Animal Fat As Fuel
Animal Fat As Fuel
Animal Fat As Fuel
by
JAKUB PIASZYK
A thesis submitted to
The University of Birmingham
for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
0
University of Birmingham Research Archive
e-theses repository
Power generation is the largest single source of greenhouse gas emissions, accounting for
some 40% of the world total (1). The situation can be improved by usage of renewable
fuels. There is a lot of controversy and growing concerns regarding usage of so called first
generation bio fuels produced from food crops. The attention of industry and researchers is
moving towards second generation fuels obtained from non edible sources. Waste food or
meat by-products can be processed into tallow. This thesis focuses on the suitability and
feasibility of animal fat usage as a fuel for internal combustion engines. The applied
untreated fat in the engine, where modifications to the fuel supply system are minimal; the
consequences are described and analysed. This work is an attempt to provide guidance and
Animal fat (tallow) has been used by humans as source of energy since the Palaeolithic
age. The main area of application was combustion in various types of lamps. Tallow is
obtained from animal by-products in a process called rendering. The raw material is
crushed and heated. The process eliminates water, sterilises the material and allows it to be
separated into fats, meat and bone meal. It may regarded to be a waste product, however,
access to the raw material, such as whales washed on shore, was regulated by law from as
early as the 12th century. The feasibility of alternative fuel usage may often be a critical
factor affecting power plant type selection. The renewable electricity generation
i
subsidising system in the United Kingdom has been reviewed. A basic feasibility study for
the installed generating set was prepared and the highest tallow price at which electricity
generation is profitable was determined. It was proven that usage of tallow can be feasible,
provided that some form of incentive for biomass or waste technology is implemented.
The properties of tallow were monitored on a weekly basis throughout a period of one
year. By performing an analysis of laboratory test results, it was established whether the
product quality is in statistical control. Some properties, such as acidity, moisture or ash
content, showed significant variability throughout the year. Possible reasons causing
variable and high acidity are given together with a proposal for an acidity removal method.
The proposed method of evaporating free fatty acid under reduced pressure was tested in a
The effect of storage and supply temperatures on the properties of tallow was investigated.
The available laboratory facilities enabled the verification of changes in fat’s viscosity,
density and surface tension. Pre heating to 90°C enables reduction of all tested properties,
however, the achieved results are comparable with Heavy Fuel Oil (HFO) rather than
automotive diesel fuel. Lubricity of tallow was tested, to predict possible effects of its
usage on the longevity of the engine fuel supply system. Elevated temperature does not
have a negative impact on the lubricating properties of tallow. Storage conditions are an
important factor affecting the quality of bio fuels. The impact of storage temperature on
deterioration in tallow quality was investigated over a period of one month. It was proven
ii
that animal fat can be stored in a liquid form for a prolonged period of time without
The combustion process of animal fat was compared with that of diesel fuel. Tests were
conducted at three different loads. Usage of animal fat results in higher cylinder pressures,
and the heat release rate for the premixed combustion phase is significantly lower. For high
load operation, all measured emissions were lower for animal fat with exception of
nitrogen oxides. Due to low sulphur content there is no requirement for a sulphur dioxide
abatement system. The available emission control systems have been reviewed and a
solution choice has been made, based on legal and economic criteria. Cooled Exhaust Gas
Recirculation (cEGR) was designed and installed. Trial test results are presented and
A summary of two thousand hours operation of the 800 kW generating set using neat fat is
provided. The performance of injectors and fuel pumps was investigated. It was proven
that appropriate filtration and supply strategy can enable problem free operation of the
internal combustion engine. An increased tendency for deposit formation was recorded.
recommendation for the lubricating oil centrifuge cleaning frequency, enabled the
achievement of a 1000 hours oil change interval, the same as for fossil fuel operation.
iii
Acknowledgements
Professor Miroslaw L. Wyszynski and Doctor Athanasios Tsolakis, for their guidance and
Thanks go to the host company – John Pointon & Sons Ltd. for providing facilities and
fuel to conduct the research described in this thesis. In particular the input from Paul A.
Support by Arthur Garlant and North Lincs Engineering was highly valuable and
appreciated.
funding of the Knowledge Transfer Partnership Project which made this work possible.
Some equipment used in this study was funded by Advantage West Midlands and the
European Regional Development Fund as part of the Science City Research Alliance
iv
List of Publications, Related Work and Achievements
1. Tallow combustion in a large diesel engine and hydrogen production via tallow
reforming.
Kingdom.
3. Acidity of Tallow (Animal Fat) and Its Effect on Suitability of Tallow as Fuel
generation.
v
Table of Contents
Abstract................................................................................................................................... i
Acknowledgements .............................................................................................................. iv
vi
2.8 Potential of Tallow for Biodiesel Production.................................................... 27
2.11 Summary........................................................................................................ 43
3.2.1.1 Fossil Fuel Levy and Non Fossil Fuel Obligation ................................ 45
vii
3.2.2.3 Feed-in Tariffs ...................................................................................... 56
viii
Chapter 5 Consistency of Tallow Properties .............................................................. 88
Inc. 98
ix
7.2 Emissions Comparison .................................................................................... 127
9.1.4 Long Term Effects of Using Tallow on Engine Components ................. 156
x
9.2.3 Animal Fat Quality .................................................................................. 158
Appendix 2 – Feasibility price estimates for FFA removal systems including Artisan
xi
List of Figures
Figure 2.1 General structure of triacylglycerol, R, R', and R" indicate fatty acid groups (8) 7
Figure 2.2 Structures of common C18 fatty acids: stearic, oleic, and linoleic acids (8) ....... 7
Figure 2.3 A deer fat lamp, found in a Lascaux cave. It can be viewed in the National
Figure 2.4 Large Rorqual stranded at Tynemouth in August, 1532 (14) ............................ 10
Figure 2.9 Typical engine test bed with dual fuel supply system used for triacylglycerol
Figure 2.11 Different layouts for EGR system; case 1 – high pressure EGR, case 2- low
Figure 2.12 Effect of EGR on the 4T50MX engine emission (44) ..................................... 36
Figure 2.13 Fuel injection patterns, including pre-injection and the effects on SFOC and
Figure 2.15 SCR system layout for MAN B&W S46 MC-C engine (87) ........................... 41
Figure 3.1 Total output by year and technology (GWh) (96) .............................................. 47
xii
Figure 3.2 Real average contracted price for each technology (2000 prices). The average is
a capacity-weighted average of the contracted price and does not account for the length of
the contract. PPP is the Pool Purchase Price in the electricity market (96) ........................ 49
Figure 3.3 Track record for ROC auction prices by Compliance Period (CP) (98) ............ 51
Figure 3.4 Comparison of animal fat (grade 6) and crude oil (Brent) prices in 2009 (114,
115) ...................................................................................................................................... 61
Figure 3.5 Impact of animal fat price on electricity generation feasibility. Assumptions:
Figure 4.1 Ruston 6AR engine installed at John Pointon and Sons Ltd. premises at
Cheddleton ........................................................................................................................... 67
Figure 4.2 Generating station single line diagram showing Ruston 6AR engine (Gen 11kV)
and dedicated electricity metering system complying with OFGEM requirements ............ 69
Figure 4.8 cEGR system layout - including gas cooling and humidification chamber ....... 79
Figure 4.11 Hydrometer scale reading for opaque fluids (120) .......................................... 82
xiii
Figure 4.15 Test rig for FFA removal via evaporation at reduced pressure........................ 87
Figure 5.1 Moisture, insoluble impurities, ash levels in tallow during 2009 ...................... 91
Figure 5.2 Iodine number and polyethylene levels in tallow during 2009 .......................... 92
Figure 5.3 Free fatty acids (FFA) level in tallow and weekly average ambient temperature
Figure 5.4 Calorific value (higher) and density of tallow during 2009 ............................... 93
Figure 5.5 EWMA control charts for monitored tallow properties ..................................... 96
Figure 6.1 Comparison of dynamic viscosity of animal fat and ULSD at range of
Figure 6.2 Effect of temperature on animal fat kinematic viscosity ................................. 103
Figure 6.3 Relationship between shear stress and shear rate for animal fat and ULSD at a
Figure 6.4 Wear scar captured by digital microscope; ULSD at 60⁰C.............................. 106
Figure 6.5 Wear scar captured by digital microscope; Animal Fat at 60⁰C ...................... 106
Figure 6.6 Film percentages for ULSD and animal fat at a range of temperatures. .......... 107
Figure 6.7 Film percentages for ULSD and animal fat at a range of temperatures - first 5
Figure 6.8 Friction coefficients for ULSD and animal fat at a range of temperatures ...... 108
Figure 6.9 Wear scar captured by digital microscope; Animal Fat at 90⁰C ...................... 109
Figure 6.10 Comparison of surface tension measured at a range of temperatures for ULSD
Figure 6.12 Free fatty acids content in animal fat stored for four weeks at various
xiv
Figure 7.1 Combustion process comparison – 75% load .................................................. 120
Figure 7.2 Cylinder pressure rise rate – 75% load ............................................................ 120
Figure 7.4 Cylinder pressure rise rate - 50% load ............................................................. 121
Figure 7.6 Cylinder pressure rise rate - 25% load ............................................................. 122
Figure 7.7 Premixed combustion net heat release (NHRR) patterns for both tested fuels at
three tested loads. Local maxima for premixed combustion phase are marked. ............... 124
Figure 7.8 Effect of fuel on the specific fuel consumption (not adjusted for calorific value)
........................................................................................................................................... 124
Figure 7.11 Effect of fuel type on the engine exhaust emissions - 75% load ................... 128
Figure 7.12 Effect of fuel type on the engine exhaust emissions - 50% load ................... 129
Figure 7.13 Effect of fuel type on the engine exhaust emissions - 25% load ................... 130
Figure 7.15 Impact of the cooled EGR (cEGR) on tallow combustion ............................. 131
Figure 7.16 Impact of EGR concentration on engine emissions when fuelled with tallow -
Figure 7.17 Impact of cooled EGR concentration on engine emissions when fuelled with
Figure 7.18 Effect of EGR and cEGR concentration on nitrogen oxides reduction potential
xv
Figure 8.2 Long term effect of animal fat usage on lubricating oil viscosity.................... 141
Figure 8.3 Long term effect of animal fat usage on engine wear - iron concentration ..... 142
Figure 8.5 Fuel leaking from fuel pumps damaged by fat containing polyethylene ......... 147
Figure 8.7 Injector nozzle damage caused by high temperature ....................................... 149
Figure 8.9 Ruston 6AR cylinder head - valve damage visible .......................................... 150
xvi
List of Tables
Table 2.1 Typical fatty acid composition (%wt) of major animal fats (7). Fatty acid
specification (e.g. 16:1) includes the length of carbon chain and amount of double bonds.. 7
Table 2.2 Tallow categories and its permitted applications (6, 19-21) ............................... 14
Table 2.3 Properties of technical tallows and animal greases (22) ..................................... 15
Table 2.4 Standard fuels and triacylglycerols as fuels for CI engines - comparison of
Table 2.5 Guiding biofuel specification for MAN B&W two-stroke low speed diesel
Table 2.6 Liquid biofuel specification for Wärtsilä 4-stroke engines (69) ......................... 26
testing conditions for engines fuelled with animal fat with values obtained for fossil fuels
............................................................................................................................................. 32
Table 3.2 Renewables Obligation percentage and buy-out price for different obligation
Table 3.5 Coefficients for the calculation of QI for various sizes and types of new CHP
xvii
Table 4.3 PCS HFRR technical specification ...................................................................... 85
Table 5.2 Summary of statistical analysis and compliance with various specifications ..... 95
Table 5.3 FFA evaporation at low pressure – 6.5 – 9.5 hPa ................................................ 98
Table 6.1 Animal fat typical specification, tested sample properties ................................ 101
Table 6.3 Animal fat acidity - long term storage ............................................................... 114
Table 8.2 Effect of ageing during operation on animal fat on various types of lubricating
AD Anaerobic Digestion
AN Acid Number
xviii
BOTS Ball on Three Seats
CI Compression Ignition
CO Carbon Monoxide
CP Compliance Period
DC Direct Current
xix
FAME Fatty Acid Methyl Ester
HC Hydrocarbons
HV Vickers Hardness
IP Indicated Pressure
xx
MR Moving Range
NH3 Ammonia
OH Hydroxyl Group
PE Power Efficiency
PM Particulate Matter
PP Peak Pressure
PV Photovoltaics
QI Quality Index
RO Renewables Obligation
xxi
ROC Renewables Obligation Certificate
xxii
Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION
The UK Government has set strategic targets for both the energy market and industry.
Documents such as the Low Carbon Transition Plan and Renewable Energy Strategy
specify that emissions, expressed as metric tonne carbon dioxide equivalent (MtCO2e),
must be cut by 18% by 2020 (compared to the 2008 level) (2) and 15% of energy should be
generated from renewable sources by 2020 (3). The targets can be achieved by extended
usage of biomass as a source of renewable energy. There is a potential in using crude fats,
like tallow, as fuel for internal combustion engines. By adopting the right working
practices and procedures and implementing appropriate treatment methods, the rendering
This thesis is one of the outputs of a collaborative project established between The School
rendering industry, Staffordshire based, John Pointon & Sons. Cooperation was in the form
1
1.2 Objectives
The main aim of the research process described in this thesis is to verify suitability of
animal fat as fuel for internal combustion engines. The objectives of this research were to:
- identify, analyse and solve fuel flow-related problems with close attention given to
- study the impact of raw and treated tallow on the combustion quality, emissions,
- study the mechanical and chemical effects of animal fat fuel on the engine
- optimise the engine operation, prepare procedures for operation of gen-set engines
- improve or modify fuel quality by varying the tallow preparation, fuel production
or pre-treatment
- verify the feasibility of the usage of tallow for power generation application by
The thesis is divided into nine consecutive chapters which cover various aspects of animal
2
A literature review is presented in Chapter 2, which introduces a definition of animal fat
(tallow), describes the production process and also provides basic information regarding
how tallow is divided into grades and categories. Available information regarding neat
triglycerides’ usage as an engine fuel is analysed to obtain guidance for engine test trials. A
short review of the emissions abatement systems available for large engines is also given.
A very limited amount of published data regarding usage of animal fat as fuel for large
for a small scale plant (<1MW) and also a large scale plant (20MW). The relationship that
links animal fat price with fossil fuel price is analysed. The effect of fuel price change on
research power plant located at John Pointon & Sons Ltd. premises at Cheddleton, Staffs,
UK. Usage of animal fat required modification of the fuel supply system to enable dual
fuel operation – the working principle is explained. The designed emission abatement
system in a form of EGR with gases cooling and humidification, (cEGR), is presented
together with technical drawings appended. Tests conducted at the research power plant
were accompanied by laboratory tests, of which main the objective was fuel properties’
3
Chapter 5 presents results of an investigation that focused on the consistency of fuel
properties. Changes of properties during the calendar year are statistically analysed. A
possible reason for variable acidity is given together with a review of available acidity
reduction methods. One of the physical methods has been tested in a laboratory scale
experiment.
