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CHEMISTRY CLASS XII -2021-2022
(PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY)
(IMPORTANT POINTS, NCERT QUESTIONS, PREVIOUS YEAR CBSE EXAM QUESTIONS OF UNIT
1 TO 5 AS PER THE NEW AND UPDATED CURRICULUM OF 2021-2022)
UNIT I SOLID STATE
Classification of solids based on different binding forces: molecular, ionic, covalent and
metallic solids, amorphous and crystalline solids (elementary idea). Unit cell in two
dimensional and three dimensional lattices, calculation of density of unit cell, packing in
solids, packing efficiency, voids, numbemetals, conductors, semiconductors and insulators
and n and p type semiconductors.
UNIT II: SOLUTIONS
Types of solutions, expression of concentration of solutions of solids in liquids, solubility of
gases in liquids, solid solutions, Raoult's law, colligative properties - relative lowering of
vapour pressure, elevation of boiling point, depression of freezing point, osmotic pressure,
determination of molecular masses using colligative properties, abnormal molecular mass,
Van't Hoff factor.
UNIT III: ELECTROCHEMISTRY
Redox reactions, EMF of a cell, standard electrode potential, Nernst equation and its
application to chemical cells, Relation between Gibbs energy change and EMF of a cell,
conductance in electrolytic solutions, specific and molar conductivity, variations of
conductivity with concentration, Kohlrausch's Law, electrolysis and law of electrolysis
(elementary idea), dry cell-electrolytic cells and Galvanic cells, lead accumulator, fuel cells,
corrosion.
UNIT IV: CHEMICAL KINETICS
Rate of a reaction (Average and instantaneous), factors affecting rate of reaction:
concentration, temperature, catalyst; order and molecularity of a reaction, rate law and
specific rate constant, integrated rate equations and half-life (only for zero and first order
reactions), concept of collision theory (elementary idea, no mathematical treatment),
activation energy, Arrhenius equation.

NAME OF STUDENT
_______________________________________________________

SCHOOL :

ENJOY CHEMISTRY WITH KALRA SIR………………..

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Unit: 1:-SOLID STATE

TOPIC: GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLID STATE, AMORPHOUS SOLID STATE AND CRYSTALLINE
SOLID, CLASSIFICATION OF CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS.
1. AMORPHOUS AND CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS
PROPERTY CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS AMORPHOUS SOLIDS
Shape Definite characteristic geometrical Irregular shape
shape
Melting point Melt at a sharp and characteristic Gradually soften over a range of
Temperature (definite melting point) Temperature (Not have definite melting point)
Cleavage When cut with a sharp edged tool, When cut with a sharp edged tool, they
property they cut into two pieces with irregular
split into two pieces and the newly surfaces
generated surfaces are plain and
smooth
Heat of fusion They have a definite and characteristic They do not have definite heat of fusion
heat of fusion
Anisotropy Anisotropic in nature because of these Isotropic in nature because of these
substances show different property in substances show same property in all
different direction directions
Nature True solids Pseudo solids or super cooled liquids
Order in Long range order Only short range order.
arrangement
of constituent
Examples Sodium chloride and quartz are typical Glass, rubber and plastics, quartz glass
examples of crystalline
Solids
2. CLASSIFICATION OF CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS (CLASSIFICATION OF SOLIDS ON THE BASIS OF BINDING FORCES).
Type of solid Constituent Bonding/Attractive Example Electrical Physical Melting
particles force conductivity state Point
1.MOLECULAR SOLID (NON POLAR, POLAR, HYDROGEN BONDED)
Non polar Molecules Dispersion forces Ar,He, Insulator Soft Very low
molecular solid CO2,I2,H2,
Cl2,CCl4
Polar Molecules Dipole-dipole HCl,SO2 Insulator Soft Low
molecular solid interactions Solid SO2 and
solid NH3
Hydrogen Molecules Hydrogen bonding H2O(Ice) Insulator Hard Low
bonded
molecular solid
2. IONIC Ions Electrostatic forces NaCl Insulator Hard but High
SOLIDS (solid)conductor brittle
in molten state
3.METALLIC +ve ions in sea Metallic bonding Fe,Cu,Ag,Au conductors Hard Fairly
SOLID of delocalised Malleable & High
e- ductile
4. COVALENT Atoms Covalent bonding SiO2 (quartz), Insulator Hard Very High
SOLID SiC,
C(diamond),
AlN, *Conductor
*C(graphite) (exception) Soft
Questions on Classification of solids on the basis of different binding forces
1. Why are solids rigid?
2. Why do solids have a definite volume?
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3. Define the term 'amorphous'. Give a few examples of amorphous solids.
4. Write three main differences between Amorphous and Crystalline Solids.
5. Crystalline solids are anisotropic in nature.What does this statement mean.
6. Why is glass is considered a super cooled liquid.
7. Refractive index of a solid is observed to have the same value along all directions. Comment on
the nature of this solid. Would it show cleavage property?
8. Classify the following as amorphous or crystalline solids: (i)Polyurethane, (ii)naphthalene,
(iii)benzoic acid, (iv) Teflon, (v)potassium nitrate, (vi)cellophane, (vii)polyvinyl chloride, (viii)fibre
(ix)glass, (x)copper.
9. In a tabular form Classify the solids on the basis of different binding forces also mention Nature of
binding force ,physical nature & electrical conductivity
10. Why is glass of window panes of very old buildings found to be thicker at the bottom than at the
top .
11. Some of the very old glass objects appear slightly milky instead of being transparent. why?
12. In a tabular form Classify the solids on the basis of different binding forces also mention Nature of
binding force ,physical nature & electrical conductivity
13. Classify each of the following solids as ionic, metallic, molecular, network (covalent) or
amorphous.(a) Tetra phosphorus decoxide (P4O10) (b) Graphite(c) Ammonium phosphate
(NH4)3PO4 (d) Brass(e) SiC (f) Rb(g) I2 (h) LiBr (i) P4 (j) Si (k) Plastic
14. Classify the following solids in different categories based on the nature of intermolecular forces
operating in them: (a)Potassium sulphate,(b) tin, (c)benzene, (d)urea,(e) ammonia, (f)water,(g)
zinc sulphide, (i) graphite,(j) rubidium,(k) argon,(l) silicon carbide.
15. Based on intermolecular forces classify following : Potassium sulphate Tin Benzene Urea
Ammonia H2O zinc sulphide Graphite Rubidium Argon Silicon carbide Silver Sodium Sulphate
Hydrogen I2 CO2 SO2
16. What type of solids are electrical conductors, malleable & ductile.
17. What type of interactions hold the molecules together in a polar molecular solid.
18. Write a distinguishing feature of metallic solids.
19. What makes a glass different from a solid such as quartz? Under what conditions could quartz be
converted into glass?
20. How do metallic and ionic substances differ in conducting electricity?
21. Ionic solids conduct electricity in molten state but not in solid state. Explain.
22. What type of solids are electrical conductors, malleable and ductile?
23. Solid A is a very hard electrical insulator in solid as well as in molten state and melts at extremely
high temperature. What type of solid is it?
24. Copper is conducting such while copper sulphate is conducting only in molten state or in aqueous
solution. why
25. Explain
(i) The basis of similarities and differences between metallic and ionic crystals.
(ii) Ionic solids are hard and brittle.
TOPIC : CRYSTAL LATTICE & UNIT CELL
1. CRYSTAL LATTICE: It may be defined as a regular three dimensional arrangement of identical
points in space. The positions which are occupied by atoms, ions or molecules in the crystal lattice
are called lattice points or lattice sites. There are only 14 possible three dimensional lattices.
These are called Bravais Lattices. The following are the characteristics of a crystal lattice:
(a) Each point in a lattice is called lattice point or lattice site.
(b) Each point in a crystal lattice represents one constituent particle which may
be an atom, a molecule (group of atoms) or an ion.
(c) Lattice points are joined by straight lines to bring out the geometry of the
lattice.

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2. UNIT CELL: It is the smallest portion of a crystal lattice which, when repeated in different
directions, generates the entire lattice. A unit cell is characterised by: (i) its dimensions along the
three edges, a, b and c. These edges may or may not be mutually perpendicular. (ii) angles
between the edges, α (between b and c) β (between a and c) and γ (between a and b). Thus, a unit
cell is characterised by
six parameters, a,
b, c, α, β and γ.

Types of Lattices and

Types of Unit Cell

3. TYPES OF UNIT CELLS: Unit cells can be broadly divided into 2 categories,
primitive and centred unit cells.
(a) Primitive Unit Cells When constituent particles are present only on the
corner positions of a unit cell, it is called as primitive unit cell or
simple Unit cell.

(b) Centred Unit Cells When a unit cell contains one or more constituent particles present at positions
other than corners in addition to those at corners, it is called a centred unit cell. Centred unit cells
are of three types:
(i)Body-Centred Unit Cells: When atoms are present at 8 corners as well as in the body
centre in a cubic unit cell then this arrangement is known as BCC.

(ii)Face-Centred Unit Cells: When atoms are present in all 8-corners and six face centres in
a cubic unit cell then this arrangement is known as FCC

(iii)End-Centred Unit Cells: When atoms are present in all 8-corners & one constituent
particle is present at the centre of any two opposite faces
4. SEVEN CRYSTAL SYSTEMS AND FOURTEEN BRAVAIS LATTICE

5. NUMBER OF ATOMS PER UNIT CELL

(a) There are eight (8) corners, Twelve (12) edges, and six (6) faces of a cube. Total number of body centre
in a cube = 1, Total number of edge centre in a cube = 12 & Total number of face centre in a cube = 6
(b) An atom at corner of unit cell is shared by eight (8) unit cells in the lattice and hence contributes only 1/8 to
a particular unit cell.
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(c) An atom at edge centre of unit cell is shared by four (4) unit cells in the lattice and hence contributes only
1/4 to a particular unit cell.
(d) An atom at face centre of unit cell is shared by two (2) unit cells in the lattice and hence contributes only
1/2 to a particular unit cell.
(e) An atom at body centre of unit cell belongs to the particular unit cell & contributes one complete point to
the cell

6. CALCULATION OF NUMBER OF PARTICLES IN A UNIT CELL

7. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EDGE LENGTH (A) OF UNIT CELL AND RADIUS OF ATOM(R).
S.No Crystal system Relation
1 Simple cubic a
r=
2
a=2r

2 Body centered cubic 3a

r=
4

3 Face centered cubic a

r=
2 2

let the unit cell edge length be ‘a’ and face diagonal AC = b.
In Δ ABC AC2 = BC2 + AB2 b2 = a2+a2 or b2 = 2a2 i.e. b =
√2a
If r is the radius of the sphere, we find b = 4r =√2a
a
r=
2 2
8. PACKING EFFICIENCY: It is the percentage of total space filled by the particles
Volume occupied by spheres in the unit cell
= x 100
Total volumeof the unit cell
Z x Volume of Sphere
= x 100
volumeof the unit cell(Cube)

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PACKING EFFICIENCY IN SIMPLE PACKING EFFICIENCY IN BODY-CENTRED CUBIC

STRUCTURE CUBIC LATTICE

PACKING EFFICIENCY IN FACE CENTERED CUBIC,

HCP AND CCP STRUCTURES

S.No Crystal system Packing

Efficiency
1 Simple cubic 52.4%
2 Body centered cubic 68%
3 Face centered cubic, 74%
Hexagonal close packed
(hcp) & ccp
QUESTIONS ON CRYSTAL LATTICE , UNIT CELL, TYPES OF UNIT CELLS, CALCULATION OF NUMBER OF
PARTICLES IN A UNIT CELL, RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EDGE LENGTH (A) OF UNIT CELL AND RADIUS OF
ATOM(R), PACKING EFFICIENCY
1. What is Unit cell? Name the parameters that characterize unit cell.
2. Give the significance of Lattice point. Write difference between : Crystal lattice and unit cell
3. Distinguish between(i) Hexagonal and monoclinic unit cells(ii) Face-centred and end-centred unit
cells.
4. How much portion of an atom located at (i) corner and (ii) body centre (iii) faces of a cubic unit
cell is part of its neighbouring unit cell .
5. Calculate the Number of atoms per unit cell in Simple cubic; Body centred Cubic (bcc), Face-
centred cubic (fcc).
6. How many lattice points are there in one unit cell of each of the following lattice? (i) Face-centred
cubic (ii) Face-centred tetragonal (iii) Body-centred
7. A cubic solid is made of two elements P and Q. Atoms of Q are at the corners of the cube and P at
the body-centre. What is the formula of the compound? What are the coordination numbers of P
and Q?
8. A cubic solid is made of two elements A and B. Atoms of A are at the corners of the cube and B at
the Face-centre. What is the formula of the compound?
9. An ionic compound made up of atoms A & B has a face centred cubic arrangement in which atoms
are at the corners and B atoms are at face centres. If one of the atoms is missing from the
corner,what is the simplest formula of the compound.
10. In a face centred cubic lattice, atom A occupies the corner positions and atom B occupies the face
centre positions. If one atom of B is missing from one of the face centred points. What is the
formula of the compound?

