching, 5(01),
30-40. https://doi.org/10.15642/NOBEL.2014.5.01.30-40
48
 MODULE ASSESSMENT

COMPREHENSION CHECK!
Direction: State what you have learned from module 2. Write it in the space
provided.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

MODULE ASSESSMENT

Course design is the process and methodology of creating quality learning

environments and experiences for students. Through deliberate and structured expose
to instructional materials, learning activities, and interaction, students can access
information, obtain skills, and practice higher levels of thinking.
 There are two instructions in ESP that is mostly used. These are Content-based
Instruction and Student-Centered ESP.
 Any ESP course makes use of explicit and implicit ideas about the nature of
language. These ideas are drawn from the various language descriptions that
have been developed by succeeding schools of thought in linguistic. These
descriptions were based on an analysis of the role played by each word in the
sentence.
 There are six learning theories: behaviorism, mentalism, cognitive code,
affective factor, learning and acquisition, and model of education.
 Needs analysis is the ability to comprehend andd/or produce the linguistic
features of the target situation, for example, the ability to understand the
passive voice.
 There are five instructional approaches: direct instruction, indirect instruction,
experiential learning, independent study, and interactive instruction.
 The problems in teaching and learning ESP: teaching pedagogy, the teacher,
the course's design, student’s ability, and students’ needs.
49
MODULE 3

MODULE 2- COURSE DESIGN

APPLICATION

50
 MODULE OVERVIEW

APPLICATION

In the first two modules of this course pack, we have looked at the principles
and practices behind ESP course design. This module will be concerned with the
detailed implementation of the design into a syllabus, materials, methodology, and
evaluation procedures. Books and courses must proceed linearly: one page must
follow another; one lesson must follow another. Knowledge has to be segmented for
presentation somehow. But this does not carry any implications, importance, or
procedure. In dealing with the syllabus before materials writing, we do not suggest
that the syllabus is more important than the materials, nor that the syllabus must be
written before the materials. Indeed it would be entirely possible the deal with them
the other way around, just as it is entirely possible to write the materials before the
syllabus. The teaching/learning process is a complex and dynamic process, with all
the various factors influencing each other.

OBJECTIVES:

At the end of the module, you are expected to:

 Determine the role of a syllabus play in the course design

process;
 learn how to evaluate materials; and
 acknowledge the different roles of the Material Design,
Methodology, and Evaluation in ESP.
 carry-out a demonstration teaching for ESP class.

LESSONS:
Lesson 1- The syllabus and Materials Evaluation
Lesson 2- Materials Design, Methodology, and Evaluation

51
 Lesson 1: The Syllabus
Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:

a. define a syllabus and recognize its importance,

b. examine the criteria needed in organizing a syllabus, and
c. determine the role of a syllabus play in the course design process.

Hello Learners! Welcome to Module 3, Lesson 1. In this lesson,

we shall be looking at the syllabus and considering the
following questions: What do we mean by a syllabus? Why
should we have a syllabus? On what criteria can a syllabus be
organized, and what role should a syllabus play in the course
design process?

ACTIVITY
Direction: Using the Spider Web Chart below, define Syllabus and give its
importance.

Importance

Importance Defnition Importance

Importance

ANALYSIS

Direction: After your activity, consider the questions below.

1. What do you mean by a Syllabus?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

52
 _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

2. Why should it be included in an ESP syllabus?

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

ABSTRACTION
What do you mean by a Syllabus?

A syllabus is a document that says that it will (or at least what should) be learned. But
there are several different ways in which a syllabus can be defined. Each way on its
route impose a further layer of interpretation.

Types of Syllabus Descriptions

a) The evaluation -It focuses on what successful learners will know by
syllabus the end of the course.
-It is concerned with “the nature of language and
linguistic performance.”
-It puts a record on the basis on which success or
failure will be evaluated.
-It is the most familiar type as the document handed
down by ministries or other regulating bodies.
b) The organizational -It states the order in which it is to be studied.
syllabus -It is an implicit statement about the nature of
language and learning.
-It differs from the evaluation syllabus in that
c) The material -It does not describe how learning will be achieved.
syllabus -Interpreted by the materials writer.
-The author adds more assumptions about the nature
of language, language learning, and language use.
d) The teacher syllabus -The great majority of students in the world learn
through the mediation of a teacher.
-Teacher can influence the clarity, intensity, and
frequency of any item and affect the learner's image.
-Different capabilities to teachers will bring the
53
 different results in conducting the course/classroom.
e) The classroom -What is planned and what happens are different
syllabus things.
-A classroom is a dynamic and interactive
environment.
-A lesson is a communicative event created by the
interactions.
-A Classroom forms conditions affecting the nature
of a planned lesson.
f) The learner syllabus -It is an internal syllabus.
-It is a retrospective record of what has been studied
rather than a future plan of what will be learned.
-It crucially influences whether and how future
knowledge is learned.
-Learners must be taken into account continuingly
through every stage of the course design process.