Chapter 6 is devoted to analysis of fuel temperature effect on its properties. The main
objective of this chapter is to verify if pre heating is a correct way of animal fat pre-
treatment.
Combined results of tests described in Chapters 5-6 lead to establishing a suitable fuel
Analysis of the combustion process together with emissions data are given in Chapter 7.
All data is recorded for fossil fuel (diesel), hence reference data is obtained, and then
compared with results for animal fat. Tests were performed at synchronous speed for three
4
The long term effect of animal fat usage on engine components’ longevity is described in
Chapter 8. Analysis is divided into sub sections describing fuel pumps, injectors and
lubricating oil.
Conclusions and suggestions for future work constitute the final chapter of this thesis.
5
Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
This chapter contains a short summary of information available in literature concerning the
possible application of animal fat and other triglycerides as fuel for compressed ignition
engines. Emissions abatement methods used for marine and stationary applications are
briefly described.
Tallow is an animal fat obtained by rendering animal carcases and waste from the food
industry. Crude fats primarily consist of triacylglycerols but also contain non glyceride
substances (unsaponifiable fraction), that affect chemical and physical properties (4). A
triacylglycerol consists of a three carbon glycerol head group to which are added three
fatty acid chains (5). A structure of triacylglycerol is shown in Figure 2.1. All
triacylglycerols have the same basic structure, and the differences in properties and use of
commercial triglycerides depend largely on the length, degree of unsaturation and other
chemical modifications to the fatty acid chains (6, 7). Examples of the structures of
common C18 fatty acids are given in Figure 2.2, as C18:0 (stearic acid, octadecanoic acid),
C18:1 (oleic acid, 9-octadecenoic acid), and C18:2 (linoleic acid, 9,12-octadecenoic acid)
(8). Typical fatty acid composition of tallow and other animal fats is given in Table 2.1.
6
Figure 2.1 General structure of triacylglycerol, R, R', and R" indicate fatty acid groups (8)
Figure 2.2 Structures of common C18 fatty acids: stearic, oleic, and linoleic acids (8)
Table 2.1 Typical fatty acid composition (%wt) of major animal fats (7). Fatty acid specification (e.g.
16:1) includes the length of carbon chain and amount of double bonds.
Fatty acid
Butterb 12 26 3 11 28 2 18
Lard 2 26 5 11 44 11 1
Beef tallow 3 27 11 7 48 2 2
Mutton tallow 6 27 2 32 31 2 0
Chicken fat 1 22 6 7 40 20 4
Notes
a
– including trans isomers
b
– also 4:0 (3%), 6:0 (2%), 8:0 (1%), 10:0 (3%), and 12:0 (4%).
7
2.3 History of Tallow Usage
Animal fat was used not only as a fuel but also for nutritional purposes and medicines.
Widespread usage of animal fats for lighting purposes can be associated with the easy
controllable combustion process and feedstock availability. Proof of animal fat usage from
prehistoric times was discovered. Palaeolithic humans were living in caves and caverns
where flint mining required artificial lighting. The first primitive lamps were used
alongside with torches and fires. In southern France, in the region of the limestone hills
upon the river Vezere, at the Lascaux cave complex, small stones with little cavities were
found (shown in Figure 2.3). Some of these were black as a result of a combustion process.
Hollow bones filled with animal fat were also used as a light source (9). During the
Neolithic Age, humans living on the Danish coast were using oval, clay lamps. Analysed
samples revealed the presence of small amounts of animal fat (fish oil). Fats obtained from
sea birds like cormorants and sea gulls were also used (10). Flint mines in Grimes Graves
and Cissbury were lit by small lamps made from chalk (10). Animal fat burned in stone
lamps was also used in one of the largest flint mines in Europe which consisted of a
8
Figure 2.3 A deer fat lamp, found in a Lascaux cave. It can be viewed in the National Prehistory Museum in
Les Eyzies-de-Tayac (12)
In the polar zone, seal fat was used for heating and as a light source till modern times.
Obtaining fat was inevitably linked with waste or a by-product conversion process and
feedstock availability. In some cases fat was obtained from hunted animals. Whales thrown
on the seashores (shown in Figure 2.4) were considered as a valuable resource. Magnus
(13) listed possible ways of utilising one whale for: meat, fat for heating and lighting,
leather for clothing, and bones for heating (small) and construction (large). Often people
fought over it. Since the 12th century this issue was regulated by law (10).
9
Figure 2.4 Large Rorqual stranded at Tynemouth in August, 1532 (14)
Usage of animal fat as a source of light in mining extends even up to the 19th century.
Metal lamps (shown in Figure 2.5) burning with an open flame, where a textile wick was
pushed into the spout, were fitted into miners’ cloth caps.
10
Tallow was used for candle making for centuries. Even nowadays it is possible to purchase
tallow candles that, according to a manufacturer, are not only a source of light and heat
(used to aid lighting a fire), but in a survival situation can be eaten (16).
From this short summary it can be seen that animal fat is a resource that has been used by
humans since prehistory. Sourcing fat and other products obtained from stranded whales
can be seen as an exemplary way of the sustainable processing of waste. The rendering
Rendering is a straightforward process in which animal carcases and trimmings are crushed
and heated. This process drives off the water, sterilises the material and allows it to be
separated into the fats (tallow) and meat and bone meal (MBM). Raw materials are all the
unusable parts of a carcass, including bones, internal organs and trimmings. Raw materials
are collected for processing from abattoirs and from butchers and food processing sites.
Two types of the process can be distinguished: batch and continuous rendering.
Continuous systems are suitable for higher capacities. A process schematic diagram is
11
Figure 2.6 Rendering process schematic diagram
After arrival at the processing plant, by-products are placed in the hopper and then are
transferred to a crusher where their size is reduced. Material is cooked in the cooker
(shown in Figure 2.7) for a period of no less than 1 hour, at temperatures in excess of
150°C
12
Figure 2.7 Cooker used for rendering process (17)
The separation process is conducted in the screw presses, shown in Figure 2.8. As the
greaves pass along the screw, the fat is pressed out, and the greaves are discharged as press
cake.
Vapours from the material are diverted to thermal oxidisers, fuelled with fat, where at a
temperature above 950⁰C all VOCs (Volatile Organic Compounds) are oxidised. Steam
13
2.5 Categories and Grades
Animal by-products are divided into three categories depending on their potential risk to
human and animal health or to the environment. There are different rules for disposing of
waste in each category (19). Categories of tallow and permitted applications were defined
Table 2.2 Tallow categories and its permitted applications (6, 19-21)
Tallow is also graded in terms of quality. The two key grades for the UK market are:
- grade 2 – high quality, low colour, used for demanding applications such as soap;
- grade 6 – low quality, highly coloured, used for technical applications (6).
14
Table 2.3 Properties of technical tallows and animal greases (22)
According to current legislation, in the UK, animal fat is treated as waste (23). Therefore,
the Waste Incineration Directive applies. One of the requirements is that exhaust gas
resulting from the process is raised to a temperature of 850ºC for 2 seconds (23). For the
Agency issued a permit to operate a generating set fuelled with animal fat (24).
Products of the animal fat esterification process conducted in accordance with quality
The rendering industry is working on developing End of Waste Test criteria so tallow will
15
2.7 Usage of Triacylglycerols as Engine Fuels
the earliest stages of engine history. Attempts, described as successful, were conducted by
Dr Diesel (26). In the performed tests, earth nut oil has been used; however, potential for
usage of other vegetable oil or animal fat is also mentioned. Due to lower prices of crude
oil distillation products, oils and fats were not given much attention until the fuel shortages
during the second world war and after the fuel crisis in the 1970s-80s (27). Some
properties of oil and fats, important for substances designed to be used as fuels, are listed
Density
Density of the fuel has an impact on the fuel atomisation, for higher densities atomisation
is worse (28, 29). Higher density results in increased formation of particulates, especially
for higher loads (30, 31). As for the majority of injection systems, a fuel dose is controlled
on a volumetric basis or based on timed events; a change in fuel density will affect the
injection strategy (27, 32, 33). Density of triacylglycerols is on average, 10% higher than
Viscosity
Fuel viscosity is another parameter affecting atomisation of fuel; its contribution towards
change in the SMD is approximated to be around 90% (28). For heavier fuels viscosity is
16
an important parameter used to determine the appropriate design of auxiliary fuel supply
systems such as centrifuges and pre-heaters. Changes in viscosity have an impact on the
efficiency of the fuel pumps, for higher viscosities leaks are reduced resulting in increased
Surface Tension
Surface tension affects fuel atomisation. For higher tensions, droplet radius increases and
Contamination
For road fuels a contamination is defined as all un-dissolved substances retained on a filter
after filtration under test conditions (37). For residual fuels contamination is called a
sediment and is a sum of insoluble organic and inorganic material, separated from the bulk
of the sample by filtration through a specified filter, and also insoluble in a predominantly
paraffinic solvent (38). The standard specific for the rendering industry includes also a
mineral matter combined as soaps (22). Particles present in the fuel will increase wear of
For fuels of vegetable origin potential for contamination is lower than for crude fuels,
however, in the case of fats, contamination with finely divided particles of protein, bone
17
Water Content
Water content in the fuel despite lowering its calorific value may lead to corrosion of the
fuel system elements. The problem of corrosion applies especially to crude fuels that may
be contaminated with sea water containing salt (31, 40). Water presence reduces
lubricating properties of fuels. At lower temperatures, ice crystals together with solid
impurities are the nucleus of crystallisation for waxes and paraffins (27). In the case of bio
fuels, water can speed up the biodegradation of the fuel. For animal fats moisture content
characterises the efficiency of the filtration and separation processes. It is desirable to keep
moisture at low levels. High moisture content may encourage hydrolysis and increase
Ash represents solid contaminants as well as metals bound in the fuel (e.g. vanadium and
nickel). Part of the ash could be catalyst particles from the refining process for mineral
fuels. Solid ash should be removed to the widest possible extent by centrifuging, and
cleaning can be improved by installing a fine filter after the centrifuge (e.g. 50 μm) (40).
an amount left after evaporation and pyrolysis to provide some indication of relative coke
forming propensity (41). Fuels with a high carbon residue content could cause increased
fouling of the gas ways, necessitating more frequent cleaning, especially of the
turbocharger (40).
18
Acidity
Acidity is expressed as an Acid Number (AN) [or Total Acid Number (TAN)] and
measured in mg KOH/g or Free Fatty Acid content (in %). FFA results may be expressed
in terms of acid value by multiplying the FFA percent by 1.99 (4). Monitoring of this
parameter is important due to the corrosive impact of high acidity fuels on the fuel
Acid number (AN) – the quantity of base, expressed in milligrams of potassium hydroxide
per gram of sample, required to titrate a sample in the solvent from its initial meter reading
Strong acid number (SAN) – the quantity of base, expressed as milligrams of potassium
hydroxide per gram of sample, required to titrate a sample in the solvent from its initial
buffer solution, or a well defined inflection point, as specified in the test method (43).
Iodine number
Properties of oils and fats depend on the ratio of saturated and unsaturated acids. Iodine
number is the parameter describing the unsaturation level of the fat (4, 7).
19
Sulphur
All sulphur entering the engine combustion chamber is oxidized to SOX, which is emitted
into the atmosphere with the exhaust gases. The SOX emissions from the engine depend on
the fuel sulphur content and fuel consumption (44, 45). Low sulphur content is one the
Calorific Value
The upper (higher or gross) calorific value is the heat of combustion, calculated assuming
that all of the water in the products has condensed to liquid. Lower (or net) value is
obtained in the case where none of the water is assumed to condense (46).
The use of gross or net calorific value varies with type of industry. Engine and gas turbine
manufacturers, for example, use net calorific value, whereas UK boiler manufacturers use
The calorific value for oils and fats is lower when compared to mineral fuels due to the
oxygen content.
20
Flash Point
Flash point temperature is measured to assess the tendency of the fuel to form a flammable
mixture with air. The flash point can indicate the possible presence of highly volatile and
Cetane Number
The cetane number characterizes the time between injection and combustion in a diesel
engine. The higher the number, the more flammable the fuel. The cetane numbers obtained
for most vegetable oils are between 29 and 43 as opposed to 45–55 for diesel (32).
It has been noted that a cetane number is not applicable for heavy residual fuels as an
indicator of ignition quality. The concept of an ignition index based on viscosity and
density was developed (31, 32). The CCAI (Calculated Carbon Aromaticity Index) is a
unit-less number allowing ranking the ignition qualities of different residual fuel oils: the
lower the number, the better the ignition characteristics. The CCAI does not give an
absolute measure of ignition performance since this is much more dependent upon engine
Due to the complex structure and composition of tallow, a cetane number or calculated
indexes may not be appropriate criteria for assessment of its ignition quality.
21
Table 2.4 Standard fuels and triacylglycerols as fuels for CI engines - comparison of selected
properties
CI Lower
Carbon Iodine Flash Cetane Sulphur
Engine Density Viscosity calorific Ref.
residue number point number content
Fuel value
3
kg/m 2
mm /s@30°C % w/w gI2/kg MJ/kg °C - mg/kg
@25°C
(37,
a c 10 50-52)
Diesel 820-845 2.0-4.5 0.30 N/A 41.4-42.7 55 46-50
Diesel – a c
820 1.5-5.5 0.30 N/A 42.3 56 Min 45 0.2 [%] (53)
Class A2
a c (27,
FAME 860-900 3.5-5.0 0.30 120 37.1 101 47-51 10 54)
(31,
HFO – a b
960 30 10 N/A 60 - 3.5 [%] 40,
RMA 30 55)
39.8-41.5
(31,
HFO – a b
1010 700 22 N/A 60 - 4.5 [%] 40,
RMK 700 55)
(4, 27,
31,
32,
Coconut 915-920 32-40 - 7.5-10.5 35.0-35.8 228 37 0.01-4 51,
56,
57)
c (4, 31,
Corn 915-920 60-64/35 0.24 118-128 37.8-39.5 277 38-42 0.01 50)
(27,
c
Rapeseed 915 34-39 0.30 98 36.8-37.4 320 37.6 0.01-2.6 31,
62)
Soybean 917-921 58-63 0.27 123-139 37.3 330 37.9 0.01 (4, 31)
(4, 31,
c
Sunflower 918-923 55-62/34 0.23 125-136 36.5-37.8 316 37 0.01 50,
63)
312- (64,
Waste Oil 910-940 72.6 - 107-115 39.2-39.6 36-37 0.02 65)
314
c (52,
Animal fat 890-920 40-55 0.36 40-49 36.5-39.8 268 ~40 <0.01 66-68)
a b c
– at 15°C – at 50°C – at 40°C
22
A comparison of selected properties of various vegetable oils and animal fat is given in
Table 2.4. Many of the physical and chemical properties of liquid vegetable oils are similar
to those of fossil fuels. However, there are also differences that affect engine operation.
- The cloud point / cold filter plugging point of certain vegetable oils is higher.
vegetable oil can be distilled, above that temperature, oil can be thermo cracked
Researchers from Wartsila (69) recommend paying attention to the following issues when
- Solidification properties - the fuel injection equipment and fuel system must be
- Contents of ash constituents fouling the exhaust gas system, combustion chamber
components, and the catalyst elements in the SCR and oxidation catalyst, should be
avoided.