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11. A cubic solid is made of two elements X and Y. Atoms of A are at the corners of the cube and B at
the centre of alternate Faces. What is the formula of the compound?
12. A compound made up of elements A and B crystallizes in the cubic structure. Atoms a are present
on the corners as well as face centres whereas atoms B are present on the edge centres as well as
body centre. What is the formula of the compound?
13. If three elements P,Q, & R crystallizes in the cubic structure with P atoms at the corners,Q atoms
at the cube centre and R atoms at the centre of the faces of the cube What is the formula of the
compound?
14. A solid has a cubic structure in which X atoms are located at the corners of the cube, Y atoms are
at the cube centres and O atoms are at the edge centres. What is the formula of the compound?
15. In an alloy of gold and cadmium, gold crystallizes in cubic structure occupying the corners only and
cadmium fits into the face centre voids. What is quantitative composition of the alloy ?
16. Calculate the number of unit cells in 8.1 g of aluminum if it crystallizes in f.c.c structure.(Atomic
mass of Al=27gm/mol).[Ans:4.515 x 1022]
17. Calculate the number of unit cells in 9.2 g of sodium if it crystallizes in b.c.c structure.(Atomic
mass of Na=23 gm/mol). [Ans:1.204 x 1023]
18. Potassium crystallizes in a body centered cubic lattice. What is the approximate number of unit
cells in 4.0g of potassium? Atomic mass of potassium = 39. [Ans:3.09 x 1022]
19. Derive the relationship between edge length (a) of unit cell and radius of atom(r) for (i)simple
cubic (ii)body –centered cubic (iii)face –centered cubic (with the assumptions that atoms are
touching each other) or hcp or ccp
20. Silver crystallizes in fcc lattice.Each side of the unit cell has a length of 409pm.What is the radius of
an atom of silver.
21. Aluminium crystallises in a cubic close-packed structure. Its metallic radius is 125 pm.(i) What is
the length of the side of the unit cell? (ii) How many unit cells are there in 1.00 cm3 of aluminium?
22. Gold (atomic radius = 0.144 nm) crystallises in a face-centred unit cell. What is the length of a side
of the cell?
23. Calculate the efficiency of packing in case of a metal crystal for (i)simple cubic (ii)body –centered
cubic (iii)face –centered cubic (with the assumptions that atoms are touching each other) or hcp
or ccp Structures.
24. Calculate the packing fraction for the Ca unit cell, given that Ca crystallizes in a face-centered cubic
unit cell.
TOPIC: DENSITY OF UNIT CELL
ZM
d= 3 Where Z is no. of atoms per unit cell, M is molar mass, ‘a’ is edge length of the
a  NA
cube(in cm), a3 = volume of cube (cm3), NA is Avogadro’s number, d is in g/cm3
QUESTION BASED ON CALCULATION OF DENSITY OF UNIT CELL
1. How can you determine the atomic mass of an unknown metal if you know its density and the
dimension of its unit cell? Explain.
2. Silver crystallizes in fcc lattice. If edge length of the cell is 4.07 × 10-8cm and density is 10.5 g cm-3,
calculate the atomic mass of silver.
3. Niobium crystallises in body-centred cubic structure.If density is 8.55 g cm-3, calculate atomic
radius of niobium using its atomic mass 93 u.
4. X-ray diffraction studies show that copper crystallises in an fcc unit cell with cell edge of 3.608×10-8
cm. In a separate experiment, copper is determined to have a density of 8.92 g/cm3, calculate the
atomic mass of copper.
5. Silver forms ccp lattice and X-ray studies of its crystals show that the edge length of its unit cell is
408.6 pm. Calculate density of silver (Atomic mass = 107.9 u)
6. An element (atomic mass = 60) having FCC unit cell has a density of 6.23g/cm 3 .What is the edge
length of the unit cell?
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7. An element (atomic mass = 27) has a density of 2.7 g/cm . If edge length of the cell is 4.07 × 10
8
cm. what is the nature of the cubic unit cell?
8. Iron has bcc unit cellwith cell edge of 286.65 pm.The density of iron is 7.874 g/cm 3 . Calculate the
value of Avogadro constant (atomic mass of Fe = 56gmol-1)
9. Determine the type of cubic lattices to which the iron crystal belongs if its unit cell has an edge
length of 286 pm and the density of iron crystals is 7.86 g/cm3.
10. The well known mineral fluorite is chemically calcium fluoride. It is known that in one unit cell of
this mineral there 4 Ca2+ ions & 8 F- ions and that Ca2+ ions are arranged in a fcc lattice.The F- ions
fill all the tetrahedral holes in the fcc lattice of Ca+2 ions.The edge of the unit cell is 5.46 X 10-8 cm
in length.The density of solid is 3.18 g/cm3 in length.Using this information Calculate the value of
Avogadro constant (Molar mass of CaF2= 78.08 gmol-1).
11. An element has a body –centered cubic structure with a cell edge of 288pm.The density of the
element is 7.2 g/cm3 .How many atoms are present in 208 g of the element?
12. An element with molar mass 2.7×10-2 kg mol-1forms a cubic unit cell with edge length 405 pm. If its
density is 2.7×103 kg m-3, what is the nature of the cubic unit cell?
13. An element crystallizes into a structure which may be described by a cubic lattice of unit cell
having one atom on each corner of the cube and two atoms on one of its diagonals.If the volume
of this unit cell is 24 x 10-24 cm3 and density of element is 7.2gm cm-3,calculate the number of
atoms present in 200 g of the element.[ Ans:M=34.69,3.4722 x 1024]
14. The density of copper metal is 8.95 g/cm3 .If the radius of copper atom be 127.8pm,is the copper
unit cell simple cubic,body centred cubic or face centred cubic?
15. An element X with an at.mass 60 g/mol has density 6.23 g/cm3 If the edge length of cubic unit
cell is 400pm.Identify the type of cubic unit cell. Calculate the radius of an atom of this element.
16. An element crystallizes in BCC structure.If the edge length of the cell is 1.469 x 10 -10 m. & density
is 19.3 g/cm3. Calculate the at. Mass of this element. Also calculate the radius of an atom of this
element.
17. Ag crystallizes in FCC lattice. The edge length of its unit cell is 4.077 x 10 -8 cm. & its density is
10.5 g/cm3 Calculate the at. Mass of Ag.
18. An element has a body –centered cubic structure with a cell edge of 314 pm.The density of the
element is 10.3 g/cm3. Calculate the atomic mass of element. [Ans:96 g/mol]
19. Gold has a close-packed structure which can be viewed as-spheres 0.74 occupying of the total
volume. If the density of gold is 19.3 g/cc, calculate the apparent radius of a gold ion in the solid
20. The edge length of a unit cell of a metal having molecular mass 75g/mol is 5Ặ which crystallizes in
a cubic lattice .If the density is 2 gm cm-3,then find the radius of metal atom.( Ans:z=2, 2.165 Ặ)
21. KF has ccp structure.Calculate the radius of unit cell if the side of the cube or edge length is
400pm.How many F- ions and octahedral voids are there in this unit cell.
22. Calculate the value of Avogadro constant from the following data. Density of NaCl = 2.165 g/cm 3.
Distance b/w Na+ & Cl- is 281 pm.
TOPIC : CLOSE PACKED STRUCTURES , COORDINATION NUMBER, VOIDS
(A) CLOSE PACKING IN ONE DIMENSION : In this arrangement, each sphere is in contact with two of
its neighbours. The number of nearest neighbours of a particle is called its coordination number.
Thus, in one dimensional close packed arrangement, the coordination number is 2.

(B) CLOSE PACKING IN TWO DIMENSIONS : Two dimensional close packed structure can be
generated by stacking (placing) the rows of close packed spheres. This can be done in two
different ways.

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(C) CLOSE PACKING IN THREE DIMENSIONS

THREE DIMENSIONAL CLOSE PACKING FROM TWO DIMENSIONAL HEXAGONAL CLOSE PACKED LAYERS
(a) Hexagonal close packing: The third layer lies vertically above the first and the spheres in third layer
rest in one set of hollows on the top of the second layer. This arrangement is called ABAB …. type
and 74% of the available space is occupied by spheres. The coordination number is 12. This
arrangement is found in Be, Mg, Zn, Cd, Sc, Y, Ti, Zr, Tc, Ru
(b) Cubic close packing : The third layer is different from the first and the spheres in the third layer lie
on the other set of hollows marked ‘C’ in the first layer. This arrangement is called ABCABC….. type
and in this also 74% of the available space is occupied by spheres. The coordination number is 12.
The cubic close packing has face centred cubic (fcc) unit cell. This arrangement is found in Cu, Ag,
Au, Ni, Pt, Pd.
(c)
Hexagonal close packing Cubic close packing
1.The different layers are packed in AB AB The different layers are packed in ABC ABC
AB................... pattern ABC................... pattern
2.In hexagonal close packing structure the 2.In hexagonal close packing structure the third layer of
third layer of atoms covers the tetrahedral atoms covers the octahedral voids of the second layer
voids of the second layer

• COORDINATION NUMBER: It is defined as the number of nearest neighbours that a particle has
in a unit cell.It depends upon the structure of unit cell of the crystal.
S.No Crystal system Coordination number
a) Simple cubic 6
b) Body centered cubic 8
c) Face centered cubic 12
d) Sqaure close packing in 2D 4
e) Hexagonal close packing hcp in 2-D 6
f) Hexagonal close packing hcp in 3-D 12
g) Cubic close packing ccp 12
h) Rock salt(NaCl ) Na+ = 6,Cl- = 6
i) CsCl, Cs+ = 8,Cl- = 8
j) ZnS Zn+2 =4,S-2 = 4
k) CaF2 Flourite Ca+2=8,F-=4

• INTERSTITIAL SITES IN CLOSE PACKING : Even in the close packing of spheres, there is left some
empty space between the spheres. This empty space in the crystal lattice is called site or void or
hole. Voids are of following types:
(a) Trigonal void : This site is formed when three spheres lie at the vertices of an equilateral triangle.
Size of the trigonal site is given by the following relation, r = 0.155R where r = Radius of the
spherical trigonal void R = Radius of closely packed spheres
(b) Tetrahedral void : A tetrahedral void is developed when triangular voids (made by three spheres
in one layer touching each other) have contact with one sphere either in the upper layer or in the
lower layer. The number of tetrahedral voids is double the number of spheres in the crystal
structure. r/ R = 0.225 where, r is the radius of the tetrahedral void or atom
occupying tetrahedral void. R is the radius of spheres forming tetrahedral void.
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(c) Octahedral void : This type of void is surrounded by six closely packed spheres, i.e. it is formed by
six spheres. The number of octahedral voids is equal to the number of spheres. r/ R = 0.414
where, r is the radius of the Octahedral void or atom occupying Octahedral void. R is the radius of
spheres forming tetrahedral void.

• The number of octahedral voids present in a lattice is equal to the number of close packed
particles.
• The number of tetrahedral voids generated is twice this number.
• Let the number of close packed spheres be N, then
Number of octahedral voids generated = N (number of atoms present in of close packed
arrangement )
Number of tetrahedral voids generated = 2N((number of atoms present in of close packed
arrangement )
Tetrahedral void & Octahedral void
Tetrahedral void Octahedral void
1.It is the open space between four touching It is the open space between six touching
spheres of two layers of atom. Spheres of two layers of atom

2.The radius of the tetrahedral void relative 2.The radius of the Octahedral void relative to
to radius of sphere is 0.225. radius of sphere is 0.414.

QUESTIONS BASED ON CLOSE PACKED STRUCTURES , COORDINATION NUMBER, VOIDS

1. What is meant by the term 'coordination number'?
2. What is the coordination number of atoms in a cubic close-packed structure.
3. What is the coordination number of atoms in a Hexagonal close packing hcp in 2-D & 3-D.
4. What is the two dimensional coordination number of a molecule in Sqaure close packed layer.
5. What is the coordination number of atoms in a Body centered cubic & Face centered cubic.
6. Write the 'coordination number' of Rock salt(NaCl) CsCl, ,ZnS,CaF2 Flourite .
7. How will you distinguish between the following pairs of terms: (i) Hexagonal close-packing and
cubic close-packing (ii)Tetrahedral void and octahedral void
8. A cubic solid is made of two elements P and Q. Atoms of Q are at the corners of the cube and P at
the body-centre. What is the formula of the compound? What are the coordination numbers of P
and Q?
9. A cubic solid is made of two elements A and B. Atoms of A are at the corners of the cube and B at
the Face-centre. What is the formula of the compound?
10. In a face centred cubic lattice, atom A occupies the corner positions and atom B occupies the face
centre positions. If one atom of B is missing from one of the face centred points. What is the
formula of the compound?
11. A compound is formed by two elements X and Y. Atoms of the element Y (as anions) make ccp and
those of the element X (as cations) occupy all the octahedral voids. What is the formula of the
compound?
12. Atoms of element B form hcp lattice and those of the element A occupy 2/3rd of tetrahedral voids.
What is the formula of the compound formed by the elements A and B?
13. A compound forms hexagonal close-packed structure. What is the total number of voids in 0.5 mol
of it? How many of these are tetrahedral voids?
14. A compound is formed by two elements M and N. The element N forms ccp and atoms of M
occupy 1/3rd of tetrahedral voids. What is the formula of the compound?
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15. Ferric oxide crystallises in a hexagonal close-packed array of oxide ions with two out of every three
octahedral holes occupied by ferric ions. Derive the formula of the ferric oxide
16. If the radius of the octahedral void is r and radius of the atoms in close packing is R, derive relation
between r and R.

TOPIC : IMPERFECTIONS IN SOLIDS

1. LINE DEFECTS are the irregularities or deviations from ideal arrangement in entire rows of lattice
points
2. POINT DEFECTS are the irregularities or deviations from ideal arrangement around a point or an
atom in a crystalline substance.
3. TYPES OF POINT DEFECTS : Point defects can be classified into three types : (A) Stoichiometric
defects (B) Impurity defects and (iii) Non-stoichiometric defects.
(A) STOICHIOMETRIC DEFECTS: These are the point defects that do not disturb the stoichiometry of
the solid. They are also called intrinsic or thermodynamic defects. Basically these are of two types,
vacancy defects and interstitial defects.
(i) VACANCY DEFECT: When some of the lattice sites are vacant, the crystal is said
to have vacancy defect . This results in decrease in density of the substance. This
defect can also develop when a substance is heated.

(ii) INTERSTITIAL DEFECT: When some constituent particles (atoms or molecules)

occupy an interstitial site, the crystal is said to have interstitial defect This defect
increases the density of the substance.

NOTE: Vacancy and interstitial defects as explained above can be shown by non-ionic solids.
Ionic solids must always maintain electrical neutrality. Rather than simple vacancy or interstitial
defects, they show these defects as Frenkel and Schottky defects.
SCHOTTKY DEFECT FRENKEL DEFECT
In this defect equal number of cations and anions are In this defect the smaller ion (usually cation)
missing from lattice positions in order to maintain is dislocated from its normal site to an
electrical neutrality interstitial site.
It is basically a vacancy defect in ionic solids. It creates a vacancy defect at its original site
and an interstitial defect at its new location.
It decreases the density of the substance It does not change the density of the solid.
Schottky defect is shown by ionic substances in which Frenkel defect is shown by ionic substance in
the cation and anion are of almost similar sizes which there is a large difference in the size of
ions,
For example, NaCl, KCl, CsCl and AgBr. For example, ZnS, AgCl, AgBr and AgI due to
small size of Zn2+ and Ag+ ions.