Why should we have a syllabus?

There are acknowledge and hidden reasons for having a syllabus.

a) Language is a complex entity. It cannot be learned in one go. We have to have
some way of breaking down the complex into manageable units. In defining
the constituent parts of language knowledge, the syllabus provides a practical
basis for the division of assessment, textbooks, and learning time.
b) A syllabus gives moral support to the teacher and learner in that it makes the
language learning task appear manageable.
c) A syllabus, particularly an ESP syllabus, also has a cosmetic role. Sponsors
and students will want some reassurance that their investment of money and
time will be worthwhile. If nothing else, the syllabus shows that some thought
and planning have gone into developing a course.
d) A syllabus can be seen as a statement of projected routes so that teacher and
learner not only have an idea of where they are going but how they might get
there.
e) A syllabus tells the teacher and the students what is to be learned, but,
implicitly, why it is to be learned.
f) A syllabus provides a set of criteria for the materials section and writing. It
defines the kind of text to look for or procedure, the items to focus on in
exercises, etc.
g) Uniformity is a necessary condition of any institutionalized activity, such as
education. It is deemed to be important that standards within a system are as
equal as possible. A syllabus is one way in which standardization is achieved
(or at least attempted).
h) Teaching is intended to lead a learner to a particular state of knowledge; there
need to be criteria against which success or failure in reaching that state will
be assessed. A syllabus, therefore, provides a visible basis for testing.
The role of the syllabus is a complex one, but it satisfies a lot of needs. We need
crucially to be aware of the different roles that the syllabus plays so that it can be used

54
most appropriately. In particular, we need to recognize its ideal nature and its
limitations as an indicator of learning.

On what criteria can a syllabus be organized?

1. Focus- to identify which and what materials to be focused on

2. Select- to select materials to be taught
3. Subdivide- To puts things into subtopics
4. Sequence- To decide which comes first and what come next

Topic syllabus-Topics are selected from the students’ specialist studies.

Structural syllabus-The focus is on aspects of grammar

Fuctional/notional syllabus-The focus is on communication. It entails

conceptual meaning and communicative purpose.

Skills syllabus-It is based on one or more English skills and also the microskills.

Situational syllabus- The situations or contexts in which the language will be

used and analyses the language needed for those situations.

Task based syllabus- consisting of a set of real world tasks pr activities ordered
according to cognitive difficulty.

Discourse syllabus- It emphasizes in communication. Making an oral

presentation is an example of a macroskill, including microskills such as control
of gestures body language.

What roles should a syllabus play in the course design process?

We can look at this question in terms of the approaches to course design.

a) A language-centered approach
In this approach, the syllabus is the prime generator of the teaching materials, as
this model shows:

55
 Analyse target situation

Write syllabus

Write or select texts to illustrate items in syllabus

Write exercises to practice items in the syllabus

Devise tests for assessing knowledge of the items in the syllabus

Figure no.: The role of the syllabus in a language-centered approach

This approach is still widely used in ESP. The syllabus is quite clearly the
determiner of the entire course. So to speak, the crystallization of what the course is
all about- the inspiration for the production of texts and exercises and the basis on
which proficiency will be evaluated.
b) A skills-centered approach
The aim is not to present and practice language items but rather to provide
opportunities for learners to employ and evaluate the skills and strategies considered
necessary in the target situation. A skill-centered approach will often lay great store
by the use of ‘authentic’ texts. It is suggested by Holmes (1981):

56
 Analyse the target needs

Select interesting and representative texts

Devise a hierarchy of skills to exploit the texts

Order and adapt the texts as necessary to enable a focus on the required skills

Devise activities/ techniques to teach those skills

Devise a system to assess the acquisition of the skills.