23
- Lower energy content - an adequate flow capacity in the fuel injection system is
needed.
- They are produced in rural areas and can contribute to the local economy.
- They are biodegradable and they are a renewable fuel with a short carbon cycle
period (1–2 years compared to millions of years for petroleum fuels) and are
environmentally friendly.
- They have physical and combustion characteristics similar to those of pure diesel
oil.
- They have a flash point higher than that of diesel oil thus are safer for use.
Some manufacturers allow usage of crude biofuels in their engines. Guiding specifications
are given for two stroke engines (Table 2.5) and four stroke engines (Table 2.6).
24
Table 2.5 Guiding biofuel specification for MAN B&W two-stroke low speed diesel engines (40)
25
Table 2.6 Liquid biofuel specification for Wärtsilä 4-stroke engines (69)
Test method
Property Unit Limit
reference
Viscosity, max. cSt @ 40 °C 100 ISO 3104
26
2.8 Potential of Tallow for Biodiesel Production
Usage of tallow for biodiesel production has been described by other researchers (70-79).
High and variable acidity level (free fatty acid - FFA content) required a two stage
transesterification process. The FFA removal stage has an impact on yield and feasibility
of biodiesel production. Therefore, this use of tallow has not been described in this thesis.
origin. Animal fat, due to its different chemical composition and production process may
Some researchers attempted to use preheated animal fat as fuel for automotive scale
engines. Takayuki (66) used a 411cc Mitsubishi engine and animal fat preheated to 60°C.
and HC emissions, especially for low loads. PM emissions were higher than for diesel fuel
at high load. Lower cylinder pressure and shorter ignition delay was recorded for animal
fat. Decreased engine output is associated with lower calorific value of the fat.
27
Kleinova (80) presented results of tests conducted on VAG engines – 1.9 TDI (rotary
pump) and 2.5 TDI (pump injector unit). Decrease in engine performance is explained as
being related to the lower energy content of bio fuels (lard and chicken fat). Very low CO
and HC emissions are reported; also the NOx level is lower when compared to results
obtained for engines fuelled with diesel. The authors suggest than problematic operation of
engines fuelled with triglycerides can be associated with poor fuel atomisation and low
injection pressure. It is claimed that in the case of using a high pressure common rail
system, it is possible to achieve good results for bio fuels. Paper contains a conclusion to
disregard results obtained for triglycerides fuels in engines equipped with fuel supply
Kumar (52) ran a series of tests on a Lister Petter TS1 – 630cc engine. Animal fat was
preheated to 30, 40, 50, 60 and 70⁰C. Peak pressure and rate of pressure rise are lower with
animal fat at low temperature as compared to diesel. Increasing fuel temperature results in
an increase of both measured parameters. Ignition delay is higher for animal fat at all tested
loads. Ignition delay depends on fuel temperature, for higher temperatures reduced delay
has been reported. Heat release rates are lower for animal fat with a tendency to increase
for elevated fuel temperatures. Operation on bio fuel resulted in an increased exhaust
temperature. Emissions of CO and HC are higher with animal fat as compared to diesel.
However, fuel pre heating reduces these emissions. Emissions of NOx were lower with a
tendency to increase with elevated fuel temperature. Obtained results were confirmed by
28
Figure 2.9 Typical engine test bed with dual fuel supply system used for triacylglycerol fuels testing (52)
Research published by Mormino (67) was conducted at a test bed incorporating a four
stroke turbocharged diesel engine without charge air cooler .A Volvo TD 60 B six cylinder
engine has a swept volume of 913 cc per cylinder. The combustion process and resulting
emissions from diesel, vegetable oils and animal fat were compared. Animal fat was
preheated to 70 ⁰C. Ignition delay for animal fat was shorter; the difference was more
significant for lower test speeds (rpm). The lower emissions of nitrogen oxides were
combustion chamber. Lower emissions of soot were reported, the difference was
29
associated with the oxygen content and lack of aromatic compounds in fat. Hydrocarbons’
emissions were higher for oils and fat when compared to diesel as a result of less effective
atomization.
Kapusta (68) briefly described research conducted by Wartsila with regard to potential
usage of various bio fuels for large generating sets. Tests were performed at two research
power plants (VTT and Pieksamaki) equipped with Wartsila 4R32LN and 6L20 engines. A
view of the Pieksamaki research power plant with a description of its main components is
given in Figure 2.10. Significant reduction in soot emissions was observed for animal fat
(up to 60%). While emission of nitrogen oxides was comparable for all tested fuels, a
slight increase in hydrocarbons’ emission was detected. Researchers concluded that fuel
30
Figure 2.10 Pieksamaki research power plant (69)
Reported results are combined together and presented in Table 2.7. It has to be noted that
conclusions made by other researchers are not consistent. For example, in the case of
nitrogen oxides’ emissions, the assessment varies from a significant reduction in the case
of a small engine fuelled with animal fat supplied at low temperature, while on the other
hand, for a large engine with a fuel preheating system, an increase of those emissions is
reported.
31
Table 2.7 Comparison of combustion characteristics and emissions obtained at a range of testing conditions for engines fuelled with animal fat with values
obtained for fossil fuels
Takayuki (66)
Mitsubishi LL 60 - - - + + ~a +
D800 HL 60 - - - - - - +
Kleinova (80)
VW 1.9 TDI LL b
- + ~ + +
& 2.5 TDI HLc - ~ + + +
LL 30 -- + + - +
Kumar (52)
Lister Petter LL 70 - ~ ~ - +
TS1 HL 30 -- ++ -- -- ++ ++ - +
HL 70 - + - - -- ~ -- +
Volvo
Mormino (67)
TD60B
Range 70 - - - - + d
+
Kapusta (68)
Wartsila LL + + ~ --
6L20 HL + + + --
Where:
‘+’ – increase, ‘+ +’ - significant increase, ‘-‘ – decrease, ‘- -‘ - significant decrease, ‘~’ – comparable result, LL – low load, HL – high load, a – decrease
in PM emissions was also reported, b - at speed of 60 km/h, c - at speed of 120 km/h, d – decrease in soot emissions also reported, not significant
difference for low speeds
32
There is no full set of test results (including emissions and combustion characteristics) for
a large diesel engine, which may be used by the rendering industry to offset part of their
electricity demand by utilising animal fat for renewable electricity generation. Hence,
various aspects of neat animal fat application as fuel for internal combustion engines, is
justified.
33
2.10 Emissions Abatement Methods for Large Engines
The research power plant described in this thesis was granted special permission by the
Environment Agency to conduct a trial test of the animal fat combustion in a large diesel
engine. At the end of the trial, an abatement system enabling compliance with given limits
should be proposed and installed. Review of available methods typical for large diesel
There are various method classification criteria. Wartsila segregates methods as ‘dry’ or
chamber shape. NOx reduction in ‘wet’ methods is achieved thanks to water presence in
the combustion chamber. MAN B&W divides methods into ‘primary’ – where
modifications prevent NOx formation and ‘secondary’ where exhaust after treatment needs
to be applied.
34
2.10.1.2 Exhaust Gas Recirculation
The Exhaust Gas Recirculation method’s working principle is the feeding of a portion of
the exhaust gas back to the cylinder. Nitrogen oxides emission depends on partial pressure
of reagents – oxygen and nitrogen. The partial pressure can be altered by modification of
charge composition in the cylinder. NOx emission can be reduced if oxygen concentration
is lowered (dilution effect). Exhaust recirculation results in increased heat capacity of the
cylinder charge (thermal effect). Carbon dioxide and water, present in the exhaust, can
potentially, dissociate at high temperatures and take part in the combustion process
(chemical effect) (82). EGR cooling is necessary to prevent soot emissions from rising to
unacceptable levels and to avoid a significant drop in engine efficiency. The need for EGR
cooling is more evident at high EGR rates and low engine speeds (83).
Possible layouts of the EGR system are shown in Figure 2.11. Exhaust gas can be fed back
before (case 1) or after (case 2) the turbocharger. Other researchers point out that charge
dilution should be applied in circumstances where clean gas with low oxygen content is
available (case 3) (44). For this reason, the EGR is disregarded as a NOx abatement method
for marine applications by Wartsila (45). However, high reduction potential has to be
noted, according to (44, 84), 5% recirculation can reduce NOx emission by 30%. Results of
tests conducted by MAN B&W on a 4T50MX engine are given in Figure 2.12.
35
Figure 2.11 Different layouts for EGR system; case 1 – high pressure EGR, case 2- low pressure EGR, case
3 – charge dilution (44)
36
2.10.1.3 Optimisation of Injection Strategy
NOx emissions can be lowered by alteration of injector type. Large engine manufacturers
implemented various solutions to improve fuel atomisation and provide better injection
control. Wartsila introduced the RT-flex engine family equipped with a common rail
injection system. MAN B&W introduced the ME engine family equipped with an
individual electronic module responsible for fuel injection for each cylinder and a
hydraulic exhaust valve actuator. The ME engine control system layout is shown in Figure
2.14.
Figure 2.13 presents a development process, starting with basic injection flow (InFl basic)
optimised for low fuel consumption and used in production engines (Standard MC).
Injection strategy management can lead to NOx emission reduction by even 20% (fuel
consumption penalty of 3%) – for example via pilot injection introduction (pre-injection).
37
Figure 2.13 Fuel injection patterns, including pre-injection and the effects on SFOC and NOx emissions (44)
38
Figure 2.14 MAN ME engine control system layout
39
2.10.1.4 SCR – Selective Catalytic Reduction
The working principle of the method is mixing exhaust gases with ammonia NH3, typically
supplied as urea, and passing it through a catalytic reactor where nitrogen oxides are
reduced to N2 and H20 at a temperature of 300 – 400⁰C. The following reactions occur
once the urea has been decomposed and hydrolysed (85, 86):
The main advantage of this method is very high efficiency, reaching even 98%.
Complicated installation, shown in Figure 2.15, resulting in higher capital expenditure and
can determine the appropriate operational temperature for the reactor. For low
temperatures the reactor will not achieve its desired reduction efficiency. For higher
temperatures ammonia will be burned before reduction reaction occurs. NOx reduction
depends also on the amount of added ammonia – for higher concentrations, ammonia slip
may occur – therefore a precise dosing system is required for efficient SCR operation.
Another variable that may have impact on the SCR system reduction efficiency is location
40
Figure 2.15 SCR system layout for MAN B&W S46 MC-C engine (87)
41
2.10.1.5 Usage of Water
The combustion process in a CI engine can be characterised by high local air excess ratios.
combustion chamber. It can be achieved through introduction of water, which absorbs heat
via evaporation. Water can be delivered to the combustion chamber in various ways: with
an additional water injector, through injection into the engine intake, supply the engine
with water-fuel emulsion (88). CASS – (Combustion Air Saturation System) is an example
of a system using water injection into the engine intake. A reported high reduction
consumption. Lower water consumption can be achieved through direct water injection
(45).
Sulphur present in fuel is oxidised to sulphur oxides in the combustion chamber. Sulphur
oxides’ emission is proportional to sulphur content in the fuel (45). The only viable method
of SOx emission is usage of low fuels with low sulphur content. It is reflected in the
introduction of SECAs (Sulphur Emission Control Area) (89-91) where ships have to use
42
2.11 Summary
The following conclusions and predictions can be made based on the presented literature
review:
Diameter (SMD).
- For good atomisation the benefit of the oxygen content may lead to a decrease of
- Calorific value of the tallow is lower – it may decrease the engine performance
(max power).
- No abatement system for SO2 should be required due to low sulphur content of the
animal fat.
43
Chapter 3 FEASIBILITY OF ELECTRICITY GENERATION WHEN
In this chapter renewable electricity and heat production support in the UK is described.
Tallow prices recorded in 2009 are given. Fuel price, combined with additional subsidies
available in 2009, are used to calculate the feasibility of a research power plant operation.
The feasibility of electricity generation from animal fat in power plants using reciprocating
- Fuel price
44
3.2 Supporting Legislation for Renewable Electricity Generation
In the late 1980s the UK Government decided to privatise and deregulate the energy
industry. Privatisation of the nuclear energy sector turned out to be a challenge. Private
investors refused to accept all the risks and liabilities linked with nuclear power. Energy
generated by nuclear plants was more expensive than energy derived from fossil fuels.
The government thus kept the nuclear energy sector in public hands. To cover additional
costs and protect the generators, a Non Fossil Fuel Obligation together with a Fossil Fuel
stations. The levy was imposed on fossil fuel based power, and was set by an independent
electricity regulator. Through this mechanism, the government made all consumers pay the
extra costs for the ‘benefits’ of nuclear production by applying a broad carbon tax on the
rest of the sector (93). The Fossil Fuel Levy Rates are given in Table 3.1.
45
Table 3.1 Fossil Fuel Levy rates (94)
NFFO process
Under the 1989 Electricity Act, the Secretary of State made five Orders requiring the
Regional Electricity Companies (RECs) in England and Wales to contract for certain
amounts of electricity generating capacity from renewable sources. The first Non Fossil
Fuel Obligation Order (NFFO 1) took place in 1990, with the others following in 1991,
1995, 1997 and 1998. The European Commission ruled that the NFFO constituted a state
subsidy to the nuclear industry and thus they had to end in 1998 (93).
Each Order specified the generating capacity for each technology band. These bands were:
large wind projects, small wind projects, hydro, landfill gas, waste to energy and biomass.
Project developers were then asked to bid for contracts. Winning offers were selected by
the Non-Fossil Purchasing Agency (NFPA) based solely on bid price (94). A winning
46
project was then rewarded with a long term (typically 15 years (95)) contract to supply
electricity to the National Grid. The energy was purchased by the NFPA and then sold to
one of the RECs at the price set by the market regulator. The funds collected under the
Fossil Fuel Levy were used to cover the difference between the sale price and the
Figure 3.1 presents total output by year and technology. The output includes the generation
of NFFO contracted projects. NFFO 1 and 2 contracts ended at the end of 1998. The output
produced from NFFO 1 and 2 contracts during 1998 have been added to the 1999 and 2000
output from NFFO 3, 4 and 5 contracts. This may overstate generation if these projects did
47
- By giving developers secure long-term contracts, financing would be relatively easy to
- The price of each technology would be revealed, and through successive competitions,
The Department of Trade and Industry asked the Frontier Economics and Byrne O’Cleirigh
consultancy companies to evaluate support for renewable energy under the NFFO. The
final report has been prepared (96) and its results can be summarised as follows:
The NFFO has encouraged the uptake of renewable technologies, especially in landfill gas
and onshore wind. In total, over 3200 MW capacity has been contracted through the NFFO
in England and Wales. It has been estimated that nearly 24000 GWh have been produced
by the NFFO contracted plants. The competitive NFFO process has helped to identify
competitive prices for renewable energy and has enabled the government to maximise
contracted capacity at the lowest cost. Electricity from NFFO contracted plants has
48
Figure 3.2 Real average contracted price for each technology (2000 prices). The average is a capacity-
weighted average of the contracted price and does not account for the length of the contract. PPP is the Pool
Purchase Price in the electricity market (96)
Figure 3.2 presents contracted prices for different technologies. Lowering the prices of the
renewable energy is regarded to be one of the largest successes of the NFFO system (93,
94, 96). Data given in Figure 3.2 show those technologies such as landfill gas (LFG) and
The Renewable Obligation support system was introduced on 1 April 2002 by the
Renewable Obligation Order. Each MWh of electricity generated from eligible renewable
49
introduced as tradable instruments. Therefore renewable energy generators had two main
The licensed electricity suppliers must provide a certain percentage of sold energy that
originates from renewable sources. The percentage is set by the government, as shown in
Table 3.2. If a supplier is unable to present the required amount of ROCs, it has to pay a
buy-out price. Funds raised this way are then divided between suppliers who comply with
the obligation.