NOTE: It may be noted that AgBr shows both, Frenkel as well as

Schottky defects.
• In NaCl there are approximately 106 Schottky pairs per cm3 at
room temperature. In 1 cm3 there are about 1022 ions. Thus,
there is one Schottky defect per 1016 ions.
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(B) IMPURITY DEFECTS : These defects arise when foreign atoms or ions are present in the lattice sites.If
the impurity ions have different valence state than that of the host ions, vacancies are created. For
example in addition of SrCl2 to NaCl some of the sites of Na+ ions are occupied by Sr2+ . Each Sr2+ replaces
two Na+ ions. It occupies the site of one ion and the other site remains vacant. The cationic vacancies thus
produced are equal in number to that of Sr2+ ions. Another similar example is the solid solution of CdCl2
and AgCl.

(C) NON-STOICHIOMETRIC DEFECTS: The defects which disturb the stoichiometry of the compounds are
called non-stoichiometry defects. These defects are either due to the presence of excess metal ions or
deficiency of metal ions.
(i) METAL EXCESS DEFECT DUE TO ANIONIC VACANCIES:
• In this defect a negative ion from the crystal lattice may be missing from its lattice site leaving a
hole or vacancy which is occupied by the electron originally associated with the anion. In this way
crystal remains neutral.
• This type of defects are found in crystals which are likely to possess
schottky defects. Alkali halides like NaCl and KCl show this type of defect.
• F-centres :The anionic sites occupied by unpaired electrons are called F-
centres They impart colour to the crystals. The colour results by
excitation of these electrons when they absorb energy from the visible
light falling on the crystals.
• For example: the excess sodium in NaCl makes the crystal appear yellow,
excess potassium in KCl makes it violet and excess lithium in LiCl makes it
pink. Greater the number of F-centres, greater is the intensity of colour.
• Solids containing F-centres are paramagnetic because the electrons occupying the ‘holes’ are
unpaired.

(ii) METAL EXCESS DEFECT DUE TO THE PRESENCE OF EXTRA CATIONS

AT INTERSTITIAL SITES
• In this defect an extra cation occupies interstitial postion in the lattice
& free electron is trapped in the vicinity of this interstitial cation.
This type of defects are exhibited by the crystals which are likely to
exhibit ‘Frenkel’ defects. For example, when ZnO is heated, it loses
1
oxygen reversibly. ZnO ⎯Heating
⎯⎯→ Zn2+ + O2 + 2e- The excess metal
2
(Zn2+ ions) is accommodated in interstitial sites, with electrons
trapped in the neighbourhood. The yellow colour and the electrical
conductivity of the non-stoichiometric ZnO is due to these trapped electrons.
NOTE : The crystals with metal excess defects conduct electricity due to the presence of free electrons
and are semiconductors. As the electric transport is mainly by “excess” electrons, these are called n-type
(n for negative) semiconductor. The crystals with metal excess defects are generally paramagnetic due to
the presence of unpaired electrons at lattice sites.
(iii) METAL DEFICIENCY DEFECT : In this a cation is missing from its lattice site. To maintain electrical
neutrality, one of the nearest metal ion acquires two positive
charge. i.e The defect arises due to the missing of cation from its
lattice site and the presence of cation having higher charge in the
adjecent lattice site This type of defect occurs in compounds
where metal can exhibit variable valency. e.g., Transition metal
compounds like NiO, FeO, FeS etc. A typical example of this type is
FeO which is mostly found with a composition of Fe0.95O. It may
actually range from Fe0.93O to Fe0.96O. In crystals of FeO some Fe2+ 12
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cations are missing and the loss of positive charge is made up by the presence of required
number of Fe3+ ions.
Note : Metal deficient compounds conduct electricity through positive hole conduction mechanism and
are therefore p-type semiconductors
QUESTIONS BASED ON IMPERFECTIONS IN SOLIDS
1. Explain the following: (a) Point defect (b) intrinsic or thermodynamic defect (c) vacancy defect (d)
interstitial defect
2. Explain the following with suitable examples : (a)Schottky defect (b)Frenkel defect(dislocation
defect)
3. What is the effect of Schottky defect and Frenkel defects on the density of crystals.
4. What is the effect of Schottky defect on the density of crystals.
5. Name the crystal defect which lowers the density of an ionic crystal.
6. Which point defect increases the density of crystal?
7. Which point defect does not alters the density of crystal?
8. Why are Frenkel defects not found in pure alkali halides?
9. What type of defect can arise when a solid is heated?
10. Why are Frenkel defects found in AgCl?
11. What type of stoichiometric defect is shown by ZnS
12. What type of stoichiometric defect is shown by AgBr
13. Explain how vacancies are introduced in an ionic solid when a cation of higher valence is added as
an impurity in it?
14. What type of defect is produced when NaCl is doped with SrCl2.
15. What is the nature of crystal defect produced when sodium chloride is doped with MgCl 2 ?
16. What type of defect is produced when AgCl is doped with CdCl2
17. Define the term F –centers.
18. Ionic solids which have anionic vacancies due to metal excess develop colour.Explain with the
example.
19. Name the non- stoichiometric defect responsible for colour in alkali halides.
20. What makes the crystal of KCl appear sometimes violet?
21. What is the effect of Frenkel defects on the density of crystals.
22. Why is Lithium chloride sometimes pink in colour?
23. Why common salt is sometime yellow instead of being pure white.
24. Mention one property which is caused due to presence of F –centre in a solid?
25. Zinc oxide is white but it turns yellow on heating .Why
26. What makes alkali metal halides sometimes coloured, which are otherwise colourless ?
27. Explain the following non- stoichiometric defects: (i) metal excess defect due to presence
interstitial cation (ii) Metal deficiency defect.
28. A sample of ferrous oxide has actual formula Fe0.93O1.00. In this sample what fraction of metal ions
are Fe2+ ions?
29. What type of nonstoichiometric defect is present in the sample of Fe 0.93O1.00?
30. If NaCl is doped with 10-3 mol % of SrCl2, what is the concentration of cation vacancies.
31. Name a substance which on addition to AgCl causes cation vacancy in it.
32. Why is FeO (s) not formed in stoichiometric composition?
33. Why does zinc oxide exhibit enhanced electrical conductivity on heating ?
34. Name the defect in which equal number of cations and anions are missing from lattice positions .
35. Name the defect in which the smaller ion is dislocated from its normal site to an interstitial site.
36. Name the defect in which a negative ion from the crystal lattice may be missing from its lattice
site leaving a hole or vacancy which is occupied by the electron originally associated with the
anion
37. Name the defect type of defect generally occurs when metal shows variable valency.

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+2
38. Analysis shows that nickel oxide has the formula Ni0.98.O1.00. What fractions of nickel exist as Ni
ions?
TOPIC :ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS
1. Classification of Solids on the basis of their conductivities
Conductors Insulators Semiconductors
Conductivities ranging These are the solids These are the solids with conductivities in the
4
between 10 to 10 7 with very low intermediate range
–1 –1
ohm m . Metals have conductivities ranging from 10–6 to 104 ohm–1m–1.
–20 –10
conductivities between 10 to 10
7 – ohm–1m–1.
in the order of 10 ohm
1 –1
m are good
conductors.

2. Distinction among (a) metals (b) insulators and (c) semiconductors. in terms of band theory.
(a) Metals (b)Insulators (c) Semiconductors
The energy gap between The energy gap between In case of semiconductors, the gap between the
between filled valence band filled valence band and the valence band and conduction band is small
and the conduction band is conduction band is large, .Therefore, some electrons may jump to
very small or there is thus electrons cannot jump conduction band and show some conductivity.
overlapping between these to higher band and such a Electrical conductivity of semiconductors
bands then electrons can substance has very small increases with rise in temperature, since
flow easily. conductivity and it behaves more electrons can jump to the conduction
as an insulator band. Substances like silicon and germanium
show this type of behaviour and are called
intrinsic semiconductors.

n-type semiconductor. p-type semiconductors.

When Si or Ge (Group 14 elements ,containing 4 When Si or Ge (Group 14 elements ,containing 4
valence electrons ) are doped with P or As ( group valence electrons ) are doped with B, Al or Ga (
15 element containing 5 valence electrons,) n-type group 13 element containing 3 valence electrons,) p
semiconductor are formed ,because Four out of type semiconductor is formed. Because dopant is
five electrons are used in the formation of four having only three elctrons thus an electron hole is
covalent bonds with the four neighbouring silicon created at the place of fourth missing electrons
atoms. The fifth electron is extra and becomes .Here holes are positively charged and are moving
delocalised. These delocalised electrons increase towards negatively charged plate.
the conductivity of doped Si or Ge.

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The increase in conductivity is due to the The increase in conductivity is due to the
Negatively charged electron, Positively charged hole
3. DOPING : The conductivity of intrinsic semiconductors is too low to be of practical use. Their
conductivity is increased by adding an appropriate amount of suitable impurity. This process is
called Doping. Doping can be done with an impurity which is electron rich or electron deficient as
compared to the intrinsic semiconductor silicon or germanium
4. TYPES OF EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUTOR
5. APPLICATIONS OF n-TYPE AND p-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS
➢ Diode is a combination of n-type and p-type semiconductors and is used as a rectifier.
➢ Transistors are made by sandwiching a layer of one type of semiconductor between two layers of
the other type of semiconductor. npn and pnp type of transistors are used to detect or amplify
radio or audio signals
➢ The solar cell is an efficient photo-diode used for conversion of light energy into electrical energy.
➢ 13-15 compounds combination of groups 13 and 15 to simulate average valence of four as in Ge
or Si. Examples InSb, AlP and GaAs. Gallium arsenide (GaAs) semiconductors have very fast
response and have revolutionised the design of semiconductor devices.
➢ 12-16 compounds combination of groups 12 and 16 to simulate average valence of four as in Ge
or Si. Examples ZnS, CdS, CdSe and HgTe. In these compounds, the bonds are not perfectly
covalent and the ionic character depends on the electronegativities of the two elements.
➢ TiO, CrO2 and ReO3 behave like metals. Rhenium oxide, ReO3 is like metallic copper in its
conductivity
➢ and appearance
MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS : Every substance has some magnetic properties associated with it.
The origin of these properties lies in the electrons. Each electron in an atom behaves like a tiny magnet.
On the basis of their magnetic properties, substances can be classified into five categories:
1. PARAMAGNETISM: Paramagnetic substances are weakly attracted by a magnetic field.
Paramagnetism is due to presence of one or more unpaired electrons which are attracted by the
magnetic field. Examples : O2, Cu2+, Fe3+, Cr3+
2. DIAMAGNETISM: Diamagnetic substances are weakly repelled by a magnetic field. It is shown by
those substances in which all the electrons are paired and there are no unpaired electrons. Pairing
of electrons cancels their magnetic moments and they lose their magnetic character Examples
H2O, NaCl and C6H6 , O2+
3. FERROMAGNETISM: The materials which show permanent magnetism even in the absence of
magnetic field are called ferromagnetic materials. These materials are strongly attracted by the
magnetic field.
Examples iron, cobalt, nickel, gadolinium and CrO2 When the substance is placed in a magnetic
field all the domains get oriented in the direction of the magnetic field and a strong magnetic
effect is produced. .          
4. ANTIFERROMAGNETISM: They have zero magnetic moment ,their domains are oppositely
oriented and cancel out each other's magnetic moment Examples MnO.

5. FERRIMAGNETISM: Ferrimagnetism is observed when the magnetic moments of the domains in
the substance are aligned in parallel and anti-parallel directions in unequal numbers They are
weakly attracted by magnetic field as compared to ferromagnetic substances. Examples Fe3O4 ,
MgFe2O4 and ZnFe2O4 .      
QUESTION BASED ON ELECTRICAL & MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS.
1. How solids can be classified on the basis of their conductivities.
2. In terms of band theory what is the difference between Conductor, semi Conductor & an insulator.
3. What is a semiconductor? Describe the two main types of semiconductors and contrast their
conduction mechanism.
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4. Explain the following terms : (a)Intrinsic semiconductor (b)Doping (c)n-type semiconductor (d) p-
type semiconductor (e) applications of n-& p type semiconductor
5. Explain the following with suitable examples :(i)Paramagnetism (ii)Diamagnetism
(iii)Ferromagnetism(d)Anti Ferromagnetism (e)Ferrimagnetism
6. Name the substance in which the energy gap between between filled valence band and the
conduction band is very small or there is overlapping between these bands then electrons can
flow easily.
7. Name the substance in which the energy gap between filled valence band and the conduction
band is large, thus electrons cannot jump to higher band and such a substance has very small
conductivity .
8. Name the substance in which the gap between the valence band and conduction band is small .
Therefore, some electrons may jump to conduction band and show some conductivity
9. A group 14 element is to be converted into n –type semi conductor by doping it with suitable
impurity .To which group should this impurity belong?
10. Name an element with which silicon can be doped to give a p-type semiconductor.
11. What type of semiconductor is obtained when (i) Si doped with As (ii) Si doped with B (iii)
Germanium is doped with Indium (iv) Germanium is doped with Aluminium (v) Boron is doped
with silicon
12. Name an element with which germanium can be doped to produce an n-type semiconductor.
13. What is the difference between Phosphorous and gallium doped semiconductors
14. Explain with example (i)12-16 group compounds. (ii)13-15 group compounds.
15. What type of magnetism is shown in the following alignment of magnetic moments.Give one
example of such type.           
16. Draw the alignment of magnetic moments in Ferrimagnetic substances. Give one example of such
type
17. Why Ferromagnetic substances show better magnetism than antiferromagntic substances.
18. What type of substances would make better permanent magnets, ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic?
Justify
19. Name the substances which are weakly attracted by a magnetic field & is due to presence of one
or more unpaired electrons.
20. Name the substances which are weakly repelled by a magnetic field & is shown by those
substances in which all the electrons are paired and there are no unpaired electrons.
21. What happens when ferromagnetic Fe3O4 is heated at 850 K and why ?
22. How can a ferromagnetic substance be changed to a paramagnetic one ?
23. What happens when a ferromagnetic substance is subjected to high temperature ?
24. Non- stoichiometric cuprous oxide Cu2O can be prepared in laboratory .In this oxide copper to
oxygen ratio is slightly less than 2:1 .can you account for the fact that this substance is a p-type
semiconductor.