Figure no.: The role of the syllabus in a skill- centered approach

In this approach, the syllabus is not a prime generator. Although Holmes

presents it as a linear process, it is more likely that there is a degree of negotiation
between texts and skills. Thus, the skill syllabus and establishing criteria for the
ordering and adaptation of readers, will probably also play a role in their initial
selection. Simultaneously, the texts available will affect what can be focused on in
exercises and assessment.
c) A learning-centered approach
The syllabus is not just about the content of what is learned that is important but
also the activity through which it is learned (Prabhu, 1983).
In the learning-centered approach, the methodology cannot be grafted on to the
end of an existing selection of syllabus items and texts: it must be considered right
from the start. To achieve this, the syllabus must be used more dynamically to enable
methodological considerations, such as interest, enjoyment, learner involvement, to
influence the content of the entire course design. The simplest form of achieving this
is to break down the syllabus design process into two levels. Outlining the topic areas
and the target situation's communicative tasks is all that required at the beginning.
For example, a general syllabus for technician students might look like this:
Topic Tasks
Name of tools Expressing the use and purpose
Construction Describing measurements
57
 Materials Reporting experiments
Electricity Understanding safety instructions

Analyze target
Analyze learning situation
situation

Establish general
syllabus of topics
Create interesting and tasks
and enjoyable
materials
Produce detailed
language/skills syllabus

Check language and skills

content of materials and make
necessary adjustments

Figure no.: The role of the syllabus in a learning-centered approach

Instead of using the syllabus as the initial and once-for-all determiner of the
content of materials and methodology, syllabus and materials evolve together, with
each being able to inform the other. In this way, the syllabus is used creatively as a
generator of excellent and relevant learning activities rather than just a statement of
language content that restricts and impoverishes the methodology. Yet, at the same
time, it maintains relevance to target needs. Therefore, it serves the needs of the
students both as users and as learners of the language.
The syllabus acts in the first instance as a compass to show the general
direction. Then it becomes a sketch map. When the possibilities have been explored,
obstacles noted, and available resources collected, more detail can be filled in on the
map until the route is exact.
d) The post hoc approach
There is, of course, one last way of using the syllabus, which is probably more
widespread than we might suppose:

58
 Write materials on undefined
criteria

Write cosmetic syllabus to satisfy

sponsors, teachers, students et al.

Figure no.: The role of the syllabus in a post hoc approach

Because of the many roles that it plays, a great deal of thought must be given to
how the syllabus is used. It can, and unfortunately often, act as a ball and chain,
denying creativity and subjecting everything to evaluate criteria. But used sensibly
and sensitively, a syllabus can provide the support and guidance that creativity thrives
on. A syllabus is not divine writ. It is a working document that should be used flexibly
and appropriately to maximize learning aims and processes.

APPLICATION
Direction: Using the given template, craft a ESP syllabus following what you have
learned in this lesson. Refer to the given an example on the first row. Use a separate
sheet.

Time Objectives Topic Teaching- Assessment References

Frame Learning Tasks
Activities
Week 1 1. Discuss the Writing a Interactive Communication Wakat, G. et al.
relevance of a Communication discussion letter (2018). Purposive
communication Letter Communication.
letter. Socratic Buzz sessions p. 50. Lorimar
Method Publishing, inc.
2. Craft a (Question Group activities
communication and
letter answer)
Week 2 Communication
for Nurses:
Writing Basic
Patient Notes
Week 3 Writing a Police
Report
Week 4 Writing Business
and Technical
Report

Well-done! You have finished Module 3, Lesson 1!

Reference:
Hutchinsons, T., Waters, A. (1991). English for specific purposes, a learning-centered
approach. pp. 80-95.

59
 Lesson 2: Materials Evaluation

Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:

a. define instructional materials;

b. identify the instructional materials to be employed in an ESP class; and
c. create criteria in evaluating materials in ESP.

Hello learners, Welcome to Lesson 2! Materials play a very vital

role and they should be carefully selected and designed to suit the
needs of the learners. One important characteristic of ESP
materials is its “authenticity”. In EGP, “authentic” is defined as
materials originally produced for a purpose other than language
teaching. In ESP “authentic” materials are those that are normally
used in the students’ workplace or academic environment.

ACTIVITY

Direction: From the illustration shown below, try to associate things that would
connect to it.

Instructional
Materials

ANALYSIS:
ANALYSIS

60
 1. Why do learning materials need to be evaluated?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

2. How do you evaluate learning materials?

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

ABSTRACTION
There are three possible ways of turning the course design into actual teaching
materials:
1. Select from existing materials: materials evaluation
2. Write our materials: material development.
3. Modify existing materials: materials adaptation.