Table 3.2 Renewables Obligation percentage and buy-out price for different obligation periods (97)
Buy-out price
Obligation period Obligation (%)
(£/MWh)
1 Apr 2002 to 31 Mar 2003 3.0 30.00
50
As the amount of ROCs is limited due to the small number of accredited generators, ROCs
are traded through auction systems. The electronic auction system is administrated by the
Non-Fossil Purchasing Agency (NFPA). Figure 3.3 presents the historic record of auction
ROCs prices.
Figure 3.3 Track record for ROC auction prices by Compliance Period (CP) (98)
As no technology banding was introduced, all power plants using internal combustion
engines fuelled with gaseous fuels such as sewage gas, landfill gas or biogas are entitled to
the same level of support. However, plants using bio fuels have to agree to and accredit the
Fuel Measurement and Sampling procedure. Since 2007 ‘own use’ electricity is also
entitled for support within the RO scheme (95). Different rules apply to micro generators
51
3.2.2 Existing Support Policy
The Climate Change Levy (CCL) is an environmental tax that came into force on 1 April
2001. The levy is chargeable on the industrial and commercial supply of taxable
commodities for lighting, heating and power used by consumers in the following sectors of
business:
- industry
- commerce
- agriculture
- other services.
The levy does not apply to taxable commodities used by domestic consumers, or by
charities for non-business use (99). The tax is applied as a rate per unit of energy. Each
52
Table 3.3 Climate Change Levy rates (99-102)
Rate
Taxable commodity 1 April 2001 – 1 April 2007 – 1 April 2008 – 1 April 2009 –
31 March 31 March 31 March 31 March
2007 2008 2009 2010
£0.00430 £0.00441 £0.00456 £0.00470
Electricity
/kWh /kWh /kWh /kWh
Gas supplied by a gas utility or any
gas supplied in a gaseous state £0.00150 £0.00154 £0.00159 £0.00164
that is of a kind supplied by a gas /kWh /kWh /kWh /kWh
utility
Any petroleum gas, or other
gaseous hydrocarbon, supplied in a £0.00960 /kg £0.00985 /kg £0.01018 /kg £0.01050 /kg
liquid state
Any other taxable commodity £0.01170 /kg £0.01201 /kg £0.01242 /kg £0.01281 /kg
The CCL should deliver estimated annual carbon dioxide savings of over 3.5 million
tonnes of carbon in 2010 (in the UK). It was also estimated to lead to an increase of good
quality heat and power capacity by 1.2 Gigawatts of electricity by 2010 (103). The CCL
policy was reviewed in 2006 and it was calculated that it resulted in cumulative savings of
Energy generated from qualified renewable sources is exempt from the Levy where certain
- wind energy
53
- hydro power (up to 10 MW)
- tidal power
- wave energy
- photovoltaic cells
- photo conversion
- geothermal aquifers
- landfill gas
The Generators must be accredited by Ofgem (market regulator) for the renewable
electricity they generate. Exemption certificates (LECs) are then issued for each monthly
qualifying output. Certificates can be traded separately from the electricity for which they
CHP stations are regarded to be one of the most effective ways of reducing the carbon
footprint. Therefore output from such plants may qualify for CCL exemption.
Whether a CHP Station qualifies for CCL exemption on its entire energy inputs and
outputs will be determined under the CHP Quality Assurance (CHPQA) programme
administered on behalf of the Department of Energy and Climate Change (DECC). Under
54
the programme rules, the Quality Index (QI), and Power Efficiency (PE) of a CHP station
are calculated from the fuel used, electricity generated, and heat supplied (107).
The Renewable Obligation Order 2009 introduced several changes to the RO scheme. The
Banding details are given in Table 3.4. The Renewable Obligation scheme will remain
operational as support for large scale renewable projects. The Renewable Obligation Order
will implement few changes to the system. The lifetime of the scheme will be extended to
2037. The Generators will not be entitled to receive support for more than 20 years (108,
109).
Number of
MWh
Level of support to be
Technologies ROCs/MWh generated for
1 ROC to be
awarded
Landfill gas 0.25 4
55
3.2.2.3 Feed-in Tariffs
During the consultation regarding the 2008 Renewable Energy Strategy, many replies
indicated Feed in Tariffs (FITs) as the most appropriate support mechanism for distributed
and small scale electricity (109). Key characteristics of the mechanism are:
- Each kWh generated from an eligible source will receive a fixed payment depending
price (the ‘export tariff’). However, generators are entitled to individually negotiate the
The FITs were introduced on 1 April 2010 and cover generators with declared net capacity
(DNC) lower than 5MW (110). FIT supports generation technologies such as: anaerobic
digestion (AD), hydro, micro CHP, photovoltaic cells and wind turbines.
Choosing from many available support models the government has decided to introduce
the Renewable Heat Obligation as a support scheme for renewable heat. According to the
Ernst and Young (Consultants) report (111) the key characteristics of an RHO mechanism
would be:
56
Suppliers of heat guarantee a minimum percentage of heat demand to be met by
time to achieve a specific future target for renewable heat supplied as a proportion
Suppliers either pay a penalty if they fail to achieve their Obligation (‘Buy-Out’),
Revenues from supplier penalties are recycled to compliant suppliers who meet
The RHI was introduced in April 2011 (112). The incentive is promoting various
technologies, including:
heat pumps,
solar thermal
biomass boilers
renewable CHP
57
3.2.3 Combined Heat and Power
A CHP scheme must be accredited within the Good Quality CHP programme. The
‘environmental and other benefits’ compared to best available energy supply alternatives
(113). Projects are assessed by analysing the Quality Index (QI). This factor was
introduced to compare the CHP schemes with other projects that generate power or heat
Where: Total Power Output (CHPTPO) is the total registered annual power generation from a CHP Scheme
(MWhe) as measured at the generator terminals; Qualifying Heat Output (CHPQHO) is the total registered
amount of useful heat supplied annually from a CHP Scheme (MWhth). Total Fuel Input (CHPTFI) is the total
registered annual fuel input to a CHP Scheme (MWh). All numbers are based on Gross Calorific Value
(GCV)
For the proposed plants the following conditions must be met: QI > 105 and Power 20%
(113). The X and Y coefficient values for new CHP schemes are given in Table 3.6.
58
Table 3.5 Coefficients for the calculation of QI for various sizes and types of new CHP scheme (113)
3.2.4 Summary
It is very important to correctly determine all sources of revenue for a feasibility study of a
planned generating station. The majority of the data required to prepare a good feasibility
study is specific for the chosen engine and fuel type. Moreover, the revenue from the sale
of energy or offset, depends on agreement with the regional electricity supplier, thus it is
The RO banding introduced in 2009 resulted in reduced support for proven technologies
like landfill gas or sewage gas. Anaerobic digestion (AD) was granted a double value ROC
band. Landfill gas and sewage gas will not be supported under the new FIT scheme
59
designed for plants with DNC < 5MW. Small and medium scale biogas (AD) projects will
Animal fat combustion can be supported only in the case of large (> 5MW) projects within
the RO scheme. Generating plants equipped with reciprocating engines can be used also as
sources of heat – combined heat and power – therefore additional support can be granted
The tallow market in the UK is limited to a few types of organizations, such as rendering
food industry (clients). There is no open market for tallow – trade is done via direct
contracts between companies. Therefore data regarding tallow consumption and prices is
commercially sensitive. It corresponds with AEA findings presented in their report (6). For
the purpose of the project described in this thesis, the up to date price for Grade 6 Category
3 tallow has been obtained weekly. The data have been used for an electricity generation
feasibility analysis. Crude oil prices were obtained from BP (114, 115) – those reported are
weekly average prices of Brent crude oil. Comparison of tallow and crude oil prices is
shown in Figure 3.4. It has to be noted that animal fat price is given in GBP per tonne
while oil price is reported in USD per barrel. The presented data proves that to some extent
animal fat prices are linked with fossil fuel prices. The lack of consistency in the last few
weeks of 2009 can be explained by the higher availability of animal fat during the winter,
60
this could have stopped the price from rising along the trend line which was visible during
350 75
300 70
GBP/tonne
250 65
USD/bbl
200 60
150 55
100 50
50 45
0 40
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53
Week
Figure 3.4 Comparison of animal fat (grade 6) and crude oil (Brent) prices in 2009 (114, 115)
The following approach has been followed to assess a feasibility study of the research
power plant installed at the host company premises at Cheddleton, Staffs, England.
61
Each kWh of energy generated by the test generator results in a lower electricity bill for the
host company. As the company has signed a long term contract, the price of energy units
Renewable Obligation System. The amount of money is related to the amount of MWh
generated. Therefore:
Income = MWh * ( A + B )
Where:
B – Subsidy (£/MWh)
Fixed costs such as: emission monitoring system hire (£/week) or engine servicing cost
(£/year) were identified. The main variable cost is the price of fuel:
Expenditure = MWh * C
The used model does not take depreciation into account as the engine used for the study
was not an up to date model and it was difficult to correctly estimate the cost of replacing
it. Analysis of animal price effect on generation feasibility has been conducted. Results are
given in Figure 3.5. It can be seen that for the given engine, at prices of animal fat
62
exceeding 300 GBP/tonne electricity production is not feasible. Only additional support in
form of ROCs can make electricity production from animal fat profitable, however, in the
case of a fuel price rise above 500 GBP/tonne, even subsidised production is not profitable.
Depending on the price, the fuel forms between 80-90% of total production cost.
60 140
40 120
20 100
0 80
‐20 60
‐40 40
‐60 20
‐80 0
300 320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460 480 500
Animal Fat price (GBP/tonne)
Figure 3.5 Impact of animal fat price on electricity generation feasibility. Assumptions: electricity selling
price - 92 £/MWh, ROC price - 45 £/MWh
A feasibility study for a proposed large (20 MW) power plant fuelled with animal fat has
been prepared. Two documents: Electrical Production Cost Study and Feasibility
Calculation, have been prepared by MAN B&W in cooperation with the Author for the
63
host company – John Pointon & Sons Ltd. The electrical production cost analysis gives a
total description of the economic flow in the financial period. The electricity, heat
production and the running costs were assumed to be constant throughout the financial
period. The sensitivity analysis covers the most important economical parameters, in order
to show the influence the changed values on the comparison between the plant alternatives.
The findings can be summarised as follows: electricity production from animal fat even in
a high efficiency (48%) two stroke reciprocating engine driven plant is not feasible without
additional support in the form of ROC or another scheme. Fuel price is responsible for
approximately 85% of the total running cost (including staff costs, servicing and
maintenance etc.). For a long payback time (25 years), electricity generation cost does not
fall below 85 £/MWh. At the time of the study preparation, price paid to electricity
Currently power plants using engine driven generators and fuelled with animal fat are
scheme supports the production of electricity in large (>5MW) stations using biomass.
Animal fat is currently classed as biomass. Each MWh receives a virtual certificate that
can be traded with other generators and suppliers. Heat generated by a CHP plant fuelled
with tallow can be classed as output enabling the generator to obtain Climate Change Levy
64
Exemption Certificates (LECs). The recently introduced RHI creates another possible
The analysis of animal fat prices was a difficult task as there is no open market for this
commodity trade. The collected data showed that a link between animal fat and fossil fuels
exists, in consequence it makes tallow price very volatile which can possibly lead to the
wrong process of feasibility assessment. On the other hand, animal fat price can be
predicted to some level of accuracy by the usage of similar methods which are used for
The feasibility analysis prepared for the research plant showed that fuel price can
constitute up to 90% of total electricity production cost. Therefore, animal fat price has a
major impact on feasibility. Electricity generation was only profitable in the case of
receiving support in the form of ROCs. For tallow prices above 500 £/tonne it was not
Similar findings are included in the feasibility study for the proposed large power plant.
Very efficient two stroke diesel engines were proposed for this particular application but
still fuel price contributes to approximately 85% of the total generation cost. Also in the
case of the proposed plant, feasibility is very sensitive to fuel price change. Electricity
production from animal fat can be profitable only when additional support such as the
65
Chapter 4 EXPERIMENTAL FACILITIES
4.1 Introduction
This chapter describes facilities used in the research process. It can be divided into two
areas: facilities located at the hosting company premises, such as the engine-generating set
together with monitoring equipment (in cylinder pressure sensor, shaft encoder etc.),
emission monitoring, modified fuel supply system and developed emission abatement
system; and laboratory facilities located at the University of Birmingham, where fuel
properties have been tested. It has to be noted that the engine used in this research was
designed and manufactured in the 1960s – therefore obtained results shouldn’t be directly
A Ruston 6AR has been modified for the research described in this thesis. Modifications
control unit enabling engine speed control, operational parameters monitoring and also
synchronising with the grid. The engine has been equipped with cylinder pressure sensors,
a shaft encoder and emission monitoring system. A new emission abatement system has
been designed and installed. The 6AR (shown in Figure 4.1) is a six cylinder, four stroke,
66
direct injection diesel unit of 260.5 mm bore and 368 mm stroke. The engine is equipped
with a turbocharger and water cooled air cooler. The cylinder liners are of the wet type.
Separate cylinder heads are provided for each cylinder carrying two inlets, two exhaust
valves, fuel injector and air starter valve. A chain driven camshaft, through a set of cams,
operates valves and individual fuel injection pumps. The engine is water cooled with two
circuits of raw and fresh water. The engine is started with a compressed air system. The air
for the starter is raised by a diesel powered compressor. Engine technical data is given in
Table 4.1.
Figure 4.1 Ruston 6AR engine installed at John Pointon and Sons Ltd. premises at Cheddleton
67
Table 4.1 Engine technical data
No. of cylinders 6 -
Power 809 kW
Bore 260.5 mm
Stroke 368 mm
generating set has been installed at the hosting company premises at Cheddleton,
line diagram showing the local electrical grid configuration with the newly designed
68
Figure 4.2 Generating station single line diagram showing Ruston 6AR engine (Gen 11kV) and dedicated
electricity metering system complying with OFGEM requirements
- pressure transmitter
- shaft encoder
69
Pressure transmitter
The pressure transmitter Kistler 6613CA, shown in Figure 4.3, contains a piezoelectric
sensor and an integrated charge amplifier. The pressure transmitter is made for continuous
cylinder pressure monitoring of large engines. The integrated charge amplifier provides a
uniform output and can be connected directly to a data acquisition unit. There are no
individual sensitivity adjustments necessary, since the output has uniform sensitivity. The
sensor has a voltage output of 0 - 5 V with a zero line of 2 V (if pressure is 0 MPa) (116).