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Unit: 2:-SOLUTIONS
TOPIC: TYPE OF SOLUTION & CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS
Type of Solution Solute Solvent Common Examples
Gaseous Solutions Gas Gas Mixture of oxygen and nitrogen gases
Liquid Gas Chloroform mixed with nitrogen gas
Solid Gas Camphor in nitrogen gas
Liquid Solutions Gas Liquid Oxygen dissolved in water
Liquid Liquid Ethanol dissolved in water
Solid Liquid Glucose dissolved in water
Solid Solutions Gas Solid Solution of hydrogen in palladium
Liquid Solid Amalgam of mercury with sodium
Solid Solid Copper dissolved in gold
Mass of solute
1. Mass per cent (w/w)=  100 ,
Mass of solution
If a solution is described by 10% glucose in water by mass, it means that 10 g of glucose is dissolved in 90
g ofwater resulting in a 100 g solution
Volume of the component
2. Volume percentage (v/v):  100 ,
Total volume of solution
For example, 10% ethanol solution in water means that 10 mL of ethanol is dissolved in water such
that the total volume of the solution is 100 ml.
3. Mass by volume percentage (w/v): It is the mass of solute dissolved in 100 mL of the solution.
4. Parts per million (ppm). It is defined as the amount of substance in grams in 106 of solution. e.g., 10
ppm of SO2 means 10 cm3 of SO2 present in 106 cm3 of air.
Mass of solute
ppm=  106
Mass of solution
5. Mole-fraction (x). It is ratio of number of moles of a particular component to the total number of
moles of all the components.
No. of moles of solute
Mole-fraction of solute(B) =
No. of moles of solute + No. of moles of solvent
WB
nB MB
xB = =
nA + nB WA WB
+
MA WB

No. of moles of solvent

Mole-fraction of solvent (A)=
No. of moles of solute + No. of moles of solvent
WA
nA MA
Thus xB + xA = 1
xA = =
nA + nB WA WB
+
MA WB

6. Molarity (M). It is expressed as the number of moles of solute per litre of solution..
No. of moles of solute Wsolute 1000
Molarity (M)= = 
Litres of solution Msolute Volume of solution (ml).

Wsolute 1000 x density of Solution

M = 
Msolute Mass of solution .

7. Molality (m). It is defined as number of moles of solute per 1000 g or 1 kg of solvent.

No. of moles of solute Wsolute 1000
(m) = = 
Kg. of solvent Msolute WSolvent in grams.
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QUESTION BASED ON MOLALITY, MOLARITY, MASS PERCENTAGE, VOLUME PERCENTAGE,
PARTSPERMILLION MOLE FRACTION
1. Define: Molality, Molarity, Mass percentage, Volume percentage, Partspermillion (ppm), Mole fraction.
Write their formulas also.
2. Which out of the Molality & Molarity is better way to express the concentration of solution and why?
3. How does a change in temperature influence values of molarity and molality.
4. Concentration terms such as mass percentage, ppm, mole fraction and molality are independent of
temperature, however molarity is a function of temperature.Explain.
5. Under what conditions molarity and molality of a solution nearly the same.
6. A solution is heated from 25oC to 50oC.Will its molarity be same less or more. Comment.
7. What is the sum of the mole fractions of all the components in a three component system?
8. Calculate the molarity of a solution containing 5 g of NaOH in 450ml solution.
9. Calculate molality of 2.5g of ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) in 75g of benzene.
10. Calculate the molarity of each of the following solutions :( a) 30g of Co(NO 3)2.6H2O in 4.3L of solution (b)
30ml of 0.5H2SO4 diluted to 500ml.
11. Calculate Molality, Molarity & Mole fraction of KI if the density of 20 %( mass/mass) aqueous KI is
1.202g/ml.
12. Concentrated nitric acid used in the laboratory work is 68% nitric acid by mass in aqueous solution. What
should be the molarity of such a sample of the acid if the density of the solution is 1.504 g/ml?
13. An antifreeze solution is prepared from 222.6g of ethylene glycol. C2H4 (OH) 2 and 200g of water.
Calculate molality of solution. If the density of the solution is 1.072 g/ml then what shall be the molarity
of the solution?
14. A solution of glucose in water is labelled as 10% w/w. What should be the molality and mole fraction of
each component in the solution? If the density of solution is 1.2g/ml, then what shall be the molarity of
the solution?
15. If the density of some lake water is 1.25 g/ml and contains 92g of Na+ ions per Kg of water, calculate the
molality and molarity of Na+ ions in the lake.
16. Calculate the amount of benzoic acid required for preparing 250 ml of 0.15M solution in methanol.
17. Calculate the mass percentage of benzene (C6H6) and carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)if 22g of benzene is
dissolved in 122g of carbon tetrachloride (CCl4).
18. Calculate the mole fraction of ethylene glycol. C2H4 (OH) 2 in a solution containing 20% of ethylene glycol.
C2H4 (OH) 2 by mass.
19. Calculate the mole fraction of benzene in solution containing 30% by mass in carbon tetrachloride (CCl 4).
20. Calculate the mass of urea (NH2CONH2) required in making 2.5 Kg of 0.25 molal of aqueous solution.
21. Calculate the mass percentage of aspirin (C9H8O4) in acetonitrile (CH3CN)when 6.5g of (C9H8O4) in
dissolved in 450g of (CH3CN).
22. A sample of drinking water was found to be contaminated with chloroform (CHCl 3) supposed to be
carcinogen. The level of contamination was 15ppm (By mass). (i) Express this in percent by mass.
(ii)determine the molality of chloroform in the water sample.
23. Nalorphene (C19H21NO3), similar to morphine is used to combat withdrawal symptoms in narcotic users
.Dose of Nalorphene, generally is 1.5 mg.Calculate the mass of 1.5 X 10 -3 molal aqueous solution for the
dose.
24. If the solubility product of CuS is 6 X 10-16, calculate the maximum molarity of CuS in aqueous solution.
25. Calculate the percentage composition in terms of mass of a solution obtained by mixing 300g of a 25%
and 400g of 40% solution by mass.
TOPIC : SOLUBILITY OF A GAS IN A LIQUID, HENRY LAW & APPLICATIONS
1. Henry’s law.(Statements)
➢ The law states that at a constant temperature, the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly
proportional to the pressure of the gas.
➢ The mole fraction of gas in the solution is proportional to the partial pressure of the gas over the
solution. 18
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➢ “the partial pressure of the gas in vapour phase (p) is proportional to the mole fraction of the gas
(x) in the solution
➢ Partial pressure of the gas in solution = KH  mole fraction of gas in solution where KH is Henry’s
law constant. or p=KH . x where ‘x’ is mole fraction of gas in solution.

➢ It is obvious that higher the value of KH at a given pressure, the lower is the solubility of the gas in
1
the liquid . i.e Gas solubility 
KH
➢ The solubility of gases increases with decrease of temperature. It is due to this reason that aquatic
species are more comfortable in cold waters rather than in warm waters
➢ Effect of Temperature : Solubility of gases in liquids decreases with rise in temperature As
dissolution is an exothermic process, the solubility should decrease with increase of temperature.
2. Applications of Henry’s law
➢ In the production of carbonated beverages: To increase the solubility of CO2 in soft drinks and
soda water, the bottle is sealed under high pressure.
➢ In the deep sea diving: Scuba divers must cope with high concentrations of dissolved gases while
breathing air at high pressure underwater. Increased pressure increases the solubility of
atmospheric gases in blood. When the divers come towards surface, the pressure gradually
decreases. This releases the dissolved gases and leads to the formation of bubbles of nitrogen in
the blood. This blocks capillaries and creates a medical condition known as bends, which are
painful and dangerous to life. To avoid bends, as well as, the toxic effects of high concentrations of
nitrogen in the blood, the tanks used by scuba divers are filled with air diluted with helium (11.7%
helium, 56.2% nitrogen and 32.1% oxygen).
➢ At high altitudes the partial pressure of oxygen is less than that at the ground level. This leads to
low concentrations of oxygen in the blood and tissues of people living at high altitudes or climbers.
Low blood oxygen causes climbers to become weak and unable to think clearly, symptoms of a
condition known as anoxia.
QUESTION BASED ON SOLUBILITY OF A GAS IN A LIQUID, HENRY LAW & APPLICATIONS
1. State Henry law with its mathematical expressions. Explain the significance of Henry’s law constant. At
same temperature, hydrogen is more soluble in water than helium .Which will have larger value of KH
2. What is the significance of Henry’s Law constant KH?
3. Mention some of important applications Henry law.
4. Why do gases always tend to be less soluble in liquids as the temperature is raised?
5. What is the effect of rise in temperature on solubility of a gas?
6. Why do aquatic species remain more comfortable in lakes in winters than in summers?
7. Explain the following phenomena with the help of Henry’s law.(i) Painful condition known as bends. (ii) Feeling of
weakness and discomfort in breathing at high altitude.
8. Why soda water bottle kept at room temperature fizzes on opening?
9. If N2 gas is bubbled through water at 298 K, how many millimoles of N2 gas would dissolve in 1 litre of
water .Assume that N2 exerts a partial pressure of 0.987 bar . Henry’s law constant for N2 at 293K is
76.48 bar.
10. H2S a toxic gas with rotten egg like smell is used for the qualitative analysis. If the solubility of H2S in
water at STP is 0.195m, calculate Henry’s law constant

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8
11. Henry’s law constant for CO2 in water is 1.67x 10 Pa at 298 K .calculate the quantity of CO2 in 500ml of
soda water when packed under 2.5 atm CO2 pressure at 298 K.
12. The partial pressure of ethane over a solution containing 6.56 x 10-3 g of ethane is 1 bar. If the solution
contains 5.00 x 10-2 g of ethane, then what shall be the partial pressure of the gas?
13. Henry’s law constant for the molality of methane in benzene at 298 K is 4.27 × 105 mm Hg. Calculate
the solubility of methane in benzene at 298 K under 760 mm Hg.

TOPIC : VAPOUR PRESSURE OF LIQUID- LIQUID SOLUTIONS, VAPOUR PRESSURE OF SOLUTIONS OF

SOLIDS IN LIQUIDS, IDEAL SOLUTIONS, NON-IDEAL SOLUTIONS, AZEOTROPES
1. Vapour Pressure of Liquid- Liquid Solutions (Raoult’s law for a solution of volatile liquids): “In
solution of volatile liquids the partial vapour pressure of each component in the solution is directly
proportional to its mole fraction.”
PA   A PA = PA  A PA is vapour pressure of pure component ‘A’.

PB   B PB = PB  B PB is vapour pressure of pure component ‘B’

Ptotal = PA + PB  Ptotal = PA  A + PB  B

2. Mole Fraction in Vapour Phase: PA=yA Ptotal & PB= yB Ptotal
3. Vapour Pressure of Solutions of Solids in Liquids:

4. Ideal Solutions :

5. Non-Ideal Solutions Showing Positive Deviation & Negative Deviation from Rault’s Law:

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6. Azeotropes are binary mixtures having the same composition in liquid and vapour phase and boil
at a constant temperature. In such cases, it is not possible to separate the components by
fractional distillation.
7. Types of azeotropes : (i)Minimum boiling azeotrope : The solutions which show a large positive
deviation from Raoult’s law form minimum boiling azeotrope For example, ethanol-water mixture
(ii)Maximum boiling azeotrope. : The solutions that show large negative deviation from Raoult’s
law form maximum boiling azeotrope at a specific composition. Nitric acid and water is an
example of this class of azeotrope..
QUESTIONS BASED ON VAPOUR PRESSURE OF LIQUID- LIQUID SOLUTIONS, VAPOUR PRESSURE OF
SOLUTIONS OF SOLIDS IN LIQUIDS, IDEAL SOLUTIONS, NON-IDEAL SOLUTIONS, AZEOTROPES
1. State Raoults law for a solution of volatile liquids .Give its mathematical relationship.
2. Vapour pressure of chloroform (CHCl3) and dichloroform (CH2Cl2) at 298 K are 200 mm Hg and 415
mm Hg respectively. (i) Calculate the vapour pressure of the solution prepared by mixing 25.5 g of
CHCl3 and 40.0 g of CH2Cl2 at 298 K and (ii) mole fractions of each component in vapour phase.
3. How is the vapour pressure of a solvent affected when a non volatile solute is dissolved in it.
4. Why is vapour pressure of a solution of glucose in water lower than that of Water?
5. The vapour pressure of pure liquids A and B are 450 and 700 mm Hg respectively at 350 K .Find out
the composition of the liquid mixture if total vapour pressure is 600 mm Hg .Also find the composition
of the vapour phase.
6. Heptane and Octane form ideal solution .At 373 K, the vapour pressures of the two liquid components
are 105.2kPa and 46.8kPa respectively. What will be the vapour pressure, in bar of a mixture of 25.0g
heptane and 35.0g of octane?
7. Benzene and toluene (C7H8)from ideal solution over entire range of composition .The vapour pressure
of pure benzene and toluene at 300K are 50.71mmHg and 32.06 mmHg respectively .Calculate mol
fraction of benzene in vapour phase if 80 g of benzene is mixed with 100 g toluene.
8. 100 g of liquid A(molar mass 140g/mol) was dissolved in 1000g of liquid B(molar mass 180g/mol)the
vapour pressure of pure B was found to be 500 torr.Calculate the vapour pressure of pure A and its
vapour pressure in solution if total vapour pressure of a solution is recorded as 475 torr.
9. What is an ideal solution? What type of solutions are likely to behave as ideal solutions? Draw the
plot of vapour pressure and mole fraction of an ideal solution at constant temperature.
10. Explain along with diagrams the conditions for the Non ideal solutions exhibiting Positive deviations.
Write some examples of Non ideal solutions exhibiting Positive deviations.
11. Explain along with diagrams the conditions for the Non ideal solutions exhibiting Negative deviations.
Write some examples of Non ideal solutions exhibiting Negative deviations
12. Draw a diagram to iilustrate the relationship between vapour pressure and mole fraction of a
components in a solution to represent negative deviation.
13. .What role does the molecular interaction play in solution of alcohol and water?
14. When X and Y are mixed the solution becomes warmer and Y and Z are mixed the solution becomes
cooler? Which of these solutions will exhibit positive deviation and solutions will exhibit negative
deviation?
15. What type of non idealities are exhibited by cyclohexane –ethanol and acetone-chloroform mixtures?
Give reasons for your answer.
16. Why a mixture of carbondisulphide and acetone shows positive deviation from Raoults law? What
type of azeotropic mixture will be formed by this solution.
17. What are Azeotropes? Give one example each of minimum boiling and maximum boiling azeotropes.
18. In non ideal solution what type of deviation shows the formation of maximum boiling azeotrope.
19. In non ideal solution what type of deviation shows the formation of mimimum boiling azeotrope.
20. Components of a binary mixture of two liquids A and B were being separatedby distillation. After
some time separation of components stopped and composition of vapour phase became same as that
of liquid phase. Both the components started coming in the distillate. Explain why this happened.