1. Why Evaluate Materials?

According to Hutchinson &Waters (1987) stated, evaluation is a matter of
judging something's fitness for a particular purpose. Evaluation concerns on the
relative merit. There is no absolute good or bad, only degrees of fitness for the
required purpose. It means that when the teacher does materials evaluation, the
evaluation is based on the necessary purpose or goal that would be reached by the
students.
In other words, Hutchinson &Waters (1987) stated that in any kind of evaluation,
the decision finally made is likely to be the better for being based on a systematic
check of all the essential variables. In doing the evaluation materials, the writer
probably gets a negative and positive impact. The negative side of evaluation
materials is that the teacher probably spent a lot of time and probably getting
frustrated. On the other hand, the positive side of evaluation materials are; it can also
help in justifying the request of the sponsors or other ESP team members for money
to buy materials or time to write them.

61
2. How do you evaluate materials?
Hutchinson &Waters (1987) stated that“evaluation is a matching process:
matching needs to available solutions.” To match the needs and solutions, the
matching should be done as objectively as possible. It means that teachers have to
look at the needs of students and the solution separately. In the final analysis, any
choice will be made on subjective grounds. However, if subjectivity influences your
judgment, it may blind you to possible alternatives. For example a teacher might
reject a particular textbook because the teacher does not like the picture on the cover
or dislike functional syllabuses, but it does not mean that the book does not suit the
needs of parties. Thus, teachers should not let subjectivity influence their judgment in
the early stages of analysis when evaluating materials to be taught. The process of
evaluation can be divided into four significant steps(see figure 26) :
1) Defining criteria
2) Subjective analysis
3) Objective analysis
4) Matching

The first two stages will be done in the course design stage. At the same time, the
other two-stage is done as the continuation of the subjective analysis where teacher
has to evaluate or develop their material through objective analysis. From these
process, the teacher will be more comfortable to know how far the material matches
the needs.

Below is also a presented a checklist of criteria for objective and subjective analysis.

(Hutchinson and Waters, 1981)

62
(Hutchinson and Waters, 1981)

63
(Hutchinson and Waters, 1981)

64
(Hutchinson and Waters, 1981)

65
(Hutchinson and Waters, 1981)

66
(Hutchinson and Waters, 1981)

67
(Hutchinson and Waters, 1981)

68
 APPLICATION

Direction: Complete the rubric below by supplying criteria in evaluating ESP

instruction materials (first colored row only). Use may use a separate sheet for this.
Rubric for ESP Instructional Materials
CRITERIA Excellent Satisfactory Fair Needs
Improvement
(76-100 pts.) (51-75 pts.) (26-50 pts.) (0-25 pts.)

Well-done! You have finished Module 3, Lesson 2!

Reference:
Hutchinsons, T., Waters, A. (1991). English for specific purposes, a learning-centered
approach. pp. 96-105.

69
 Lesson 3: Materials Design,
Methodology and Evaluation

Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:

a. identify the designs of the materials in ESP; and

b. carry-out an action plan for an ESP class.

Welcome to Lesson 3! In this lesson, you will learn the materials

designs, methodology in classroom and evaluation in ESP. This
will equip you as a future ESP teacher. Enjoy learning!

ACTIVITY

If…
In this activity, you will have to foresee yourself as an ESP teacher. Describe
the nature of your teaching process, including the materials you are going to employ
in your class. List at least five descriptions starting with the word “If.”
Example:
If I am going to be an ESP teacher, I will…
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

ANALYSIS

1. What made you decide to employ the teaching process and materials you have
mentioned in the previous activity?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

2. Why do we have to know the materials designs, methodology, and evaluation

in an ESP class? Do they have differences with the usual materials designs,
methods and assessment in a regular English class? Site examples.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

70
 ABSTRACTION

Materials Design

In ESP, as it is in any language program, materials play a very vital role. They
should be carefully selected and designed to suit the needs of the learners. One
important characteristic of ESP materials is their “authenticity.” In EGP, “authentic”
is defined as materials initially produced for a purpose other than language teaching.
In ESP, “authentic” materials are typically used in the students’ workplace or
academic environment.
In terms of “types,” ESP materials may be divided into two, namely: content-
based materials and competency-based materials. About previous discussions on
syllabus design, content-based ESP materials focus on language form, language
notion, language function, situation, or even topic. Thus, content-based is more
appropriate in EAP. On the other hand, competency-based materials focus on the
language skills (cf. skills-based syllabus); therefore, this is more appropriately applied
in EOP.