The sensor can record pressure within two ranges: the first up to 25 MPa, and the second
The calibration of the pressure transducer was performed on an oil weight bench machine
Working principle
The cylinder pressure is acting on the diaphragm. The diaphragm converts the pressure in
proportional force on the sensor element. The piezoelectric sensor element converts the
force into a charge. The charge is converted by a charge amplifier into a voltage. The
complete measuring chain is designed for easy operation and very long life time.
70
The advantages of the piezoelectric principle are:
- It has high reproducibility since the piezoelectric constant of the measuring element
Birmingham. The cylinder pressure signal is recorded and then various parameters can be
71
- IMEP (indicated mean effective pressure)
The emission monitoring system was provided by CBISS Ltd. The system consisted of:-
technique. The advantage of the GFC technique is that it uses a pair of narrow band
pass interference filters, specific to each gaseous species, to establish and remove
- FID – Flame Ionisation Detector – Gas is sampled with a heated pump and led to
the burner supplied with pure hydrogen and air filtered and purified through an
temperature in the cone of the flame provides an ionizing current, the strength of
mixture (117).
- PCME LMS 181 probe - The LMS181 measures the scattered forward light from a
representative location within the stack. The scattered light response is directly
proportional to soot concentration. The instrument optimises its resolution and zero
72
The emission data was recorded continuously and stored in the system memory. The daily
report contained half hourly averages and the daily average of the following exhaust
components and parameters: sulphur dioxide – SO2, nitrogen monoxide – NO, nitrogen
oxides – NOx , carbon monoxide – CO, carbon dioxide – CO2, flow, temperature, soot,
hydrocarbons – HC.
According to the engine manual (119) the standard fuel supply system comprises of the
following items:
- Fuel filters: before fuel pumps and edge filters in each injector
- Injectors
- Interconnecting piping.
73
Figure 4.4 Standard fuel system layout (119)
As animal fat is solid at room temperature, the fuel supply system had to be modified to
- The fuel supply system should be able to switch back to standard fuel in case of an
alarm condition such as grid voltage loss, engine overheating, synchronisation loss etc.
The fuel system has been modified by adding a second fuel tank with a heating coil for
animal fat storage. Pipe work connecting the tank with the fuel supply panel has been fitted
with trace heating preventing fat from solidification and non return valves were also fitted.
The fuel supply panel consisted of two fuel boost pumps, one for diesel and another for
liquid fat, powered by electric motors, four sets of filters, where two were preliminary
74
filters located before the boost pumps, and main filters located before the engine inlet.
Three interlinked valves, one for diesel supply, second for fat supply and third for fuel
return, were operated by a pneumatic actuator. The described arrangement enabled smooth
transition between the fuels. The system layout is given in Figure 4.5. The valve
arrangement and the fuels’ flow patterns for diesel operation (engine start up and warm up
or alarm state) are given in Figure 4.6. The system state for animal fat operation is given in
Figure 4.7.
Fuel consumption has been measured with two flow meters. Coriolis mass flow meter,
Promass 83F supplied by Endress+Hauser, has been used for animal fat consumption
measurement. The flow meter was linked to a PC with a data acquisition software package
installed. Diesel consumption was recorded with a positive displacement type flow meter,
75
Figure 4.5 Fuel supply system layout
76
Figure 4.6 Fuel supply system - diesel mode
77
Figure 4.7 Fuel supply system - tallow mode
78
4.2.4 Emissions Abatement System
The main reason for the EGR testing was to reduce NOx emission from the generating set.
The limit was set by the local authorities at the level of 450 mg/m3 (concentration in dry air
at a temperature of 273K at a pressure of 101.3 kPa and with an oxygen content of 11%
dry) (24). Method efficiency should reach 75-80%. An abatement system combining the
effects of exhaust gases recirculation and introduction of water to the combustion chamber
was designed and installed. Figure 4.8 shows the EGR system with gases cooling and
humidification installed on the engine. Usage of water for an abatement system was
carefully considered and was found acceptable for the purpose of this particular
Silencer
Exhaust cooler – cyclone
with water injection
chamber
Turbocharger
exhaust turbine
Water IN RUSTON
Water OUT 6AR
Turbocharger
Air Filter air compressor
Aftercooler
Figure 4.8 cEGR system layout - including gas cooling and humidification chamber
79
The proportion of recirculated exhaust can be controlled by a set of manually operated
valves. EGR percentage was determined by comparison between two CO2 concentrations.
One was measured at the engine intake, the second at the stack outlet. To achieve higher
NOx emissions’ reduction efficiency, the EGR was cooled (cEGR) and humidified.
Exhaust was diverted to a spray chamber where water was injected through a set of
nozzles, shown in Figure 4.9. The mixture should be free of water droplets, therefore a
cyclone chamber, shown in Figure 4.10, was installed to spin the gases. Any excess water
was flowing down the walls of the chamber. Water injection can be switched off; the
engine operates then with typical gas recirculation (EGR). Technical drawings of the
80
Figure 4.10 EGR cyclone chamber
The hydrometer method has been used for determination of animal fat density. A tested
fuel sample was placed in a water bath with a thermostat to minimise sample temperature
variation. Animal fat is an opaque liquid in all conditions, therefore the scale reading
method described in ASTM standard D1298-99 (2005) (120) and shown in Figure 4.11,
was used.
81
Figure 4.11 Hydrometer scale reading for opaque fluids (120)
A maximum bubble pressure method has been used to measure surface tension of various
fuels. A Sita Proline T15 tension meter was used and technical data are given in Table 4.2.
Surface Tension
Bubble Lifetime
Resolution 1 ms
Liquid Temperature
Resolution 0.1 K
82
Variable bubble lifetime makes obtaining results comparable with static methods possible.
Bubble pressure method suitability, for measurement of viscous fluids, has been positively
Fuel viscosity has been analysed with an Ultra Shear Viscometer provided by PCS. The
Ultra Shear Viscometer can carry out fully automated viscosity measurements over a shear
rate range from 106 s-1 to 107 s-1 and temperatures between 40 and 150°C. The meter is
fitted with a DC servo motor capable of speeds of over 20,000 rpm and an electromagnetic
clutch which engages the rotor for only a very short period of time (typically 30 ms). This
brief shearing interval minimizes the shear heating in the lubricant (122). The viscometer is
shown in Figure 4.12 and its main parts are shown in Figure 4.13.
83
Figure 4.13 USV main parts (122)
Several methods have been developed to assess fuel lubricity. These include: the Scuffing
Reciprocating Rig (HFRR), and the Ball on Three Seats (BOTS). More detailed description
and discussion of correlation between full scale injection pump systems and laboratory
methods can be found in the literature (123). High Frequency Reciprocating Rig (HFRR)
method has been used in this study to assess lubricating properties of animal fat. The rig
has been provided by PCS Instruments Ltd. London, UK. A schematic diagram showing
the working principle is given in Figure 4.14 . The technical specification is given in
84
Table 4.3.
Frequency 10 – 200 Hz
Stroke 20 µm – 2.0 mm
Load 0 – 1.0 kg
Temperature Up to 400 °C
To increase test repeatability and reduce scatter the rig has been fitted with a temperature
and humidity controlled cabinet so tests can be carried out at constant temperature and
relative humidity. The wear scar diameter is measured with a Meiji metallurgical
85
microscope equipped with a digital measurement camera. Test conditions were based on
Frequency 50 ± 1 Hz
Certified specimens provided by PCS were used for testing. The upper specimen is a 6.0
mm diameter ball that is loaded into the upper specimen holder. The upper specimen is
specified to grade 28 (ANSI B3.12), ANSI E-52100 steel, with a Rockwell hardness "C"
scale (HRC) number of 58-66 (ISO 6508), and a surface finish of less than 0.05 µm Ra.
The lower specimen is the disc that is loaded into the lower specimen holder. The lower
specimen is specified to ANSI E-52100 steel machined from annealed rod, with
Vickers hardness "HV30" scale number of 190-210 (ISO 6507/1). It is turned lapped and
86
One possible method of acidity reduction is free fatty acid (FFA) evaporation under
reduced pressure. FFA removal is described in more detail in sections 5.3 and 5.4.
A small scale laboratory test rig was designed to run the trial with tallow fuel. A sample of
animal fat was put in a beaker; the outlet was connected to a vacuum pump. The pump is
capable of reducing pressure down to 6.5 - 9.5 hPa. The beaker, prepared as described
above, was placed in a liquid bath. The temperature was set to 100⁰C and 220⁰C. The
sample was exposed to the raised temperature over one and three hours. The experimental
Figure 4.15 Test rig for FFA removal via evaporation at reduced pressure
87
Chapter 5 CONSISTENCY OF TALLOW PROPERTIES
5.1 Introduction
There are properties that are widely used to determine tallow quality and suitability for
applications within the chemical and food industry. Usually the free fatty acid content,
polyethylene contamination, moisture, insoluble impurities, ash and iodine values are
measured. Those properties are tested on a regular basis in the host company’s on-site
laboratory. Analysis presented in this chapter is based on test results obtained there.
The amount of free fatty acid an animal fat contains is a good indication of whether the fats
were properly handled before rendering. Meat tissues contain fat-splitting enzymes, which
start to hydrolyze the fat to form free fatty acid as soon as the animal dies. Rendering must
be performed as soon as possible after the animals are slaughtered for a minimum of free
fatty acid development (4). The raw material is usually contaminated with polyethylene
that will melt and disperse in the tallow during the rendering process. Polyethylene may
solidify as the tallow is cooled and contaminate pipe work and valves or damage the fuel
injection system. Moisture content characterises the efficiency of tallow filtration and
separation processes. It is desirable to keep moisture at low levels. High moisture content
may encourage hydrolysis and increase acidity as a result. Insoluble impurities are usually
small particles of protein, bone and fibre. Animal fats are highly saturated and the iodine
88
Industrial requirements for grade 6 tallow and crude bio-fuel specifications for two- and
Limit value
Property
4-stroke engine spec 2-stroke engine spec
Grade 6 tallow
(69) (42)
Free fatty acids (FFA) <15 % <10% <15%
A category 3 grade 6 tallow batch was prepared on a weekly basis and pumped to a heated
tank supplying the test generator. Samples were taken weekly throughout 2009 and tests
were also conducted on a weekly basis with the exemption of density and calorific value,
Results were statistically analysed to determine whether the data came from a process
which is subject to statistical description. A two stage approach was chosen. The first step
89
was to check if the data values follow the normal distribution. A test for data normality
consisting of Chi-square, Shapiro-Wilks statistics and Z scores for skewness and kurtosis
was used and P-values were calculated. It can be assumed that data are adequately
modelled by a normal distribution if the P-value is greater than 0.05 (125, 126). As the
sample size used for process monitoring is n=1, a control chart for an individual unit
should be used during the second stage of the data analysing process. If the data values
follow normal distribution then a moving range control chart for individual measurements
(MR chart) can be used. In case the data values do not follow normal distribution an
exponentially weighted moving average control chart (EWMA chart) can be used. The
λx 1 λ z
Where 0<λ<1 is a constant and the starting value is the process target (126).
Montgomery (126) claims that a EWMA with lambda parameter λ = 0.05 – 0.10 and an
appropriately chosen control limit will perform very well against both normal and non
normal distributions.
To check if the acidity of the fuel depends on the ambient temperature, it has been
recorded at hourly intervals. The weekly average temperature was then calculated.
90
Calculated annual mean values were compared with industrial requirements for grade 6
tallow and bio fuel specification for large four and two stroke engines used for power
generation.
5.2.1 Results
Results of tests for weeks 6-8 are excluded due to a failure of the filtration system which
resulted in ‘off spec’ fuel provided for the research engine. Other data are graphically
presented in Figure 5.1 and Figure 5.2. Acidity test results are presented in Figure 5.3
together with the weekly average ambient temperatures. Monthly composite samples
0.80
Moisture Insoluble impurities Ash
0.70
0.60
Concentrations [%]
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
1 3 5 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52
Week
Figure 5.1 Moisture, insoluble impurities, ash levels in tallow during 2009
91
70 70
Iodine value Polyethylene
60 60
Iodine value [g I2/100g]
Polyethylene [ppm]
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37 40 43 46 49
Week
Figure 5.2 Iodine number and polyethylene levels in tallow during 2009
35 35
FFA
30 30
temperature [degC]
25 25
20 20
15 15
10 10
5 5
0 0
Week
Figure 5.3 Free fatty acids (FFA) level in tallow and weekly average ambient temperature during 2009
92
41.0 1000
CV Density
40.0 900
39.5 850
39.0 800
38.5 750
38.0 700
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Figure 5.4 Calorific value (higher) and density of tallow during 2009
Statistical analysis shows that the majority of measured properties are not within the
statistical model. In Figure 5.5, EWMA control charts prepared with the Statgraphics®
software package for all the measured properties are presented. Graphs include the plotted
moving average value together with upper and lower control limits (UCL and LCL). The
process centre line was approximated by the data arithmetic average. Lack of consistency
in the data can be seen for acidity and the ash data series. For calorific value results only
one point is outside defined control limits. The significant variation detected for January
and August samples can be explained by different feedstock used for fat production.
During those months demand for meat is higher, hence the amount of meat by-products in
the mix is higher than for other months, where a large proportion of the feedstock is food
waste. A summary of statistical analysis is presented in Table 5.2. In the second column
the smallest P-values of four conducted tests for data normality are given. If the value is
smaller than 0.05 then it can’t be assumed that that particular data series follows normal
distribution. The process is within statistical control if the obtained results are within
93
designed limits – EWMA upper and lower control limits (UCL and LCL) in the case of the
analysis presented in this paragraph. In the fourth column it is stated whether a particular
tested property is within statistical control. A comparison of the calculated annual average
and highest recorded values with three specifications (grade 6 tallow, 4- and 2-stroke
engines) is also included; Y – means that the calculated/measured value complies with the
specification, N – means that the calculated/measured value does not comply with the
polyethylene contamination, are not consistent during the sampling period, they do not
prevent the tallow from being used in industrial applications, as calculated averages exceed
the required specification (grade 6). The only parameter that disqualifies the tested tallow
from being used as a fuel in any available combustion engine is the acidity expressed as
free fatty acids level. The highest measured value of FFA exceeds the specification for a
two stroke low speed engine by 100%. Moisture content in the tested fuel seems to be
within the statistical limits, however, the mean value does not meet requirements of grade
As shown in Figure 5.3, there is a relationship between ambient temperature and free fatty
acids’ level. Acidity is considerably higher during the summer period. The collected data
are very random so it was difficult to create a detailed model or equation linking ambient
temperature with acidity level. However, a very coarse approximation can be formulated:
increase of ambient temperature by one degree can increase acidity of tallow by 0.75%.
Acidity level depends on the intensity of the decomposition process and fat hydrolysis by
enzymes. Clearly, the ambient temperature is one of the factors affecting the reaction rate.