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21. What general name is given to binary mixtures which show deviation from Raoult’slaw and whose
components cannot be separated by fractional distillation.
22. How many types of such mixtures are there?
23. Acetone (bp329K) and carbon disulphide (bp320K) are mixed in a definite composition so that the
mixture of two behaves like pure liquid and boils at 312 what name can be given to such a mixture?
24. 10cc of a liquid A is mixed with 10 cc of liquid B.The volume of resulting solution was found to be
19.9cc.what do you conclude.
25. What type of azeotropic mixture will be formed by the solution of acetone-chloroform
mixtures?Justify on the basis of strength of intermolecular interactions that develop in the solution.
TOPIC: COLLIGATIVE PROPERTY, RELATIVE LOWERING OF VAPOUR PRESSURE
1. Colligative properties. Those properties which depend on the number of solute particles (molecule
or ions) but not on the nature of solute, e.g., (i) relative lowering of vapour pressure, (ii) the
elevation in boiling point, (iii) the depression in freezing point, and (iv) the osmotic pressure.
2. Raoult’s Law for solution of Non-volatile Solute. The relative lowering of vapour pressure for a
solution is equal t the mole-fraction of solute when solvent alone is volatile.

PSolvent − PSolution

= X Solute
PSolvent

PSolvent − PSolution nSolute
3. Relative lowering of vapour pressure. 
= ,In case of dilute solution
PSolvent n Solute + nSolvent

PSolvent − PSolution Wsolute M Solvent
n Solvent >> nSolute 
= 
PSolvent Msolute WSolvent .

QUESTION BASED ON COLLIGATIVE PROPERTY, RELATIVE LOWERING OF VAPOUR PRESSURE

1. Define colligative properties.
2. Show that Relative Lowering of vapour pressure is a colligative property.
3. Vapour pressure of water at 293K is 17.535 mm Hg .calculate vapour pressure of water at 293 K when
25 g of glucose is dissolved in 450 g of water.
4. A solution is prepared by dissolving 10 g of non volatile solute in 200 g of water .It has a vapour
pressure of 31.84 mm of Hg at 308 K.Calculate the molar mass of the solute.(Vapour pressure of pure
water at 308K is 32 mm of Hg.)
5. At 250C the saturated vapour pressure of water is 3.165 k Pa (23.75 mm Hg).Find the saturated vapour
pressure of a 5% aqueous solution of urea at same temperature.(molar mass of urea =60.05 g/mol)
6. The vapour pressure of pure benzene at a certain temperature is 0.850 bar. A non volatile, non
electrolyte solid weighing 0.5 g when added to 39.0 g benzene (molar mass 78g/mol).vapour pressure
of the solution ,then is 0.845 bar. what is the molar mass of the solid substance?
7. Calculate the mass of a nonvolatile solute (molecular mass = 40) which should be dissolved in 114g
octane to reduce its vapour pressure to 80%.
8. A solution containing 30g of non-volatile solute exactly in 90g water has a vapour pressure of 2.8 kPa
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at 298K. Further 18g of water is then added to solution, the new vapour pressure becomes 2.9kpa at
298 K.Calculate (a) Molecular mass of solute (b) Vapour pressure of water at 298K
9. An aqueous solution of 2% nonvolatile solute exerts a pressure of 1.004 bar at the boiling point of the
solvent .what is the molecular mass of the solute? (Vapour pressure of pure water =1atm=1.013 bar)
10. Vapour pressure of pure water at 298 K is 23.8 mmHg .50 g of urea (NH2CONH2)is dissolved in 850 g of
water .calculate the vapour pressure of water for this solution and its relative lowering.
11. The vapour pressure of water is 12.3 kPa at 300 K. Calculate vapour pressure of 1 molal solution of a
non-volatile solute in it.
TOPIC:ELEVATION IN BOILING POINT
Elevation in Boiling point: The temperature, at which vapour pressure of liquid becomes equal to
atmospheric pressure, is called boiling point.It has been found that the boiling point of a solution is
always higher than that of the boiling point of the pure solvent. The difference in boiling point of solution
and pure solvent is called elevation of boiling point. (ΔTb = Tb − Tob )
Reason for Elevation in Boiling point vapour pressure of the solution is lower
than that of the pure solvent & vapour pressure increases with increase in
temperature ,hence solution has to be heated more to make the vapour
pressure equal to atmospheric pressure
Experiments shows that for dilute
solutions the elevation of boiling point
(ΔTb) is directly proportional to the molal
concentration of the solute in a
solution.  Tb = Kb  m
Wsolute 1000
Tb = K b  
Msolute WSolvent in grams.

Tob be the boiling point of pure solvent

and Tb be the boiling point of solution.
The increase in the boiling point
ΔTb = Tb − Tob is known as elevation of
boiling point.
Kb is Boiling Point Elevation Constant or Ebullioscopic Constant or Molal Boiling Point Constant.
Question based on Elevation in Boiling point
1. Why does a solution containing no volatile solute have higher boiling point than pure solvent. Show
that Elevation of boiling point is a colligative property
2. How will you determine the molecular mass of a non volatile substance by study of Elevation of
boiling point of a solution?
3. Explain why on addition of 1 mol of NaCl to 1 litre of water, the boiling point of water increases,
while addition of 1 mol of methyl alcohol to one litre of water decreases its boiling point
4. Out of 1M glucose and 2M glucose which one has a higher boiling point and why.
5. What is molal elevation constant? What are its units? How is it related to enthalpy of vaporization of
solvent?
6. 18 g glucose C6H12O6 is dissolved in 1 kg of water in a saucepan. At what temperature will solution
boil? Kb for water is 0.512 KKgmol-1.
7. Find the boiling point of a solution containing 0.520 g of glucose dissolved in 80.2 g of water. K b for
water is 0.52 KKgmol-1.
8. A solution of glycerol(C3H8O3) in water was prepared by dissolving some glycerol in 500 g of water.
This solution has a boiling point of 100.42°C. What mass of glycerol was dissolved to make this
solution? (Kb for water = 0.512 K kg mol–1)
9. The boiling point of benzene is 353.23K.when 1.80 g of a non volatile solute was dissolved in 90 g of
benzene, the boiling point is raised to 354.11K.Calculate the molar mass of the solute? Kb for benzene
is 2.53 KKgmol-1.
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0
10. Boiling point of water at 750 mmHg is 99.63 C.How much sucrose is to added to 500 g water such
that it boils at 100o C.
11. What would be the molar mass of a compound if 6.21 g of its dissolved in 24 g of chloroform to form
a solution that has a boiling point of 68.04oC .The boiling point of pure chloroform is 61.7oC and Kb
for chloroform is 3.63 oC /m.
12. A solution of 3.800 g of sulphur in 100 g of CS2 (boiling point = 46.30° C) boils at 46.66° C. What is the
formula of sulphur molecule in this solution ? (Atomic mass of sulphur = 32 g mol -1 and Kb for CS2 =
2.40 K kg mol-1)
13. A solution prepared by dissolving 1.25g of oil of wintergreen in 99.0g of benzene has a boiling point
of 80.310C .Determine the molar mass of this compound(B.P. of pure benzene = 80.100C and Kb for
benzene is 2.53 KKgmol-1..)
14. Why common salt is added to water used for boiling eggs to get hard boiled eggs?
15. 10 g of sucrose and 10 g of glucose are dissolved in same volume of water to prepare two solutions X
and Y .will they have same or different boiling points?
TOPIC: DEPRESSION OF FREEZING POINT
DEPRESSION OF FREEZING POINT:The temperature at which solid and liquid are in equilibrium, i.e., they
have same vapour pressure. It has been found that the freezing point of a solution is always lower
than that of the freezing point of the pure solvent. The difference between freezing point of pure
solvent and freezing point of solution is called depression in freezing point (  Tf ). (ΔTf = Tof − Tf )
Reason for Depression of Freezing point Vapour pressure of the solution is lower
than that of the pure solvent .As freezing point is the temperature at which vapour
pressure of the liquid and the solid phase are equal,therefore for this solution this
will occur at lower temperature (Because vapour pressure lowers with decrease in
temperature)

Experiments shows that for dilute solutions Depression of Freezing point (ΔTf) is
directly proportional to the molal concentration of the solute in a solution.  Tf =
Wsolute 1000
Kf  m T f = K f  
Msolute WSolvent in grams.
 o
T f be the freezing point of pure solvent and Tf be the freezing point
of solution. The decrease in the freezing point ΔTf = Tof − Tf is known as
Depression of Freezing point. where Kf is called Freezing point depression
constant or molal depression constant or cryoscopic constant

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QUESTION BASED ON DEPRESSION OF FREEZING POINT

1. Show that depression of freezing point is a colligative property.
2. How will you determine the molecular mass of a non volatile substance by study of depression of
freezing point of a solution.
3. An aqueous solution of sodium chloride freezes below 273 K.Expalin the lowering in freezing point of
water with the help of a suitable diagram.
4. What is molal depression constant? What are its units? How is it related to enthalpy of fusion of
solvent?
5. How does sprinkling of salt help in clearing the snow covered roads in hilly areas? Explain the
phenomenon involved in the process.
6. 1.00 g of non-electrolyte solute is dissolved in 50 g of benzene lowered the freezing point of benzene
by 0.40K.The freezing point depression constant of benzene is 5.12KKgmol -1 .Find the molar mass of
the solute.
7. 45g of ethylene glycol (C2H6O2)is mixed with 600g of water .calculate(a)Freezing point depression
(b)Freezing point of the solution. Kf for water = 1.86 K kg mol-1
8. Calculate the mass of ascorbic acid (C6H8O6) to be dissolved in 75g of acetic acid to lower its melting
point by 1.5oC. Kf for acetic acid = 3.9 K kg mol-1
9. A solution containing 2.56 gm of sulphur in 100 g of carbon disulphide gave a freezing point lowering
of 0.383 K .Calculate the molecular formulae of Sulphur [ kf of carbon disulphide = 3.83 K kg/mol
Atomic mass of S =32 amu]
10. 15g of an unknown molecular substance was dissolved in 450g of water.The resulting solution freezes
at -0.340C.What is the molar mass of the substance.
11. What mass of ethylene glycol(molar mass =62) must be added to 5.50kg of water to lower the
freezing point from 00C to -100C?( Kf for water = 1.86 K kg mol-1
12. Two elements A & B form compounds having molecular formula AB2 & AB4. When dissolved in 20g of
C6H6, 1g AB2 lowers the freezing point by 2.3 & 1.0g AB4 lowers it by 1.3K.The molar depression
constant for benzene is 5.1Kg mol-1. Calculate atomic mass A & B.
13. A 5% solution (by mass) of cane sugar in water has freezing point of 271.15 K. calculate the freezing
point of 5% glucose in water if freezing point of water is 273.15 K.
14. A 4% solution (by mass) of sucrose in water has freezing point of 271 K. calculate the freezing point
of 5% glucose in water if freezing point of water is 273.15 K.
15. Calculate the temperature at which a solution containing 54g of glucose in 250g of water will freeze.
Kf for water is 1.86 KKgmol-1.)
16. In a solution of urea, 3.0 g of its is dissolved in 100 ml of water. What will be the freezing point of this
solution ? State the approximation made if any. [Kf for water = 1.86 K kg mol-1, molar mass of Urea =
60 g mol-1]
17. Some ethylene glycol (C2H6O2) is added to your cars cooling system along with 5 kg of water.If the
freezing point water-glycerol is -15oC ,what is the boiling point of the solution? (Kf=1.86 K kg mol-1 &
Kb=0.52 K kg mol-1 for water)
18. What are antifreeze solutions? Which substance is commonly used as antifreeze?
TOPIC:OSMOSIS AND OSMOTIC PRESSURE
1. SEMIPERMEABLE MEMBRANES (SPM): These membranes appear to be continuous sheets or films, yet
they contain a network of submicroscopic holes or pores.Small solvent molecules, like water, can pass
through these holes but the passage of bigger molecules like solute is hindered. Membranes having this
kind of properties are known as semipermeable membranes (SPM).These membranes can be ofanimal or
vegetable originand these occur naturally such as pig’s bladder orparchment or can be synthetic such as
cellophane.
2. Osmosis. The process of flow of solvent molecules from solvent to the solution through SPM is called
osmosis.
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The flow of solvent from dilute solution to the concentrated solution across a semipermeable membrane
is due to osmosis. The important point to be kept in mind is that solvent molecules always flow from
lower concentration to higher concentration of solution.