Methodology

In terms of classroom practices or methodologies, a popular question raised

against ESP is, “Is there a particular technique adopted by English language teachers
in the ESP classroom?” This question was raised by Sinha & Sadorra (1991), and
their answer is “no.” Indeed, this question has haunted language teachers, in
particular, ESP teachers. Although communicative language teaching (CLT) is the
most prevalent methodology, ESP courses are not limited.
Philipps, as cited in Robinson (1991), suggests four fundamental
methodological principles, namely:
(a) reality control, which relates to how tasks are rendered accessible to
students;
(b) the students’ special purpose must meaningfully generate non-triviality,
i.e. the tasks;
(c) authenticity, i.e., the language must e naturally caused by the students’
particular sense; and
(d) tolerance of error, i.e., errors which do not impede successful
communication, must be tolerated.

71
 Below is a list of some commonly used activities in an ESP program:
1. Roleplay and Simulation- Students assume a different role or a role that is
present in their future work area. For example, a student pilot may take the
captain's role and give orders to his crew or report coordinates to the air
traffic control tower.
2. Case studies- This activity is common in business, medicine, and law. It
involves studying the facts of a real-life case, discussing the issues
involved, and coming up with a decision or plan.
3. Project work- Here, students work on a particular “project,” which may
include out of the class activities. Students are then expected to construct
manuals, which explain how it works and/or discuss how their project was
done. This may apply to engineering students, specifically to those in the
field of robotics and other innovative gadgets.
4. Oral presentations- Relevant to the activities above, students may present
or even defend a particular product or issue. Here, students are exposed to
possible academic or work environments that they may face in the future.

Other pertinent principles and issues in ESP methodology involve:

1. Knowledge for content- One problem in ESP is the language teacher’s
mastery over the content. Since the teacher is a language major, it would
be difficult for them to have mastery of the content. A usual approach to
address this issue is to team teach with a subject-matter expert

2. Teacher talk- Since ESP courses are communicative, teachers are expected
to be facilitators rather than classroom authorities. Students should have
more talk time instead of the teacher.

3. Learners’ cognitive and emotional involvement- Tasks and activities

should make the students feel “successful” at the end of the program. It
should be noted that these students took the course to achieve a certain
degree of language proficiency. Thus, they should develop a positive
outlook on the program because this will, affect their cognitive
development.

Evaluation

Similar to materials, evaluation processes are essential to ESP too. The evaluation
provides necessary information regarding the extent to which the learner learned. In
ESP, testing is mostly performance-based, as opposed to the usual paper-and-pencil
test. Since testing in ESP focuses on the question “has the student reached the level
that he’s/she’s supposed to reach?” there will be no better way to know this but
through “simulated” tests that compel students to perform. With this, ESP tests are
criterion-referenced because a student should reach a particular level to pass the
course. (This is contrary to EGP tests, which are often norm-referenced.)

72
 APPLICATION

Ready, set, ACTION!

In this activity, you are tasked to create an Action Plan for your ESP class.
You can choose your own ESP topic. Follow the format below:
TOPIC MATERIALS METHODOLOGY EVALUATION

Well-done! You have finished Module 3, Lesson 3!

Reference:

Hutchinsons, T., Waters, A. (1991). English for specific purposes, a learning-centered

approach. pp. 106-144.

73
 MODULE ASSESSMENT

Show Me!
Now that you have come to the final module, you will incorporate what you
have learned in this course. At this point, you are tasked to conduct 45 minutes to 1-
hour demonstration teaching on ESP via video presentation. You may choose any
topic you want and assume a specific kind of audience (Mathematics majors,
Generalists, Agriculture majors, Entrepreneurship majors, Criminology students, etc.)
Submit your videos through Facebook messenger or Google Drive or any means that
your teacher may require. Be guided on the rubric in the appendices. Do not forget to
include a 4As Detailed Lesson Plan. Good luck!

MODULE SUMMARY

A syllabus is a document that says that it will (or at least what should) be learned.
But there are several different ways in which a syllabus can be defined. Each way on
its route impose a further layer of interpretation.
 Types of syllabus
 Evaluation is a matter of judging the fitness of something for a particular
purpose—evaluation concerns on the relative merit. There is no absolute good
or bad, only degrees of fitness for the required purpose.
 One important characteristic of ESP materials is their “authenticity.” In EGP,
“authentic” is defined as materials initially produced for a purpose other than
language teaching. In ESP, “authentic” materials are typically used in the
students’ workplace or academic environment.