94
Table 5.2 Summary of statistical analysis and compliance with various specifications
Compliance
Process
with
Smallest Normal in Annual Highest
Data series Unit specification
P-value distribution statistical average reading
control G6 4S 2S
95
Figure 5.5 EWMA control charts for monitored tallow properties
96
5.3 Available Acidity Reduction Methods
Acidity can be lowered in many ways. Bhosle et al. (127) describe three main groups of
lowering acidity comprises of the addition of an alkali to degummed oil, thereby turning
the FFA into soap, which is then removed by mechanical separation from the neutral oil.
This method has been widely researched by Zheng et al. (78) and Meher et al. (128) and
approach is presented by Cmolik et al. (130), where advantages of physical methods like
lower environment pollution due to lack of chemicals, higher yields achieved, are
described. The most common physical methods are steam refining and inert gas stripping.
technology that can be implemented in the case of tallow used as fuel in engines.
In the case of the project described in this thesis, it was desirable to find an acidity
lowering method that will not involve the usage of chemicals. Chemical FFA removal is a
well known process and is already used in the biodiesel production industry, even for
97
All physical methods are based on the fact that free fatty acids evaporate at lower
temperatures if the pressure is reduced. The main goal is to lower the temperature to avoid
polymerisation and fat decomposition. One of the physical method variations is thin film
experiment has been conducted to ensure that fat specific for this project can be treated
with this method – as there is no experience in dealing with grade 6 feedstock (correct at
5.4.2 Large Scale Plant Utilising Rothoterm® Technology by Artisan Industries Inc.
Average acidity reported in Table 5.3 has been calculated based on three consecutive tests.
0 [ref] 9.38 %
1 9.63 % 4.26 %
3 9.21 % 7.53 %
98
It can be seen that heating animal fat at low pressure will encourage evaporation of free
fatty acids. In the case of prolonged heating, high acidity can probably be explained by
hydrolysis reaction affected by the higher temperature. As expected, the acids’ removal
stripping columns in the form of spray or in the case of evaporators in a thin film layer.
The conducted test proves that fat produced by the host company can be potentially treated
with one of the physical deacidification methods. No negative impact of the treatment on
5.5 Conclusions
Data collected throughout the duration of the project proved that acidity of the tallow is
high and does not meet any requirements given by engine manufacturers. An appropriate
usage as fuel for engine driven power plants. Moreover, high variability of acidity was
detected. Ambient temperature affects the speed of the decomposition process, hence the
acidity level. Observations proved the possible suitability of tallow as a fuel, due to high
calorific value, which is consistent during the year. The quality of the fuel preparation
process must be improved so that moisture content can be lowered. Tallow can be treated
as a potential fuel for renewable energy power plants, however, its quality and pre-
99
Chapter 6 DETERMINATION OF APPROPRIATE STORAGE AND
SUPPLY TEMPERATURES
This chapter describes an attempt to establish the appropriate temperature for animal fat to
be supplied as a fuel for reciprocating engines. Tallow is solid at ambient conditions and
melts in temperatures above 35 °C. The following aspects have been discussed in this part
of the study; elevating temperature will reduce the fat’s viscosity and surface tension thus
improving spray characteristics. At the same time, high temperature may have an impact
on the lubricating properties of the fuel. In the light of findings presented in Chapter 5,
acidity seems to be one of the fuel properties that need close monitoring; therefore the
possible contribution of high storage temperature towards increased acidity was also
investigated. The main objective of this part of the study was to determine optimal feed
process, other properties presented some level of consistency, enabling the establishment
of a set of typical values for animal fat. The next step was to establish limits – the internal
specification when fuel would be rejected and not used for engine trials. Fuel used for tests
presented in the current chapter was within the limits given in Table 6.1.
100
Table 6.1 Animal fat typical specification, tested sample properties
Annual
Data series Limit Sample Unit
average
6.1.1 Viscosity
Tallow contains high levels of saturated fatty acids, which give it a solid consistency at
room temperature (4). Fuel pre heating was reported by numerous researchers (32, 66, 131,
132) as a potential way of utilising neat triglycerides as engine fuels. The importance of
viscosity reduction was noted by Ejim et al. (28) as it has the largest contribution, about
90%, to change in the SMD. Therefore, viscosity reduction should be prioritised to achieve
Figure 6.1 presents a comparison of dynamic viscosity of two fuels – animal fat and ULSD
four consecutive tests performed at USV. The first condition measured was a temperature
regarded to be the temperature of fuel in the supply system and is used as a reference for
example in the lubricity HFRR test. It was impossible to perform a test for animal fat at
101
lower temperatures and higher shear rates as viscosity values were reported to be too high.
The impact of temperature on the viscosity of animal fat is significant; raising the
down to 20 cP. Further heating up to 90⁰C reduces viscosity to 9 cP (for low shear rate)
and 8 cP (for high shear rate). It has to be noted that even heating up to 90⁰C does not
reduce viscosity to levels comparable with ULSD. However, calculated kinematic viscosity
(presented in Figure 6.2) of 13.5 cSt (for 80⁰C) and 10.8 cSt (for 90⁰C) is lower than the
limit of 15 cSt at the engine inlet flange defined for large two stroke engines (133).
Therefore, it should be possible to use animal fat as fuel in large engines equipped with a
fuel supply system capable of handling viscous fuels such as HFO or crude oil. The engine
used in trials presented in this thesis can be supplied with fuel of viscosity limited to 14.5
45
40
Dynamic Viscosity [cP]
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Shear Rate [x10^6]
Figure 6.1 Comparison of dynamic viscosity of animal fat and ULSD at range of temperatures
102
50.0
45.0
40.0
Kinematic Viscosity [cSt]
35.0
limit for HFO RMA30 @ 50 degC
30.0
25.0
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
limit for FAME @ 40 degC
0.0
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Temperature [degC]
Presented results prove that pre heating above 80⁰C is required to reduce viscosity to a
The character of animal fat as a fluid can be determined by analysis of the relationship
between stress and shear rate. Shear stress for animal fat and ULSD at various
temperatures is shown in Figure 6.3. For ULSD at both tested temperatures a linear
relationship between shear stress and shear rate was observed. A similar conclusion can be
drawn for animal fat for temperatures of 80 and 90⁰C. It proves that tallow is Newtonian
fluid. For lower test temperatures animal fat shows minimal signs of shear-thinning as
103
Diesel 40degC Diesel 60degC Tallow 40degC
Tallow 60degC Tallow 80degC Tallow 90degC
100000
90000
80000
Shear Stress [Pa]
70000
60000
50000
40000
30000
20000
10000
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Shear Rate [x10^6]
Figure 6.3 Relationship between shear stress and shear rate for animal fat and ULSD at a range of
temperatures
6.1.2 Lubricity
Verification of lubricating properties initially applied only to fuels used in the aviation
industry (123). Introduction of low sulphur diesel fuels resulted in fuel injection pump and
distributor pump failures, particularly in Sweden (134). Low sulphur fuels possess poorer
lubricity than non-desulphurised fuels, mainly due to the removal of polar oxygen and
blended at a level of 1-2% with ULSD (136-138). Lubricity of neat fatty compounds
104
depends on various features such as saturation, oxygen presence, number of OH groups
(136).
The test for each temperature has been repeated three times, calculated averages are
reported in Table 6.2. The wear scar measured for ULSD is shown in Figure 6.4. The
measured diameter of 320 µm is consistent with values available in literature (138, 139).
Avg. Friction
Temperature MWSD WS1.4 Avg. Film
coefficient
Fuel
[degC] [µm] [µm] [%] [-]
Where: MWSD – uncorrected mean wear scar diameter; WS1.4 – corrected wear scar diameter
105
Figure 6.4 Wear scar captured by digital microscope; ULSD at 60⁰C
Figure 6.5 Wear scar captured by digital microscope; Animal Fat at 60⁰C
106
As expected wear scar diameter is significantly lower for animal fat than for diesel fuel.
The measurement result is shown in Figure 6.5. It can be explained by high unsaturation of
animal fat - presence of double bonds, indicated by a iodine number. Animal fat contains
10% oxygen which improves lubricity. According to Knothe et al. (140) oleic and linoleic
acids have excellent lubricating properties, as no wear scar has been recorded. These two
components constitute more than 50% of animal fat composition (7). Differences in
lubricity of animal fat and ULSD are even more significant if film thickness is compared.
For animal fat, film is developed after less than 5 minutes of the HFRR test, whilst for
ULSD it never exceeds 85% of thickness. Comparison of film thickness for both analysed
fuels is given in Figure 6.6 and a more detailed comparison focusing on the first 5 minutes
of the test is given in Figure 6.7. Better lubricity of animal fat can also be proved by lower
friction coefficients; in all cases the difference is significant. Comparison is given in Figure
6.8.
100%
80%
Film percentage
60%
40%
20%
0%
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Test duration [minutes]
Figure 6.6 Film percentages for ULSD and animal fat at a range of temperatures.
107
Fat 90 Fat 75 Fat 60 ULSD 60
100%
80%
Film percentage
60%
40%
20%
0%
0 1 2 3 4 5
Test duration [minutes]
Figure 6.7 Film percentages for ULSD and animal fat at a range of temperatures - first 5 minutes of HFRR
test
0.200
Friction coefficient
0.150
0.100
0.050
0.000
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Test duration [minutes]
Figure 6.8 Friction coefficients for ULSD and animal fat at a range of temperatures
108
No significant impact of elevated temperature on lubricating properties has been detected.
The wear scar diameter increased for the highest test point (90⁰C) by 7 µm; the wear scar
is shown in Figure 6.9. Friction coefficient increased by 0.013 indicating worse lubrication.
HFRR test results are consistent with those expected from the literature review. Further
investigation is required to find correlation between the HFRR test parameters and the
proved that impurities present in fuel prepared for engine trials do not affect lubricating
properties. Lack of significant increase of wear scar diameter for the high temperature test
ensures that fuel pre heating, necessary for viscosity reduction, will not have a negative
impact on fuel pumps’ wear. This conclusion was verified by long term tests of fuel pumps
Figure 6.9 Wear scar captured by digital microscope; Animal Fat at 90⁰C
109
6.1.3 Surface Tension
Fuel surface tension is one of the parameters that have significant impact on fuel
atomisation. For hydrocarbon fuels it increases together with viscosity and density and
Surface tension has been measured with a bubble pressure tension meter at a range of
temperatures, starting at 60⁰C going up to 90⁰C with intervals of 10⁰C. Diesel fuel (ULSD)
has been tested at a temperature of 60⁰C. Each reading has been repeated three times –
results are shown in Figure 6.10. The maximum bubble pressure method enables the
compare results obtained with the bubble tension meter with data available in literature and
obtained with static methods, long bubble lifetimes should be used. If results obtained for
animal fat are considered, it can be seen that for bubble lifetimes longer than 5 seconds,
measured surface tension remains constant. Significant impact of bubble lifetime on animal
fat surface tension was recorded. It can be expected that hydrodynamic effects may have a
Pre heating of animal fat reduces its surface tension. Raising the temperature to 90⁰C
lowers the value down to 25.8 [mN/m] from 31.0 [mN/m] recorded at 40⁰C. The surface
tension is still considerably higher than for mineral fuel – 23.4 [mN/m].
110
Tallow 40degC Tallow 50degC Tallow 60 degC Tallow 70 degC
Tallow 80 degC Tallow 90 degC ULSD 60degC
60
55
Surface Tension [mN/m]
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
10 100 1000 10000
Bubble lifetime [log ms]
Figure 6.10 Comparison of surface tension measured at a range of temperatures for ULSD and animal fat
6.1.4 Density
A sample of animal fat was tested with accordance with ISO 12185 standard,- as the
standard test temperature is 15⁰C, the fat was solid. To investigate the impact of elevated
temperature, the sample was put in a water bath with a temperature control. Density was
tested with a hydrometer at temperatures between 40 and 90⁰C with intervals of 10⁰C.
Each test was repeated three times; calculated averages are reported and shown in Figure
6.11.
111
960
limit for HFO RMA30 @ 15 degC
940
Density [kg/m3]
920
880
860
The obtained results present a linear trend where density decreases as temperature rises.
The measured density at standard conditions (temperature 15⁰C) – 915 kg/m3 – is higher
than the maximum density for diesel fuels (800 – 845 kg/m3 (37)) and FAME (860 – 900
kg/m3 (54)). The density is similar to values reported in the literature (4).
Animal fat is usually stored in a solid state and preheated before transportation or usage. In
a small generating station with power below 1 MW, this regime does not seem to be
practical as a multiple tank arrangement will increase installation and maintenance costs.
For large plants, where fuel is transferred from storage tanks to daily service tanks, animal
112
fat can possibly be stored for prolonged periods of time in a solid state. Due to its
composition, tallow can easily oxidise (4). Nitrogen blanketing can be used to prevent fat
oxidation. Multiple heating and cooling should be avoided due to potential fat
polymerisation. In the case of the research plant described in this study, the size of the tank
was determined to be approximately 20 tonnes. The tank would fulfil weekly fuel demand.
Rice et al. (141) and the host company staff reported the potential impact of the storage
temperature on animal fat acidity. As acidity of the tested fuel is already high (please refer
to Chapter 5) any potential cause for its increase should be avoided. It should be noted that
both findings apply to fat of higher quality (Grade 2). Due to lack of literature data it was
An experiment was set up at the hosting company. On that basis, a Final Year Project was
and produced final report (142). Tested fuel samples were stored at a range of temperatures
(ambient, 20, 60, 85, 105⁰C) for four weeks. Free fatty acid content was tested on a weekly
basis.
The findings can be summarised as follows; animal fat storage in liquid form at elevated
temperatures does not increase its acidity, refer to data given in Table 6.3 and graphically
presented in Figure 6.12. An increase has been detected for room and ambient temperature
113
Table 6.3 Animal fat acidity - long term storage
9.5
8.5
7.5
Reference Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4
Figure 6.12 Free fatty acids content in animal fat stored for four weeks at various temperatures
114
6.3 Conclusions
The investigation presented in this chapter can be summarised as follows. Animal fat
viscosity can be reduced by pre heating, however, even raising the temperature up to 90⁰C
does not bring the viscosity down to a level comparable with conventional diesel fuel. For
lower temperatures, like 40⁰C, when viscosity is high, a shear heating effect was observed.
A linear relationship between fat temperature and its density was proved. The measured
density is higher than conventional fuel and FAME, despite elevating the fuel temperature.
A similar relationship was detected for fuel surface tension where pre heating reduces fat
surface tension for various bubble lifetimes. The applied method – maximum bubble
pressure – enabled detection of a significant difference between diesel fuel and fat,
especially for short bubble lifetimes. Investigation of the hydrodynamic effect on fuel
atomisation requires further analysis. Lubricating properties were tested at HFRR. Tests
proved the excellent lubricity of animal fat at a range of temperatures. The impact of
elevating the temperature up to 90⁰C was studied and no significant change in the wear
scar diameter was detected. Acidity dependence on storage temperature was another area
investigated in this chapter. Results of tests performed as part of FYP proved that animal
fat storage at higher temperatures does not have an impact on fuels’ acidity.
Two samples of tallow were sent for more detailed analysis to external laboratories.