3. Osmotic pressure:The osmotic pressure of a solution is the excess pressure that must be applied to a
solution to prevent osmosis, i.e., to stop the passage of solvent molecules through a semipermeable
membrane into the solution.
4. Osmotic pressure is a colligative property as it depends on the numberof solute molecules and not on
their identity.For dilute solutions, it has been foundexperimentally that osmotic pressure is proportional
to the molarity, C of the solution at a given temperature T
Wsolute 1000
5. Osmotic pressure.  = CRT where ‘C’ is molarity  =  RT,
Msolute Volume of solution (ml).
R = 0.0821 L atm K-1 Mol-1 T is temperature in Kelvin.
6. Measurement of osmotic pressure provides another method of determining molar masses of solutes.
This method is widely used to determine molar masses of proteins, polymers and other macromolecules.
7. The osmotic pressure method has the advantage over other methods as pressure measurement is
around the room temperature and the molarity of the solution is used instead of molality.
8. As compared to other colligative properties, its magnitude is large even for very dilute solutions. Th
technique of osmotic pressure for determination of molar mass of solutes is particularly useful for
biomolecules as they are generally not stable at higher temperatures and polymers have poor solubility.
9. Isotonic solution. Two solutions having same osmotic pressure at a given temperature are called
isotonic solutions.They have same molar concentration. i.e. 1 = 2 When such solutions are separated by
semipermeable membrane no osmosis occurs between them.
10. All intraveinous injections must be isotonic with body fluids. The osmotic pressure associated with the
fluid inside the blood cell is equivalent to that of 0.9% (mass/volume) sodium chloride solution, called
normal saline solution and it is safe to inject intravenously.
11. Hyper tonic If 1  2 Ist solution is hypertonic solution w.r.t. 2nd solution. The solution, whose
concentration is higher than the red blood corpuscles, is called hypertonic. When R.B.C. is placed in the
solution, R.B.C. is placed in the solution, R.B.C. shrinks due to plasmolysis.
12. If we place the cells in a solution containing more than 0.9% (mass/volume) sodium chloride, water will
flow out of the cells and they would shrink. Such a solution is called hypertonic.
13. Hypotonic 2nd solution is hypotonic w.r.t. Ist solution. The solution, whose concentration is lower than
the red blood corpuscles, is called hypotonic. When R.B.C. is placed in this solution, they swell and even
burst due to inflow of water due to osmosis.
14. If the salt concentration is less than 0.9% (mass/volume), the solution is said to be hypotonic. In this
case, water will flow into the cells if placed in this solution and they would swell.
Some phenomena’s explained on the basis of osmosis
• A raw mango placed in concentrated salt solution loses water via osmosis and shrivel into pickle.
• Wiltedflowers revive when placed in fresh water. A carrot that has become limp because of water
loss into the atmosphere can be placed into the water making it firm once again. Water will move
into them through osmosis.

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• When placed in water containing less than 0.9% (mass/volume) salt, blood cells collapse due to loss
of water by osmosis.
• People taking a lot of salt or salty food experience water retention in tissue cells and intercellular
spaces because of osmosis. The resulting puffiness or swelling is called edema.
• Water movement from soil into plant roots and subsequently into upper portion of the plant is partly
due to osmosis.
• The preservation of meat by salting and of fruits by adding sugar protects against bacterial action.
Through the process of osmosis, a bacterium on salted meat or candid fruit loses water, shrivels and
dies.
15. Plasmolysis. When the cell is placed in solution having osmotic pressure greater than that of the cell
sap, water passes out of the cell due to osmosis. Consequently, cell material shrinks gradually. The
gradual shrinking of cell material is called plasmolysis.
16. Reverse Osmosis: If the pressure applied on the solution side is more than osmotic pressure of the
solution then the solvent particles will move from solution to solvent side. This process is reverse
osmosis. Reverse osmosis is used in desalination of sea water. Cellulose acetate is permeable to water
but impermeable to impurities and ions present in sea water.
QUESTION BASED ON OSMOSIS AND OSMOTIC PRESSURE
1. What is osmotic pressure? Show that it is a colligative property.
2. Define (i)Semi permeable membrane(ii) osmosis (iii) isotonic (iv) Hypertonic (v) Hypotonic solution.
3. What is edema.
4. What is reverse osmosis? Give its application.
5. When kept in water, raisin swells in size. Name and explain the phenomenon involved with the help
of a diagram. Give three applications of the phenomenon.
6. Discuss biological and industrial importance of osmosis.
7. How can you remove the hard calcium carbonate layer of the egg without damaging its
semiprermiable membrane? Can this egg be inserted into a bottle with a narrow neck without
distorting its shape? Explain the process involved
8. Give an example of a material used for making semipermeable membrane for carrying out reverse
osmosis
9. What care is generally taken during intravenous injection and why?
10. What happens when the external pressure applied becomes more than the osmotic pressure of the
solution.
11. How will you determine the molecular mass of a substance by study of osmotic pressure
12. Measurement of osmotic pressure method is preferred for the determination of molecular masses of
macromolecules such as proteins and polymers.Give two reasons.
13. What will happen if RBC are placed in (i)0.5% NaCl Solution (ii)1% NaCl Solution?
14. Give reason :
a) A raw mango placed in concentrated salt solution shrivels into pickle.
b) Wilted flowers revive when placed in fresh water.
c) A carrot that has become limp placed into the water making it firm once again.
d) Water movement from soil into plant roots and subsequently into upper portion of the plant
e) The preservation of meat by salting and of fruits by adding sugar protects against bacterial
action.
15. What happens when we place the blood cell in water (hypertonic solution).Give reason.
16. 200 cm3 of an aqueous solution of a protein contains 1.26 g of the protein .The osmotic pressure of
such a solution at 300K is found to be2.57x10-3bar.calculate the molar mass of the protein .
17. 10.0 gm of an organic substance when dissolved in 2 litres of water gave an osmotic pressure of 0.60
atm. at 27 0C Calculate the molecular mass of substance.
18. Calculate the osmotic pressure in Pascals exerted by a solution prepared by dissolving 1.0 g of
polymer of molar mass 185,000 in 450ml of water at 37oC
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19. At 300 k, 36g of glucose present per litre in its solution has an osmotic pressure of 4.98 bar. If the
osmotic pressure of solution is 1.52 bars at the same temperature, what would be the
concentration?sug
20. A 5 % solution of canesugar is isotonic with 0.877% of substance X.Find the molecular weight of X.
21. 100 mg of a protein is dissolved in enough water to make 10ml of a solution. If this solution has an
osomotic pressure of 13.3 mm Hg at 250C,what is the molar mass of protein?(R=0.0821Latmmol-1K-1
and 760mmHg=1atm)
22. A solution prepared by dissolving 8.95mg of a gene fragment in 35.0ml of water has an osmotic
pressure of 0.335 torr at 250C .Calculate its molar mass.
TOPIC : ABNORMAL MOLAR MASS AND VAN’T HOFF’S FACTOR
1. Abnormal Molecular Mass. When the molecular mass, calculated with the help of colligative
property, is different from theoretical molecular mass, it is called abnormal molecular mass
2. Association. When the number of solute particles are less than the expected number then molecules
of solute are said to associate, e.g., benzoic acid molecules dimerise in benzene and the molecular
weight calculated from depression in freezing point in 244 which is double of 122 (actual molecular
weight). When i < 1, association occurs and theoretical molecular mass is less than calculated from
collgative property.
3. Dissociation. When the number of solute particles are more than the expected number, then solute
molecules are said to dissociate, e.g., KCl will dissociate in to K+ and Cl-. The molecular mass
calculated from depression of freezing point will be less than the true value.When i > 1, dissociation
occurs and theoretical molecular mass is more than calculated from colligative property.
4. Van’t Hoff Factor (i). The ratio of experimental value of a colligative property to the calculated value
of colligative property is known as Van’t Hoff Factor.
Experimental determined value of the colligativ e property
i=
Calculated value of the same from the formula
Since colligative properties are inversely proportional to molecular mass of solute, therefore, in terms
of molecular mass
Theoretical molecular weight (from the formula)
i=
Molecular mass determined experiment
Normal Molecular weight
=
Observed molecular weight
5. Inclusion of van’t Hoff factor modifies the equations for colligative properties as follows:
P - P
(a) A  A = i x B (b)  Tb = i Kb  m (c)  Tf = i Kf  m (d)  = iCRT
PA
i −1
6. Degree of dissociation  = ‘n’ is no. of ions produced per formula of the compound.
n −1
For dissociation of the solute AB(e.g. NaCl) type n=2 and for the solute AB 2(e.g. CaCl2) or A2B type
(e.g. Na2SO4) n = 3
i −1
7. Degree of association  =
1
−1
n
For association when the molecules of solute forms dimer n=2
QUESTION BASED ON VAN’T HOFF FACTOR
1. Define abnormal molecular mass.
2. What is Van’t Hoff’s factor? What is value of Van’t Hoff’s factor when the solute undergoes (a)
association (b) dissociation?
3. Write the modified equations of colligative properties when Van’t Hoff’s factor is introduced.
4. How is Van’t Hoff’s factor related to degree of dissociation & degree of association.Give Expressions?

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5. Why is the mass determined by measuring a colligative property in case of some solutes abnormal ?
Discuss it with the help of Van’t Hoff factor.
6. Elevation of boiling point of 1M KCl solution is nearly doubled than that of 1 M sugar solution.Explain.
7. A 1m aqueous solution of trichloroacetic acid is heated to its boiling point .The solution has the
boiling point 100.18oC .Determine the vant Hoff factor for trichloroacetic acid. Kb for water is 0.512
KKgmol-1.
8. Calculate the boiling points of solution when 2 gm of Na2SO4 (molecular mass 142 gm/mol) was
dissolved in 50 gm of water assuming Na2SO4 undergoes complete ionization. Kb for water = 0.512 K
Kg mol-1
9. Calculate the boiling point elevation for a solution prepared by adding 10 g of CaCl 2 to 200 g of water.
Kb for water = 0.512 K Kg mol-1 & Molar mass of CaCl2= 111 g/mol.
10. Calculate the freezing point of an aqueous solution containing 10.5g of magnesium bromide in 200g
of water assuming complete dissociation of magnesium bromide .(Molar mass of magnesium
bromide= 184 g/mol & Kf for water is 1.86 KKgmol-1.)
11. Calculate the boiling point of solution containing 4.0 g of magnesium sulphate in 100g of water
assuming complete dissociation of magnesium sulphate.(Molar mass of magnesium sulphate = 120
g/mol Kb for water = 0.52 K Kg mol-1.)
12. Calculate the boiling point of solution containing 15.0 g of NaCl in 250g of water.(Molar mass of
NaCl = 58.44 g/mol Kb for water = 0.512 K Kg mol-1.)
13. Calculate the mass of NaCl (molar mass =58.5) must be dissolved in 37.2 g of water to lower the
freezing point by 20C assuming complete dissociation of NaCl. Kf for water is 1.86 KKgmol-1 &.
14. What mass of NaCl (molar mass =58.5) must be dissolved in 65g of water to lower the freezing point
by 7.50C ? Assume Van’t Hoff’s factor =1.87.
15. Calculate the freezing point depression for 0.711m aqueous solution of sodium sulphate if it is
completely ionised in solution.If this solution actually freezes at -0.3200C ,What is the value of Van’t
Hoff factor for it at the freezing point.
16. A 0.561 m solution of unknown electrolyte depresses the freezing point of water by 2.93 0C . What is
the value of Van’t Hoff factor for this electrolyte. Kf for water is 1.86 KKgmol-1
17. Determine the amount of CaCl2 (i = 2.47) dissolved in 2.5 litre of water such that its osmotic pressure
is 0.75 atm at 27° C.
18. Determine the osmotic pressure of a solution prepared by dissolving 25 mg of K 2SO4 in 2 litre of
water at 25° C, assuming that it is completely dissociated.
19. Osmotic pressure of a 0.0103 molar solution of an electrolyte is found to be 0.70 atm at 270c .
calculate Vant Hoff factor.( R=0.082 L atom mol-1 K-1)
20. 3.9g of Benzoic acid dissolved in 49 g of benzene shows a depression in freezing point equal to 1.62 K.
calculate Vant Hoff factor and predict the nature of solute associated or dissociated. (Kf for benzene
is 4.9 K Kg mol-1 & molar mass of Benzoic acid = 122 g/mol.)
21. 2g of Benzoic acid dissolved in 25 g of benzene shows a depression in freezing point equal to 1.62 K.
Kf for benzene is 4.9 K Kg mol-1. What is the percentage association of acid if it forms dimer.
22. Phenol associates in benzene to a certain extent to form a dimer .A solution containing 20g phenol in
1.0 kg of benzene has its freezing point lowered by 0.69K.Calculate the fraction of phenol that has
dimerised. Kf for benzene is 5.1 K Kg mol-1
23. Calculate the boiling point of one molar aqueous solution .Density of KBr is 1.06 g/ml .( Atomic mass
of K = 39.& Br = 80, Kb for water = 0.52 K Kg mol-1.)
24. 19.5 g of CH2FCOOH is dissolved in 500 g of water. The depression in the freezing point of water
observed is 1.00 C. Calculate the van’t Hoff factor and dissociation constant of fluoroacetic acid.
25. Calculate the depression in the freezing point of water when 10 g of CH3CH2CHClCOOH is added to
250 g of water. Ka = 1.4 × 10–3, Kf = 1.86 K kg mol–1
26. The depression in freezing point of water observed for same amount of acetic acid, trichloroacetic
acid, and trifluoroacetic acid increases in the order given above .Explain briefly

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QUESTION BASED ON SOLUBILITY & INTERMOLECULAR ATTRACTIVE INTERACTION

1. Amongst the following compounds, identify which are insoluble, partially
soluble and highly soluble in water?(i) phenol (ii) toluene (iii) formic acid(iv) ethylene glycol (v) chloroform
(vi) Pentanol.
2. Suggest the most important type of intermolecular attractive interaction in
the following pairs.(i) n-hexane and n-octane(ii) I2 and CCl4(iii) NaClO4 and water(iv) methanol and acetone
(v) Acetonitrile (CH3CN) and acetone (C3H6O).
3. Based on solute-solvent interactions, arrange the following in order of increasing solubility in n-octane
and explain. Cyclohexane, KCl, CH3OH, CH3CN.

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UNIT: 3:- ELECTROCHEMISTRY

TOPIC :ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS NERNST EQUATION,EQUILLIBRIUM CONSTANT,& GIBBS ENERGY
1. ELECTROCHEMISTRY: Electrochemistry is the study of production of electricity from energy released
during spontaneous chemical reactions and the use of electrical energy to bring about non-
spontaneous chemical transformations.
2. Electrochemical Cells (Daniell cell)
Reaction at Anode (Oxidation half reaction): Zn(s) → Zn2+ + 2e–
Reaction at Cathode(Reduction half reaction): Cu2+ + 2e– → Cu(s)
Overall cell reaction:
Zn(s) + Cu2+ → Zn2+ + Cu(s),
The cell can be represented as: Zn(s)| Zn2+ (aq)|| Cu2+ (aq)| Cu(s)
Tip to remember: LOAN which means LEFT OXIDATION ANODE
NEGATIVE

3. DANIEL CELL converts the chemical energy liberated during the redox reaction to electrical
energy and has an electrical potential equal to 1.1 V . when concentration of Zn 2+ and Cu2+ ions is
unity. Such a device is called a galvanic or a voltaic cell.
4. GALVANIC CELL is an electrochemical cell that converts the chemical energy of a spontaneous redox
reaction into electrical energy. In this device the Gibbs energy of the spontaneous redox reaction is
converted into electrical work which may be used for running a motor or other electrical gadgets like
heater, fan, geyser, etc.
5. If an external opposite potential becomes greater than Eocell of the reaction gets reversed and
electrochemical cell now functions as an electrolytic cell.
6.