74
APPENDICES

75
 APPENDIX B
Rubric for Action Plan
Scoring Beyond Expectation Acceptable Below
Criteria expectation Standards
(5) (4) (3)
(1)
The action plan The action plan The action plan The action plan is
clearly states a clearly states tasks contains a a list of tasks with
Structure sequence of and desired sequence of steps little or no
steps, each with a outcomes for each that identifies reference to
realistic time step. Timeliness, tasks, desired timeliness,
frame, assigned responsibilities, outcomes, responsibilities,
responsibilities resources, and timeliness, resources, or
(by name), evidence of responsibilities, evidence of
specific resources completion for resources, and completion.
that indicate both each step are evidence to be
the completion of included but may collected, but the
the step as well be realistic, steps are either
as the fidelity and adequate, or unclear or lack
impact of the specific enough to specificity.
school-wide measure and
strategies and monitor results.
professional
learning needed
to achieve the
SMART goal.
The action plan Action plan The action plan The action plan
identifies differentiates identifies training does not include
Professional professional professional needs related to a any reference to
design learning designs learning designs single professional professional
related explicitly based on the learning design for learning.
to content SMART goal's all strategies.
pedagogy and content focus but
individual lacks specificity
educator needs about individual
and preferences. educator needs or
The focus of preferences.
professional
learning is on
improving
professional
practice.
The author uses The author uses The author uses The writer uses a
vivid words and vivid words and words that limited
phrases. The phrases. The communicate vocabulary. Jargon
Word Choice choice and choice and clearly, but the or clichés may be
placement of placement of writing lacks present and detract
words seems words is variety. from the meaning.
accurate, natural, inaccurate at times
and not forced. and/or seems
overdone.

All sentences are Most sentences are Most sentences are Sentences sound
well constructed well constructed well constructed, awkward, are
Sentence and have varied and have varied but they have a distractingly
Structure, structure and structure and similar structure repetitive, or are
Grammar, length. The length. The author and/or length. The difficult to
Mechanics, & author makes no makes a few author makes understand. The
Spelling errors in grammar, several errors in author makes
77
 grammar, mechanics, and/or grammar, numerous errors in
mechanics, spelling errors, but mechanics, and/or grammar,
and/or spelling. they do not spelling that mechanics, and/or
interfere with interfere with spelling that
understanding. understanding. interfere with
understanding.
Reviewer’s
Comments

78
 APPENDIX C

Rubric for Lesson Planning and Teaching Demonstration

100-95 94-89 88-83 82-78 77-72
Excellent VS S Fair Unsatisfactory

I. LESSON PLANNING

A. Objectives were stated in behavioral

terms.

B. There was congruence between:

1. objective and subject matter

2. objective and teaching

procedure
3. objective and formative test

4. objective and assignment

II. TEACHING METHODS

A. Method/s used was/were suited to the

needs and capabilities of the students.
B. The teacher was creative enough to
adapt his/her method to the students’
capabilities.
C. Visual aids and other examples were
used to illustrate the lesson.
D. The teacher made effective use of the
formative test after teaching.
III. CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

A. The teacher had a systematic way of

checking:
1. Attendance

2. Assignment/homework

3. Practice exercises

4. Group work/projects

5. Passing in and out of the room.

6. Correcting, distributing, and

collecting paper
B. Order and discipline were present in the
classroom.
C. Visual aids were within easy reach of the
teacher during his/her teaching
IV. COMMUNICATION SKILLS

A. The teacher spoke clearly with a well-

modulated voice.
B. The teacher used correct grammar in
speaking
79
C. The students gave correct responses
through the teacher’s skillful questioning.
D. He/She observed correct pronunciation.

E. The board work of the teacher was free

from errors in grammar in spelling.
F. The teacher’s handwriting on the board
and lesson plan was legible enough to
be read and understood.
V. TEACHER’S PERSONALITY

A. The teacher is neat and well-groomed.

B. The teacher is free from mannerism or

physical defects that tend to disturb the
student’s attention.
C. The teacher’s personality is strong
enough to command respect and
attention.

Strengths:
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Additional Comments:
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

80
 REFERENCES

Andriani, G. (2014). Problems in teaching english for specific purposes (esp) in

higher education. Nobel: Journal of Literature and Language Teaching, 5(01),
30-40. https://doi.org/10.15642/NOBEL.2014.5.01.30-40

Brown, D. (2000). Principles of language learning and teaching.

Corpuz, B., Salandanan, G. (2015). Principles of teaching (with TLE).

Hutchinsons, T., Waters, A. (1991). English for specific purposes, a learning-centered

approach.

81