115
The general conclusion of the tests presented in this chapter is that pre heating can be used
noted that raising fuel temperature even above 90⁰C does not result in achieving properties
similar to ULSD. Animal fat should be treated as an alternative to heavy fuel oil (HFO). As
no negative consequences of pre heating were detected, fat temperature of 80-90⁰C was
116
Chapter 7 COMBUSTION PROCESS ANALYSIS
Heat release analysis is conducted in a way proposed and described by Stone (143). Net
1
1 1
which a different value is calculated for the respective parts of the cycle. Presented results
The in-cylinder pressure and heat release rate patterns, accompanied by cylinder pressure
rise rates for three rated loads from the engine operation on diesel and animal fat, are
shown in Figures 47-52. A summary of combustion analysis is given in Table 7.1. Fossil
diesel fuel has a higher calorific value than animal fat, thus the mass flow of animal fat was
increased on average by 10-15 %, whereas volumetric flow rose by 5-7 %. The peak
engine load for animal fat fuelling was reduced by 10%, as the fuel injection system was
Figure 7.1 presents pressure and heat release patterns for diesel and tallow combustion at
high load (75%). It can be seen that peak pressure for tallow combustion is higher and
occurs approximately two crank angle degrees later than for diesel. The difference in heat
release patterns is evident. Net heat release rate (NHRR) during the premixed combustion
117
is higher for diesel compared with tallow. Mixing controlled combustion heat release tends
to dominate in the case of tallow (period between -5 deg BTDC and 15 deg ATDC). The
peak of the heat release rate for diesel was recorded at -9 deg BTDC and 5 deg ATDC for
tallow. Late burn heat release is greater for diesel. Pressure increase for animal fat is
Figure 7.3 shows a comparison of the combustion process at medium load (50%). Again,
recorded peak pressure for tallow is higher and occurs later; however, the difference is not
as evident as at high load. The peak of heat release for diesel was recorded at -7 deg BTDC
and -8 deg BTDC for tallow. For medium load it was noted that pressure rise, although
lower for animal fat, occurs earlier – it may indicate shorter ignition delay (Figure 7.4).
The comparison for combustion at low load (25%) is shown in Figure 7.5. Peak pressure
for tallow is slightly lower but again delay was recorded. The peak of heat release for
diesel was recorded at -6 deg BTDC and -7 deg BTDC for tallow.
Heat release rate patterns for the premixed combustion phase at various loads for both
fuels, are shown in Figure 7.7. For all three loads compared, more heat was delivered in the
premixed mode for diesel fuel. However, recorded patterns show that combustion begins
earlier for tallow and local maxima were noted approximately one crank angle degree
earlier. Ignition delay increases for lower loads. The shorter ignition delay in the case of
unsaturated fatty acids, a chemical reaction, such as carbon double bond cracking could
118
have produced light volatile compounds (131). Shorter ignition delay for a high
temperature of fat has been reported by Kumar (52). The larger amount of heat released in
the diffusion combustion phase can be associated with multiple reasons. Firstly,
polymerisation of triglyceride at the high temperature spray core, could have produced
therefore the process extends to the late phase. Physical properties of tallow, such as high
viscosity (even at elevated temperature) and increased surface tension, affect the spray
formation, leading to poor atomisation compared to diesel. Higher fuel viscosity can lead
to a decrease in leaks in fuel pumps (34). Therefore it can be assumed than injection
commences earlier. In the case of animal fat usage, diffusion combustion phase is the
predominant form of combustion process. Lower heat release rate during the premixed
the higher viscosity and surface tension of animal fat. Therefore more time is required for
the fuel droplet to evaporate and combust. It results in peak pressure occurrence delay by
1-2 degCA for animal fat combustion. The coefficient of variance for IMEP, regarded to be
a combustion stability evaluation criterion, is lower than 5% for high and medium loads for
both fuels. At low load combustion stability is worse, most likely due to poor atomisation
of animal fat. Lower calorific value of tallow requires more fuel to be injected per cycle
119
70 2000
Tallow
60 1600
Diesel
Cylinder Pressure (bar)
50
NHRR (J/degCA)
1200
40
800
30
400
20
0
10
0 ‐400
‐20 ‐10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Crank Angle (deg)
3.5
Tallow
3
Cylinder Pressure Rise Rate
2.5
Diesel
(bar/degCA)
1.5
0.5
‐0.5
‐14 ‐12 ‐10 ‐8 ‐6 ‐4 ‐2 0 2 4 6 8 10
Crank Angle (deg)
120
70 2000
Tallow
60
1600
Diesel
Cylinder Pressure (bar)
50
NHRR (J/degCA)
1200
40
800
30
400
20
0
10
0 ‐400
‐20 ‐10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Crank Angle (deg)
3.5 Tallow
Cylinder Pressure Rise Rate
3
Diesel
2.5
(bar/degCA)
1.5
0.5
‐0.5
‐1
‐10 ‐8 ‐6 ‐4 ‐2 0 2 4 6 8 10
Crank Angle (deg)
121
70 2000
Tallow
60
1600
Diesel
Cylinder Pressure (bar)
50
NHRR (J/degCA)
1200
40
800
30
400
20
0
10
0 ‐400
‐20 ‐10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Crank Angle (deg)
3.5
3 Tallow
Cylinder Pressure Rise Rate
2.5
Diesel
2
(bar/degCA)
1.5
1
0.5
0
‐0.5
‐1
‐1.5
‐10 ‐8 ‐6 ‐4 ‐2 0 2 4 6 8 10
Crank Angle (deg)
122
Table 7.1 Combustion analysis results
Test condition
Parameter Unit
D75 T75 D50 T50 D25 T25
Ignition delay deg CA 12 12 12 12 13 13
25% HR @ deg CA 0 0 -4 -4 -6 -6
50% HR @ deg CA 10 8 3 3 -3 -3
95% HR @ deg CA 40 36 32 30 19 20
Total duration
deg CA 61 57 53 51 40 41
(Injection -95% MFB)
Avg. PP bar 64.5 66.7 54.5 55.0 42.5 41.6
123
Tallow 75% load Diesel 75% load Tallow 50% load
Diesel 50% load Tallow 25% load Diesel 25% load
2000
1800
1600
NHRR (J/degCA)
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
‐200
‐15 ‐14 ‐13 ‐12 ‐11 ‐10 ‐9 ‐8 ‐7 ‐6 ‐5
Crank Angle (deg)
Figure 7.7 Premixed combustion net heat release (NHRR) patterns for both tested fuels at three tested loads.
Local maxima for premixed combustion phase are marked.
450
400
Diesel Tallow
350
BSFC [g/kWh]
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
5 25 50 75 95
Engine load [%]
Figure 7.8 Effect of fuel on the specific fuel consumption (not adjusted for calorific value)
124
Figure 7.8 shows the variation of the specific fuel consumption for the tested engine when
fuelled with tallow and diesel. Tallow consumption is higher than diesel consumption by
10 – 15%. Specific fuel consumption remains constant at loads varying between 50 and 95
per cent for both tested fuels. Table 7.1 contains a comparison of fuel volumetric and mass
flows.
Fuel consumption has been recorded during the trial. Tallow consumption was recorded by
a mass flow meter with data acquisition module and software. The permit for the trial
specified a limit on tallow throughput to be Q max 270kg . Prior to starting the engine
h
and switching to tallow, the fuel supply system permeability was checked by draining for a
few seconds. It resulted in high fuel flow spikes being recorded by a flow meter. In Figure
7.9 typical daily fuel consumption data is presented together with a fuel temperature curve.
125
Figure 7.9 Daily fuel consumption curve
126
7.2 Emissions Comparison
Engine emissions were measured for three loads and two tested fuels. Figure 7.11 contains
a comparison of emissions for the high load operation. One of the main advantages of
animal fat is its very low sulphur content resulting in sulphur dioxide emissions complying
with WID standards for all three tested loads. It eliminates the necessity of a SO2
abatement system.
As animal fat does not contain nitrogen, all nitrogen oxides are formed at high temperature
in the combustion chamber. Higher NOx emissions corresponds with higher cylinder peak
pressure and a prolonged combustion process (Figure 7.1). Higher exhaust temperature for
animal fat combustion has been recorded. Oxygen content in the animal fat improves the
127
400
350
Diesel Tallow
Emissions (mg/m3) 300
250
200
150
100
50
0
NOx * 10 CO HC Soot SO2
Figure 7.11 Effect of fuel type on the engine exhaust emissions - 75% load
For the medium load, nitrogen oxides emissions are higher for animal fat (Figure 7.12),
however, the measured difference is not as significant as for the high load. Carbon
monoxide emissions are higher for animal fat. A similar observation was made for the low
load operation, but the differences in emissions’ levels are more significant. For the low
load operation (Figure 7.13) nitrogen oxides emissions are lower due to lower peak
nitrogen oxides for tallow combustion at the medium and low load operation, can be
associated with multiple reasons. Firstly, the physical properties of tallow cause poor
atomization, despite the presence of oxygen in the fuel molecule. Secondly, it can be
explained by the characteristics and efficiency of the turbocharger. The Ruston 6AR is
128
equipped with a Napier turbocharger with a constant geometry setting optimised for high
load operation. Therefore cylinder filling and scavenging is worse for low loads. Finally,
implications of the engine design type may affect the atomization process and tallow
combustion. For a direct injection engine with a low compression ratio, the air temperature
before start of the injection will be lower than for high loads.
400
Diesel
350
Tallow
300
Emissions (mg/m3)
250
200
150
100
50
0
NOx * 10 CO HC Soot SO2
Figure 7.12 Effect of fuel type on the engine exhaust emissions - 50% load
129
500
450
Diesel Tallow
400
Emissions (mg/m3)
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
NOx * 10 CO HC Soot SO2
Figure 7.13 Effect of fuel type on the engine exhaust emissions - 25% load
The effects of various EGR concentrations on tallow combustion have been tested, with
and without water injection. Results for the standard EGR configuration combustion
analysis are given in Figure 7.14. As expected, peak pressure decreases with increased
proportions of recirculated gases. The addition of exhaust gas prolongs the duration of the
combustion process. For low recirculation rates there is no significant impact on the
combustion process. Figure 7.15 shows the impact of cooled exhaust gas recirculation on
the tallow combustion process. Addition of more than 20% of EGR results in a significant
130
70 2000
EGR OFF
EGR 9.3%
60
EGR 12.6% 1600
Cylinder Pressure (bar)
EGR 18.3%
50
NHRR (J/degCA)
1200
40
800
30
400
20
0
10
0 ‐400
‐20 ‐10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Crank Angle (deg)
70 2000
cEGR OFF
cEGR 9.5%
60
cEGR 14.5% 1600
cEGR 23.3%
Cylinder Pressure (bar)
50
NHRR (J/degCA)
1200
40
800
30
400
20
0
10
0 ‐400
‐20 ‐10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Crank Angle (deg)
131
Figure 7.16 presents an emissions’ comparison for various EGR concentrations. As
expected, increasing the recirculation rate results in an increase of carbon monoxide. For
cooled EGR, (Figure 7.17), more gases can be recirculated without an increase in exhaust
temperature; better NOx reduction has been achieved. Emission of nitrogen oxides has
been reduced by 75%, below the required 450 mg/m3, compared with the 0% EGR case. At
the same time, carbon monoxide emission increased by 280%, and soot emission increased
by 300%. It should be noted that the reference level for animal fat combustion is already
low compared to fossil fuels. However, hydrocarbons emission decreased by 25%. This
can be explained by the scrubbing effect of water sprayed into the exhaust and spun in the
cyclone chamber. Visible carbon containing deposits were found in the excess water.
Addition of water cooling and gas humidification improved the efficiency of the NOx
reduction process (Figure 7.18). EGR concentrations higher than 18% were not achieved
without cooling, due to an increase of exhaust temperature above 450°C and charge air
temperature above 50°C. Gas cooling and water injection enabled the desired NOx
reduction efficiency, at the same time charge air temperature did not increase above 40°C
and exhaust temperature was stable at a 450°C level. Specific fuel consumption increased
by 7%. The results obtained are consistent with those obtained on a low speed two stroke
132
EGR OFF EGR 9.3% EGR 12.6% EGR 18.3%
600
400
300
200
100
0
NOx * 10 CO HC Soot SO2
Figure 7.16 Impact of EGR concentration on engine emissions when fuelled with tallow - 75% load
500
Emissions (mg/m3)
400
300
200
100
0
NOx * 10 CO HC Soot SO2
Figure 7.17 Impact of cooled EGR concentration on engine emissions when fuelled with tallow - 75% load
133
EGR cEGR BSFC EGR BSFC cEGR
2000 295
NOx emissions (mg/m3)
290
1500
BSFC 9g/kWh)
285
280
1000
275
500 270
265
0 260
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0
EGR concentration (%)
Figure 7.18 Effect of EGR and cEGR concentration on nitrogen oxides reduction potential and fuel
consumption at 75% load
7.4 Conclusions
Physical properties of animal fat such as density, viscosity and surface tension are much
higher compared to mineral fuel. Preheating was chosen as a way of bringing them closer
to values typical for light fossil fuels. However, the engine fuel supply system must be
capable of handling higher viscosity fuels, such as HFO or CFO. In the case of a supply
system conversion, larger fuel pumps have to be implemented due to the lower calorific
value of fat requiring a higher mass flow. These results are consistent with findings
134
Combustion of animal fat results in achieving higher peak pressures; emissions of NOx
increase as a result. The ignition delay was shorter for animal fat; the difference is evident
for low load operation. Pressure rise rate for the animal fat was lower for all tested loads.
Specific fuel consumption for the tested engine increased when fuelled with tallow.
Animal fat contains oxygen, it leads to a more complete oxidation process, as a result
emissions of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons and soot are considerably lower at high
loads. At medium and low load conditions the negative effect of the physical properties of
the fuel on fuel atomization seem to prevail the benefits of the oxygen content, resulting in
increased CO emissions. Emissions of sulphur dioxide were very low, complying with
limits set by the local authority. Application of animal fat as fuel eliminates a necessity of
accompanied with lower NOx emissions for animal fat were reported. It has to be noted
that the described tests were conducted at a relatively low fuel temperature – 60 ºC.
Considering the fact that animal fat temperature for the current test was set above 80 ºC,
obtained results seem to confirm the positive effect of higher triacylglycerol supply
The suitability of exhaust gas recirculation as a nitrogen oxides’ reduction method for
stationary engines operating at high loads has been tested. Introduction of gas cooling and
emissions.
135
The impact of the reported higher fuel consumption on generating station feasibility has to
recirculation with the presence of water vapour, can be considered as a feasible method of
NOx abatement, even for stationary engines designed to operate on high loads for
136
Chapter 8 LONG TERM EFFECT OF USING TALLOW
8.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the consequences of using neat animal fat in a medium speed, four
stroke diesel engine. The impact on the fuel supply system, injectors and lubricating oil is
described. A preliminary assessment of the possible impact of animal fat on the fuel supply
system has been conducted by analysis of the lubricating properties. Lubricity has been
measured at an HFRR (High Frequency Reciprocating Rig). As high acidity of fuel was
detected it was decided to verify the capability of the upgraded lubricating oil to withstand
an operation of the engine when fuelled with animal fat. Two lubricating oils were
compared.