7. Eocell = Eocathode - Eoanode or Eocell= Eoright - Eoleft

8. STANDARD HYDROGEN ELECTRODE (SHE) :It consists of a platinum wire sealed in a glass tube, The
wire is coated with finely divided platinum black. Platinum black catalyze the reaction 2H+(aq) + 2e- →
H2(ag) Pure hydrogen gas at 1 atmosphere pressure is bubbled through HCl solution containing H+ ions
at 1.0M concentration continuously over platinum black electrode. The temperature is 298K. It is
assigned a value of zero for it electrode potential and is used as reference electrode.

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9. NERNST’S EQUATION : It is a relationship that relates electrode potential and concentration of metal
2.303RT
ion. Ecell = E cell −
0
log 
nF
2.303RT
At T = 298 K substituting R=8.314 F= 96500 C, [ = 0.059 ]
F
0.0591 [Pr oducts]n
Ecell = E  − log Q Where Q =Reaction Quotient, Quotient Q=
n [Re ac tan ts]n
,n=number of electrons
3
2.303RT  Mg +2 
Example: Mg +2 +3
/Mg // Cr /Cr Ecell = E 0
Cell − log 2
6F Cr +3 
10. Relation between E0cell and Equilibrium constant Kc : At equilibrium Q = Kc and Ecell = 0

E cell  nF E cell  n

 2.303RT
E cell = E cell − log K C ,  log K c = =
nF 2.303 RT 0.059
QUESTIONS BASED ON NERNST EQUATION, EQUILLIBRIUM CONSTANT,& GIBBS ENERGY
1. Define Electrochemical cell.What happens when applied external opposite potential becomes greater
than Eocell of electrochemical cell.
2. Explain the working of the galvanic cell by taking an example.
3. Explain the function of the salt bridge.
4. Which reference electrode is used to measure the electrode potential of other electrodes?
5. Write the Nernst equation for the cell reaction in the Daniel cell. How will the ECell be affected when
concentration of Zn2+ ions is increased?
6. Consider a cell given belowCu|Cu2+|| Cl—|Cl2,Pt Write the reactions that occur at anode and cathode
7. A galvanic cell has electrical potential of 1.1V. If an opposing potential of 1.1Vis applied to this cell, what
will happen to the cell reaction and current flowing through the cell?
1. Write the Nernst equation and emf of the following cells at 298K:
a) Mg(s)/Mg2+(0.001M)//Cu2+(0.0001)/Cu(s); EoCu2+/Cu = +0.34V, EoMg2+/Mg = -2.36
b) Fe(s)/Fe2+(0.001M)//H+(1M)/H2(g)/Pt(s) EoFe2+/Fe= -0.44 V
c) Zn/Zn2+(0.1M)//Cd2+(0.01)/Cd; EoZn2+/Zn = -0.76V , EoCd2+/Cd = -0.40V
d) Cu/Cu2+(2M)//Ag+(0.05M)/Ag ; EoCu2+/Cu = +0.34V , EoAg+/Ag = + 0.80V
e) Mg(s)/Mg2+(10-3M)//Cu2+(10-4M)/Cu(s); EoCu2+/Cu = +0.34V, EoMg2+/Mg = -2.36
f) Zn/Zn2+(2M)//Cu2+(0.5M)/Cu; EoZn2+/Zn = -0.76V , EoCu2+/Cu = 0.34V
g) Sn/Sn2+(0.050M)//H+(0.020M)/H2(g)/Pt(s) EoSn2+/Sn= - 0.14V
h) Sn/Sn2+(0.04M)//H+(0.02M)/H2(g)/Pt(s) EoSn2+/Sn= - 0.14V
i) Pt(s)/Br2(l)/Br-(0.010)// H+(0.030M)/H2(g)/Pt(s)
2. Calculate the emf of the cell at 25oC for the following :
a) Mg(s) + 2Ag+(0.0001M)→ Mg+2(0.130M) + 2Ag(s). if Eocell =3.17V.
b) Ni(s) + 2Ag+ (0.002M)→ Ni+2(0.160M) + 2Ag(s),Given Eocell =1.05 V
c) 2Cr(s) + 3Fe2+(0.1M) → 2Cr3+(0.01M) + 3Fe(s) EoCr3+/Cr= - 0.74V , EoFe2+/fe= - 0.44V
3. The emf of the cell Zn/Zn2+(0.1M)//Cd2+(M1)/Cd has been found to be 0.3035 V at 298K.Calculate the
value of M1. EoZn2+/Zn = -0.76V, EoCd2+/Cd = - 0.40V.
4. Calculate the potential for half cell containing .10M K2Cr2O7(aq),0.20MCr3+(aq) and 1.0x 10-4 H+ (aq) ,The
half cell reaction is Cr2O72-(aq) + 14 H+ (aq) + 6e-→ 2Cr3+(aq) + 7H2O(l) and the Standard cell potential
E0cell = 1.33V
5. How would you determine the standard electrode potential of the system Mg 2+|Mg?
6. Calculate the potential of hydrogen electrode in contact with a solution whose pH is 10.

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7. A Zinc rod is dipped in 0.1M solution of ZnSO4.The salt is 95% dissociated at this dilution at
298K.Calculate the electrode potential.
8. Using the Eo values of X & Y predict which is better for coating the surface of iron to prevent rust and
why? EoFe2+/Fe = -0.44V, EoX2+/x = -2.36V, EoY2+/Y = -0.14V
9. Calculate the emf of the cell . The following chemical reaction is occurring in an electrochemical cell.
Mg(s) +2Ag+ (0.0001 M)→ Mg2+(0.10M) + 2 Ag(s) The electrode values are Mg2+ / Mg = – 2. 36 V Ag+ /
Ag = 0.81 V. For this cell calculate / write (a) (i) E0 value for the electrode 2 Ag+ / Ag (ii) Standard cell
potential E0cell. (b) Cell potential (E)cell (c) (i) Symbolic representation of the above cell. (ii) Will the
above cell reaction be spontaneous?
10. A voltaic cell is constructed at 25oC with the following half cell Ag+(0.001M)/Ag and Cu+2 (0.01M)/Cu
what would be the voltage of this cell? Given EoAg+/Ag = + 0.80V, EoCu2+/Cu = +0.34V).
11. A Copper –silver is set up.The copper ion concentration in its is 0.10M.The concentration of silver is not
known.The cell potential measured 0.422V.Determine the concentration of silver ion in the cell. EoAg+/Ag
= + 0.80V, EoCu2+/Cu = +0.34V).
12. One half cell in a voltaic cell is constructed from a silver wire dipped in silver nitrate solution of
unknown concentration .The other half cell consists of a zinc electrode in a 0.10M solution of Zinc
nitrate .A voltage of 1.48V is measured for this cell.Use this information to calculate the concentration
of silver nitrate solution.( EoZn2+/Zn = -0.763V, EoAg+/Ag = + 0.80V)
13. A voltaic cell is set up at 250C With the following half cells :Al(s)/Al3+(0.001M) and Ni2+(0.50)/Ni(s) ,Write
the equation for the cell reaction that occurs when the cell generates an electric current and determine
the cell potential (givenEoNi2+/Ni = -0.25V, Eo Al3+/Al(=-1.66V)
14. What is the relationship between Gibbs free energy of the cell reaction in agalvanic cell and the emf
of the cell? When will the maximum work be obtained from a galvanic cell?
15. Calculate ΔrG0 & value of equilibrium constant for the following :
a) Mg(s)/Mg2+//Cu2+/Cu(s); EoCu2+/Cu = +0.34V, EoMg2+/Mg = -2.36
b) Zn(s) + Cu2+  Zn2+ + Cu EoCu2+/Cu = +0.34V, EoZn2+/Zn = -0.76V
c) Cu (s) + 2Ag+  Cu +2+ 2Ag(s) EoCu2+/Cu = +0.34V, EoAg+/Ag = + 0.80V
d) 2Fe3+ + 2I- → 2Fe2+ + I2 has Eocell =0.236 V
e) Fe2+(aq) + Ag+ → Fe3+(aq) + Ag(s),EoAg+/Ag = + 0.80V, EoFe3+/ Fe2+ = +0.77V
f) 2Cr(s) + 3Cd2+ → 2Cr3+ + 3Cd(s) EoCr3+/Cr= - 0.74V , EoCd2+/Cd= - 0.40V
16. Calculate the equilibrium constant for the reaction Calculate the equilibrium constant for the reaction
In the button cell widely used in watches and devices the following reaction takes place: Zn (s)+ Ag2O(s)
+ H2O(l)→ Zn2+(aq) + 2 Ag(s) + 2OH- (aq) Determine ΔrG0 &E0 for the reaction. EoZn2+/Zn = -0.76V, EoAg+/Ag
= + 0.80V
17. Calculate emf and ΔG for the following cell : Mg(s)/Mg2+(0.001M)//Cu2+(0.0001M)/Cu(s); EoCu2+/Cu =
+0.34V, EoMg2+/Mg = -2.37V
18. Calculate ΔrG0 for the reaction at 250C :Au(s) +Ca+2 (1 M)→ Au3+(1M) + Ca (s) , EoCa2+/ Ca=–2.87 V, EoAu3+/
0
Au=+1.50V. Predict whether the reaction will be spontaneous or not at 25 C which of the above two half
cells will act as an oxidizing agent and which one will be a reducing agent?
19. Depict the galvanic cell in which the reaction:Zn+Ag+→Zn2++2Ag takes place. Further show:(a)Which of
the electrode is negatively charged?(b)The carriers of the current in the cell. (c)Individual reaction at
each electrode.
20. Two half cell reactions of an electrochemical cell are given below:
(i)MnO4- + 8 H+ + 5 e- →Mn2+ + 4 H2O Eo =+1.51V (ii)Sn2+ → Sn4++ 2e- Eo = +0.15V. Construct the redox
reaction from the two half cell reaction and predict if the reaction favours formation of reactants or
product shown in the reaction
21. Given the standard electrode potentials,:K+/K = –2.93V, Ag+/Ag = 0.80V, Hg2+/Hg = 0.79V Mg2+/Mg = –
2.37 V, Cr3+/Cr = – 0.74V.Arrange these metals in their increasing order of reducing power

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22. Tarnished silver contains Ag2S. Can this tarnish be removed by placing tarnished silver ware in an
aluminium pan containing an inert electrolytic solution such as NaCl. The standard electrode potential
for half reaction : Al3+ + 3e → Al is -1.66 and Ag2S + 2e → 2Ag+ + S-2 is -0.71

TOPIC : CONDUCTIVITY, MOLAR CONDUCTIVITY, CELL CONSTANT, KOHLRAUSCH LAW AND ITS APPLICATION.
1. Electrical conductance through metals is called metallic or electronic conductance and is due to the
movement of electrons. The electronic conductance depends on (i) the nature and structure of the
metal (ii) the number of valence electrons per atom (iii) temperature (it decreases with increase of
temperature)
2. Electrolytic or ionic conductance:The conductance of electricity by ions present in thesolutions is called
electrolytic or ionic conductance. The conductivity of electrolytic (ionic) solutions depends on: (i) the
nature of the electrolyte added (ii) size of the ions produced and their salvation (iii) the nature of the
solvent and its viscosity (iv) concentration of the electrolyte (v) temperature (it increases with the
increase of temperature).

3. Resistance: The electrical resistance is represented by the symbol ‘R’ and it is measured in ohm (Ω). The
electrical resistance of any object is directly proportional to its length, l, and inversely proportional to
l l
its area of cross section, A. R or R =  ( ) Where  is the constant which depends upon the
A A
nature of conductor. It is called specific resistance or resistivity. Unit is ohm-cm
4. The resistivity for a substance is its resistance when it is one metre long and its area of cross section is
one m2.
5. Conductance : The ease with which carried flows through conductor is called its conductance. It is
1
reciprocal of the resistance G = .The SI unit of conductance is siemens, represented by the symbol
R
‘S’ and is equal to ohm–1 ( −1 ) (also known as mho) .
6. Specific Conductance or Conductivity : of any conductor is the reciprocal of specific resistance and is
denoted by  (Greek work Kappa) .The SI units of conductivity are Sm–1 but quite often, κ is expressed
in S cm–1. Conductivity of a material in S m–1 is its conductance when it is 1 m long and its area of cross
1 1 l
section is 1 m2. It may be noted that 1 S cm–1 = 100 S m–1.  =  =   = GG* The
 RA
quantity l/A is called cell constant denoted by the symbol, G*. It depends on the distance between the
electrodes and their area of cross-section and has the dimension of length–1 and can be calculated if we
l
know l and A. (G*(cell constant) = ) The conductivity of a solution at any given concentration is the
A
conductance of one unit volume of solution kept between two platinum electrodes with unit area of
cross section and at a distance of unit length.
7. Superconductivity: Certain materials called superconductors by definition have zero resistivity or
infinite conductivity. Earlier, only metals and their alloys at very low temperatures (0 to 15 K) were
known to behave as superconductors, but nowadays a number of ceramic materials and mixed oxides
are also known to show superconductivity at temperatures as high as 150 K.
8. Molar Conductivity : It is defined as the conducting power of all the ions produced by one gram mol of

an electrolyte in a solution.  m = In the above equation, if κ is expressed in Sm–1 and the
C
concentration, c in mol m–3 then the units of Λm are in Sm2mol–1

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 (Sm -1 )
 m (Sm 2 mol -1 ) =
1000( Lm −3 )  Molarity(molL−1 )
If we use Scm–1 as the units for κ and molcm–3, the units of concentration, then the units for Λm
are Scm2 mol–1.
 (Scm -1 )  1000( Lcm −3 )
 m (Scm 2 mol -1 ) =
Molarity(molL−1 )
9. Limiting molar conductivity :When concentration approaches zero, the molar conductivity is known as
limiting molar conductivity and is represented by the symbol  0
10. Conductivity of a solution decrease with dilution because on dilution the number of ions per unit
volume decreases.so the conductivity decreases
11. Variation of molar conductivity with dilution (concentration is decreased) : The increase in
conductivity of strong and weak electrolyte upon dilution is due to different reasons:
a) FOR STRONG ELECTROLYTES molar conductivity increases slowly with dilution because in strong
electrolytes the dissociation of the electrolyte in to ions is almost complete however interionic
forces are quite strong. Upon dilution ionic attractions are reduced. This leads to increase in ionic
mobility thus molar conductivity increases with dilution(or decrease in concentration)
b) FOR WEAK ELECTROLYTES molar conductivity increases Steeply with dilution because in weak
electrolytes the dissociation of electrolyte into ions is comparatively less.Dilution helps in
dissociation of electrolyte .As a result more ions are formed and corresponding value of
conductivity also increases .This increase quite large.