A modern engine needs a wide range of oil qualities. Oil acts in the following processes:
137
Juoperi (144) listed demands for medium-speed diesel engine lubricating oils:
- Excellent water shedding properties (removal of water also from used lube oil)
Two types of lubricating oils were used in the research plant described in paragraph 4.2.
The oil properties are given in Table 8.1. The main purpose of this part of the research was
to verify what kind of impact on oil properties is caused by the usage of animal fat as a
fuel. The first oil, Fuchs Titan 30 – SAE 30 grade, complies with the engine
manufacturer’s recommendations. After 1000h of operation the oil grade was altered to
Fuchs Titan Marine 30, which can be characterised by higher TBN and increased
detergency. The oil type was chosen after the fuel properties’ testing, described in Chapter
5, which showed a very high TAN of tallow, reaching even 70 mgKOH/g fuel.
138
Table 8.1 Lubricating oil properties (145, 146)
Kinematic Viscosity
@40⁰C 96 107
TBN mg KOH/g - 14
139
The oil was sampled directly from the sump by a vacuum sampling pump and then tested
against a set of criteria, including viscosity, soot content and chemical composition. The
testing interval was set to be 100 hours or 1 month. The engine lubricating system, shown
in Figure 8.1, has been modified to avoid the possibility of oil contamination with fuel that
may leak from the fuel pumps’ supply lines. The oil lubricating rocker gear, delivered by
pipe No. 22 and returning via pipe No. 21 was originally going back to the sump through
the drip tray. In the modified arrangement this oil was diverted to the waste oil tank.
140
8.2.3 Results
Data collected during the trials are given in Table 8.2. The table is accompanied by two
graphs showing changes in oil viscosity (Figure 8.2) and iron concentration (Figure 8.3).
Increasing viscosity can indicate fuel contamination, high iron content may be caused by
120
115
110
105
100
95
90
85
80
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Oil Age [h]
Figure 8.2 Long term effect of animal fat usage on lubricating oil viscosity
141
SAE 30 Marine SAE 30 (1) Marine SAE 30 (2)
80
70
60
50
Fe [ppm]
40
30
20
10
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Oil Age [h]
Figure 8.3 Long term effect of animal fat usage on engine wear - iron concentration
142
Table 8.2 Effect of ageing during operation on animal fat on various types of lubricating oil
143
It can be seen that oil viscosity increased for both types of tested oils. During the trials the
oil centrifuge had to be cleaned more frequently than for standard fuel operation due to fast
deposit formation. The maintenance schedule was altered. Oil contamination with fuel can
be caused by increased spray penetration due to different physical properties of fuel; hence
droplets may hit liner walls and penetrate to the sump. Excessive wear has not been
detected for both types of lubricating oil as concentrations of bearing materials (Cu, Pb,
Sn) remained below warning limits. Conclusions are presented in paragraph 8.4.
Two sets of Ruston FAR 20000 fuel pumps (shown in Figure 8.4) were installed on the
Ruston 6AR engine. Technical data are given in Table 8.3. The fuel pumps were inspected
daily for leaks. Each set was used for approximately 1000 h.
Pump stroke 15 mm
Plunger diameter 22 mm
144
Figure 8.4 Assembly of fuel pump (119)
1 – control rack slipper, 2 – rack support bracket, 3 – lead sealed grub screw for 20, 4 – setting pointer, 5 –
tappet retaining ring, 6 – plunger tappet, 7 – spring ring, 8 – operating pinion, 9 – plunger guide, 10 – air
vent plug, 11 – delivery valve stop, 12 – delivery valve spring, 13 – delivery valve assembly, 14 – spill plug,
15 – plunger, 16 – upper spring collar, 17 – plunger spring, 18 – lower spring collar, 19 – operating rack,
20 – overload stop screw.
The engine usually operated at high loads, above 75% of nominal power. Throughout the
duration of the trials no issues with fuel pumps were recorded. This confirms laboratory
test results (paragraph 6.1.2) and the excellent lubricating properties of animal fat. The
filtration process used for fuel pre-treatment is efficient enough to provide fuel with a set
145
of properties enabling trouble-free usage in the reciprocating engine fuel supply system. It
has to be noted that implementation of these fuels for new common rail systems may
Fuel not complying with internal specifications has also been tested. Contamination with
polyethylene, ash and insoluble impurities was noticeably higher. As a result, fuel pumps
were damaged in less than 100 hours. The seal between the plunger and the guide was lost
and fuel was leaking to the orifice below the fuel pumps, shown in Figure 8.5 (the picture
has been taken through the inspection window below the fuel pump assembly; fuel droplets
reflect flash light and are visible as a group of white points surrounding the plunger). Fuel
injection pressure could not be maintained at the required level, therefore it was impossible
to operate the engine at high load. Low injection pressure had an impact on the fuel spray
approximately 300%. The pumps were later dismantled and a visual inspection of the
plunger surface confirmed wear signs caused by a higher level of impurities present in the
fuel. It has to be highlighted that damage occurred despite having a standard fuel filter in
146
Figure 8.5 Fuel leaking from fuel pumps damaged by fat containing polyethylene
Standard injectors without nozzles’ cooling were used. Release pressure was set to 200 bar.
Deposit formation on the injector nozzles was detected. Figure 8.6 shows a blocked nozzle
(bad case). The tests proved that nozzles can be used for up to 130 hours of continuous
operation. After that period the nozzles require cleaning. Usually the nozzles required
replacement after two cleaning cycles. As described in paragraph 7.2, emissions of carbon
monoxide and unburned hydrocarbons are lower due to the oxygen content in animal fat.
Therefore any increase in monitored carbon monoxide emissions or visible smoke can
indicate deposit build-up requiring intervention. One of the possible methods of extending
cleaning intervals is periodic operation on fossil fuel. Application of this method must be
carefully considered, as there is a 10% limit for fossil fuel content in fuel mix used for
subsidised renewable electricity generation in the UK (95). The combustion of fat resulted
in a higher temperature inside the combustion chamber and in the exhaust system. It led to
147
the nozzle’s tip breaking, as shown in Figure 8.7. Part of the trial run was performed with
fuel heated up to 65⁰C. It resulted in valve damage (please refer to Figure 8.8 and Figure
8.9) and an increased tendency to deposit build-up on the injector nozzles. It can be
explained by fat’s higher density, viscosity and surface tension leading to poor atomisation
148
Figure 8.7 Injector nozzle damage caused by high temperature
149
Figure 8.9 Ruston 6AR cylinder head - valve damage visible
8.4 Conclusions
Engine tests lasted for 2000 hours. More than 1 GWh of electricity has been generated and
approximately 285 tonnes of animal fat have been utilised. This research has shown that
appropriately filtered animal fat can be used as fuel for large, stationary engines.
Usage of animal fat as fuel for an internal combustion engine requires modification of its
maintenance schedule and may lead to injection system failures. The conducted tests
proved that it is possible to operate a compressed ignition engine fuelled with tallow
without major alteration of the lubricating system. Standard lubricating oil (SAE 30 grade)
150
withstood a 1000 hours’ change interval. Application of marine oil did not result in a
significant difference in oil contamination with various wear products. It has to be noted
that due to piston failure, the engine oil (Marine) had to be replaced before reaching the
planned 1000 hours. The capacity of the oil centrifuge should be increased to improve
removal of fat from the lubricating oil. Another modification that improved operation on
animal fat was increased diameter of the pipe feeding the centrifuge and introduction of
trace heating. It resulted in improved flow of oil to the centrifuge and ensured that
contaminated oil will not solidify in the narrow parts of the lubricating system.
Animal fat has a tendency to build up deposits on the injector nozzles’ tips. The
relationship between fuel temperature and longevity was observed. Fuel pre heating above
85⁰C improved the atomisation and emissions (CO, HC). Operation on partial loads or low
temperature fuel (below 70⁰C) resulted in increased deposit build up. Another consequence
was poor atomisation and increased spray penetration. The following remedies can be
suggested to extend intervals between injector nozzle cleaning and/or replacement: firstly,
nozzle cooling can be implemented, the fuel can be fed at a higher temperature so
atomisation is improved and cooling should prevent the nozzle from the damage described
earlier in this chapter. Another strategy is periodical operation on fossil fuel when deposits
are removed.
151
Chapter 9 CONCLUSIONS AND FURTHER WORK
This thesis contains numerous findings on the use of animal fat in internal combustion
engines. The research programme focused on large compressed ignition engines used in
marine and stationary power generation applications. The most important and significant
findings and observations are presented in the following sections in the order of the
original chapters. A summary of the KTP Project – extracted from the KTP Final Report
The conducted tests identified a high variability of animal fat properties. It was also proven
that constant monitoring of the fat properties is required in order to utilise it in the engine,
as the quality can vary significantly even from batch to batch. Acidity was identified as a
crucial property that has to be improved in order to comply with the bio fuel specification
of any available generating set. The impact of ambient temperature on fat acidity has been
the understanding of what is a typical set of properties of animal fat – thus in the further
stages of the research process the appropriate fuel sample was used.
152
The possibility of free fatty acid removal by evaporation has been investigated. The trial
runs have shown a promising removal efficiency reaching more than 50%.
As animal fat is solid at room temperature, pre heating is required to reduce the viscosity
and feed the fuel through a standard fuel supply system. Investigation focused on analysis
of the effect of elevated temperature on physical properties of the animal fat. The viscosity
test showed that animal fat needs to be preheated above 80⁰C to reduce its viscosity to a
level complying with requirements given by 2-stroke large engine fuelled with HFO
(Heavy Fuel Oil). The impact of temperature on the viscosity of animal fat is significant;
raising the temperature from 40⁰C up to 60⁰C results in viscosity reduction from
The lubricity of animal fat has been analysed – as the HFRR (High Frequency
Reciprocating Rig) method has been applied. Tallow lubricating properties are excellent as
WSD (Wear Scar Diameter) is less than 110 µm, compared with 320 µm for diesel. It can
be explained by the presence of unsaturated fatty acids in the animal fat. Tallow contains
lubricating properties has been detected. Wear scar diameter increased for the highest test
153
Pre heating of animal fat reduces its surface tension. Raising the temperature to 90⁰C
lowers the value down to 25.8 [mN/m] from 31.0 [mN/m] recorded at 40⁰C. Surface
tension is still considerably higher than that of mineral fuel – 23.4 [mN/m] recorded at
40⁰C.
The obtained density test results present a linear trend where density decreases as
temperature rises. The measured density at standard conditions (temperature 15⁰C) – 915
kg/m3 – is higher than the maximum density for diesel fuels (800 – 845 kg/m3) specified in
a standard (37).
It can be concluded that pre heating of fuel to a temperature of at least 85⁰C is required to
modify its properties to suit the requirements given by HFO fuelled engines and also the
The impact of high fat storage temperature on its properties (acidity) has been studied.
Storage at a temperature of 90⁰C for a prolonged period of time (1 month) did not result in
154
9.1.3 Combustion Process Analysis
Recorded cylinder pressure patterns varied from those obtained for diesel for all tested
loads. A lower heat release rate for the premixed combustion phase is characteristic for
tallow across the tested load range. Due to fat’s properties, its atomisation is worse
medium loads causing an increase of CO and HC emissions. At high loads, however, the
emissions of soot, CO and HC are significantly lower. Emissions of NOx were higher for
animal fat at high load. One of the biggest advantages of using the animal fat as fuel for
reciprocating engines is its low sulphur content, which eliminates the requirement for a
nitrogen oxides abatement system. An exhaust gas recirculation system with gases cooling
and humidification was designed and installed. The method achieved desired a NOx
reduction of 75% by recirculating approximately 23% of the exhaust at high load. The
impact of the reported higher fuel consumption on station feasibility has to be considered.
Combining the effect of lowering oxygen concentration by exhaust gas recirculation with
the presence of water vapour, can be considered as a feasible method of NOx abatement,
even for stationary engines designed to operate at high loads for prolonged periods of time.
155
9.1.4 Long Term Effects of Using Tallow on Engine Components
Findings presented in this thesis are supported with experience gained during nearly 2000
hours of extensive tests in the research power plant. One of the outcomes of the KTP
project was the establishing of procedures for generating set operation and maintenance
and also internal fuel specification. Fuel quality is crucial for problem free operation of the
engine on animal fat. It has been proven that engines can run on alternative fuel without
incorporate more frequent cleaning and nozzle replacement due to deposit formation. Fuel
pre heating is a simple way to alter properties of viscous fuels like animal fat. The fuel
internal specification and operational parameters defined in Chapters 5 and 6 were proven
An open market for animal fat trade does not exist in the UK, therefore it is difficult to
assess the feasibility of electricity generation using it. The collaborative project described
in this thesis was a unique opportunity to access data regarding fat pricing. The
relationship linking animal fat prices and fossil fuels was presented – based on information
collected throughout a period of 12 months. In both analysed cases, a small research power
plant and a proposed large generating station, generation was not feasible without
additional subsidies in form of a ROC or RHI. The renewable electricity support system in
the UK has been described – currently animal fat can be used as a subsidy eligible source
156
of renewable electricity in power plants using internal combustion engines where installed
It has been proven that fuel temperature has a critical impact on fat atomisation. However,
high temperatures may have a negative impact on the injector nozzles – therefore injectors
with nozzle cooling should be tested on the engine or the test rig to investigate the long
term effect of animal fat usage. An alternative spray system should be tested to investigate
spray penetration, cone angle etc. Ideally research should be conducted at facilities using
The lubricating oil filtration system capacity should be increased to accommodate any
volume of fuel that passes to the sump. It may be interesting to investigate usage of bio
based lubricating oils for engines fuelled with animal fat or CPO.
157
9.2.2 Emissions Abatement
Additional research focusing on the nature of particulates formed during animal fat
combustion is required for better assessment of the benefits. The test engine should be
equipped with an SCR system – hence the effect of the composition of animal fat on the
catalyst longevity may be assessed. The high content of phosphorus may be challenging
here.
Acidity seems to be one of the parameters that should be targeted first if tallow is
considered as alternative fuel. A larger scale evaporator should be tested to investigate the
This thesis focused on pre heating as a way of viscosity reduction. Depending on local
Due to variable and complex chemical composition, cetane number is not an appropriate
criterion for ignition quality assessment. A new index, possibly similar to CCAI, should be
developed.
158
The lubricity test presented in this thesis was based on conditions in line with the ISO
standard developed for automotive fuels and light marine fuels. The only parameter altered
was the fuel temperature. Further investigation should be conducted to verify whether
other test conditions such as stroke or load have an impact on the wear scar diameter.
Attempts to source syngas from animal fat were made within the Future Power Systems
Group. Up to 10% and 5% vol. of H2 and CO, respectively, were detected when 60ml/h of
tallow fuel was injected. As it has been reported in other studies, adding reformed
hydrogen syn-gas as a closed loop to a diesel engine would improve combustion efficiency
and therefore specific emissions (148). This reformed syn-gas has also been reported as
beneficial to other diesel after-treatment devices (149). Results of tests look promising
159
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