Molar conductivity versus c1/2 for acetic acid (weak electrolyte) & KCl (Strong electrolyte) in
aqueous solution
12. Kohlrausch’s Law : The law states that limiting molar conductivity of an electrolyte can be represented
as the sum of the individual contributions of the anion and cation of the electrolyte. (i)
 NaCl =  (Na + ) +   (Cl − )
(ii)   CaCl 2 =  (Ca 2 + ) + 2  (Cl − ) (iii)  Al 2 (SO 4 ) 3 = 2 ( Al 3+ ) + 3 (SO 4 ) 2−
(iv) 0CH3COOH = 0CH3COONa + 0 HCl − 0 NaCl
(v)  = 0 NH 4Cl + 0 NaOH − 0 NaCl
0
NH 4OH
13. Application of Kohlrausch’s Law 1.Calculation of limiting molar conductivity 2. Calculation of degree
of dissociation : Degree of Dissociation is ratio of molar conductivity at a specific concentration ‘C’ to
cm
limiting molar conductivity. It is denoted by   = 3. Calculation of dissociation constant
0m
c 2 c2
Ka = =
(1 − )  ( − )
QUESTIONS BASED ON CONDUCTIVITY MOLAR CONDUCTIVITY, CELL CONSTANT, KOHLRAUSCH LAW AND ITS
APPLICATION
1. Define conductivity,molar conductivity &. limiting molar conductivity.
2. Distinguish between Electrical conductance & Electrolytic (ionic conductance)
3. Express the relation among the cell constant ,the resistance of the solution in the cell and the
conductivity of the solution .How is the conductivity of a solution related to its molar conductivity.

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o
4. The resistance of 0.01M NaCl solution at 25 C is 200ohm.The cell constant of the conductivity cell is
unity .calculate the molar conductivity of the solution.
5. The conductivity of 0.20M solution of KCl at 298 K is 0.0248SCm-1.Calculate its molar conductivity.
6. The Molar conductivity of a 1.5M solution of an electrolyte is found to be 138.9 SCm 2 mol-1 . Calculate
the conductivity of this solution.
7. The resistance of conductivity cell containing 0.001M KCl at 298K is 1500 ohm. What is cell constant if
conductivity of 0.001M KCl at 298K is 0.146X 10-3Scm-1.
8. When a certain conductance cell was filled with 0.1M KCl solution it has resistance of 85 ohm at
25oC.When the same cell was filled with an aqueous solution of 0.052Maof unknown electrolyte the
resistance was 96ohm. Calculate the molar conductivity of electrolyte. The conductivity of 0.1 M
solution of KCl is 1.29 x 10-2Scm-1.
9. Resistance of conductivity cell filled with 0.1molL-1 KCl solution is 100 ohm. If the resistance of the same
cell when filled with 0.02molL-1 KCl solution is 520 ohm. Calculate the conductivity & molar conductivity
of 0.02molL-1 KCl solution. The conductivity of 0.1 molL-1 solution of KCl is 1.29Sm-1.
10. Resistance of conductivity cell filled with 0.1molL-1 KCl solution is 100 ohm. If the resistance of the same
cell when filled with 0.02molL-1 KCl solution is 520 ohm. Calculate the conductivity & molar conductivity
of 0.02molL-1 KCl solution. The conductivity of 0.1 molL-1 solution of KCl is 1.29Sm-1.
11. The electrical resistance of a column of 0.05 molL-1 NaOH solution of diameter 1 cm and length 50 cm is
5.55 X 103 ohm. Calculate its resistivity, conductivity & molar conductivity.
12. State Kohlrausch law and its application. Limiting molar conductivity of NaCl, HCl and NaAc are 126.4,
425.9 &91 SCm2 mol-1.Calculate Limiting molar conductivity of HAc.
13. Define the term degree of dissociation.Write an expression that relates the molar conductivity of a weak
electrolyte to its degree of dissociation.
14. Calculate the degree of dissociation of acetic at 298K,given that Λm(CH3COOH)=11.7 SCm2 mol-1 , Λ0m(CH3COO-
2 -1 0 + 2 -1
)=40.9 SCm mol , Λ m(H )=349.1 SCm mol
15. Conductivity of 0.00241M acetic acid is 7.896 X 10-6 S cm-1. Calculate its molar conductivity. If Λ0 for
acetic acid is 390.5 S cm2 mol-1. What is its dissociation constant?
16. Conductivity of 0.001028 M acetic acid is 4.95 X 10-5 S cm-1. Calculate its molar conductivity. If Λ0 for
acetic acid is 390.5 S cm2 mol-1. What is its dissociation constant?
17. The molar Conductivity of 0.025 molL-1 methanoic acid is 46.1 S cm2 mol-1. Calculate its degree of
dissociation & dissociation constant. If λ0(H+) is 349.6 S cm2 mol-1 and λ0(HCOO-) = 54.6 S cm2 mol-1.
18. How do you account for molar conductivity of strong and weak electrolyte with concentration? Plot the
graphs also.
19. Why on dilution the Λm of CH3COOH increases drastically, while that of CH3COONa increases gradually?
20. Solutions of two electrolytes ‘A’ and ‘B’ are diluted. The Λm of ‘B’ increases 1.5 times while that of A
increases 25 times. Which of the two is a strong electrolyte? Justify your answer.
21. In an aqueous solution how does specific conductivity of electrolytes change with addition of water?
22. Why does the conductivity of a solution decrease with dilution?
TOPIC :FARADAY’S LAWS OF ELECTROLYSIS
1. First Law: The amount of substance deposited or liberated at the electrode during electrolysis is directly
proportional to quantity of electricity passed through the electrolyte. If w g of the substance gets
deposit on passing Q coulomb of electricity wαQ or w=ZQ or w=ZIt, where w=amount of substance
deposited ,I is current in ampere and t is time in second Z= electrochemical equivalent
Eq.Wt Eq.WtxIxt mol.WtxIxt
Z= therefore w = w=
96500 96500 nx96500
2. Second Law:When same quantity of electricity is passed through different electrolytes, the amount of
different substances librated at the electrode is directly proportional to their chemical equivalent
w E
weights(E).(Atomic Mass of Metal ÷ Number of electrons required to reduce the cation) 1 = 1
w2 E 2

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3. Quantity of electricity carried by n moles of electrons=nF(1F = 96500 coulombs)

QUESTIONS BASED ON FARADAY’S LAWS OF ELECTROLYSIS

1. State Faradays law of electrolysis.
2. How much charge is required for following reduction: (i) 1 mol of Al3+ to Al (ii) 1 mol of Cu2+ to Cu (iii)
1 mol of MnO4- to Mn2+
3. How much electricity in terms of Faraday is required to produce (i)20g of Ca from molten CaCl2 (ii) 40g
of Al from molten AlCl3
4. How much electricity in terms of Coulomb is required for the oxidation of (i) 1 mol of H 2O to O2 (ii) 1
mol of FeO to Fe2O3
5. How much electricity in terms of Coulomb is required to reduce 1 mol of Cr2O72- to Cr3+.
6. A current of 1.50 A was passed through an electrolytic cell containing AgNO3 solution with inert
electrodes.the Weight of silver deposited was 1.50g.How long did the current flow? (Molar mass of
Ag = 108gmol-1)
7. A solution of Ni (NO3)2 is electrolysed between platinum electrodes using a current of 5 amperes
for 20 minutes. What mass of Ni is deposited at the cathode?
8. A solution of CuSO4 is electrolysed using a current of 1.5 amperes for 10 minutes. What mass of Cu is
deposited at the cathode?
9. Calculate the time to deposit 1.27g of copper at the cathode when a current of 2A was passed
through the solution of CuSO4. (Molar mass of Cu = 63.5gmol-1)
10. How many moles of mercury will be produced by electrolyzing 10M Hg(NO3)2 solution with a current
0f 2.00A for three hours. (Molar mass of Hg = 200.6 gmol-1)
11. Chromium metal is electroplated using an acidic solution containing CrO3 according to the equation :
CrO3(aq) + 6H+ + 6e-→Cr(s) + 3H2O calculate how many grams of Chromium will be electroplated by
24000 coulombs.How long will it take to electroplate 1.5g Chromium using 12.5 A current. (Molar
mass of Cr = 52 gmol-1)
12. Three electrolytic cells A,B,C containing solutions ZnSO4,AgNO3,and CuSO4 respectively are connected
in series .A steady current of 1.5 amperes was passed though them until 1.45g of silver deposited at
the cathode of cell B.How long did the current flow? What mass of copper and zinc were deposited?
(Molar mass of Zn = 65,Cu = 63.5, Ag = 108 gmol-1
13. A steady current of 2 amperes was passed through two electrolytic cells X & Y connected in series
containing FeSO4 &ZnSO4 until 2.8 g of Fe deposited at the cathode of cell X.How long did the current
flow? What mass of zinc were deposited? (Molar mass of Zn = 65,Fe = 56 gmol-1 )
14. How many electrons flow through a metallic wire if a current of 0.5A is passed for 2 h .
TOPIC :BATTERIES AND CORROSION
1. Primary Cell : In the primary batteries, the reaction occurs only once and after use over a period of time
battery becomes dead and cannot be reused again. For Example Dry cell & Mercury Cell
2. Dry Cell : The cell consists of a zinc container that also acts as anode and the cathode is a carbon
(graphite) rod surrounded by powdered manganese dioxide and carbon . The space between the
electrodes is filled by a moist paste of ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) and zinc chloride (ZnCl2). The
electrode reactions are complex, but they can be written approximately as follows :
Anode Zn(s) → Zn2++2e- Cathode MnO2 + NH4+ + e- → MnO(OH) + NH3
Overall reaction: Zn(s) +2 NH4+ + MnO2 (s)→ [Zn(NH3)4]2+ + Mn2O3 + H2O It is used commonly in our
transistors and clocks. Important Note: Ammonia produced in the reaction forms a complex with Zn 2+
to give [Zn(NH3)4]2+. The cell has a potential of nearly 1.5 V
3. Mercury Cell : It consists zinc-mercury amalgam as anode and a paste of HgO and carbon as the
cathode. The electrolyte is a paste of KOH & ZnO.
Cathode: HgO + H 2O + 2e− → Hg (1) + 2OH − Anode: Zn( Hg ) + 2OH − → ZnO(s) + H 2O + 2e−

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Overall reaction Zn(Hg) +HgO(s)→ZnO +Hg(l) Zn Mercury cell suitable for low current devices
like hearing aids, watches, etc. The cell potential is approximately 1.35 V and remains constant during
its life as the overall reaction does not involve any ion in solution whose concentration can change
during its life time.
4. Secondary Batteries A secondary cell after use can be recharged by passing current through it in the
opposite direction so that it can be used again. e.g. lead storage batteries, Nickel – cadmium cell.
5. Lead Storage Battery :It consists of a lead anode and a grid of lead packed with lead dioxide (PbO2 ) as
cathode. A 38% solution of sulphuric acid is used as an electrolyte
Anode Pb(s) + SO42- (aq) →PbSO4(s)+2e-
Cathode PbO2(S) + SO42- + 4H+(aq) +2e- → PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)
Overall Reaction Pb(s)+ PbO2(S)+2 H2SO4(aq)→ 2PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)
On charging the battery the reaction is reversed and PbSO4(s) on anode and cathode is converted into
Pb and PbO2, respectively. 2PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l) → Pb(s)+ PbO2(S)+2 H2SO4(aq)
The most important secondary cell is the lead storagebattery commonly used in automobiles and invertors
6. Nickel cadmium cell is a secondary cell which has longer life than the lead storage cell but more
expensive to manufacture.The overall reaction during discharge is:
Cd(s)+2Ni(OH)3(s)→CdO(s)+2Ni(OH)2(s)+H2O(l)
7. Fuel Cell : Galvanic cells that aredesigned to convert the energy of combustion of fuels like hydrogen,
methane, methanol, etc. directly into electrical energy are called fuel cells.One of the most successful
fuel cells uses the reaction of hydrogen with oxygen to form water .The cell was used for providing
electrical power in the Apollo space programme. The water vapours produced during the reaction were
condensed and added to the drinking water supply for the astronauts. In the cell, hydrogen and oxygen
are bubbled through porous carbon electrodes into concentrated aqueous sodium hydroxide solution.
Catalysts like finely divided platinum or palladium metal are incorporated into the electrodes for
increasing the rate of electrode reactions.
Cathode : O2 ( g ) + 2H 2O(l ) + 4e− → 4OH − (aq) Anode : 2H 2 + 4OH − → 4H 2O + 4e−
Overall Reaction 2 H 2 ( g ) + O2 ( g ) → 2 H 2O(l ) Fuel cells produce electricity with an efficiency of about
70 % compared to thermal plants whose efficiency is about 40%. Fuel cells are pollution free.
8.Corrosion : The slow process of eating away of metals when exposed to the atmosphere is called corrosion. It
is electro-chemical phenomenon in which metal is oxidized by loss of electrons to form metal oxide. The
rusting of iron, tarnishing of silver, development of green coating on copper and bronze are some of the
examples of corrosion. In corrosion, a metal is oxidised by loss of electrons to oxygen and formation of oxides.
Corrosion of iron occurs in presence of water and air. The chemistry of corrosion is quite complex but it may
be considered essentially as an electrochemical phenomenon. At a particular spot of an object made of iron,
oxidation takes place and that spot behaves as anode and we can write the reaction
Mechanism of Corrosion :Oxidn :Fe→ Fe2+ + 2e- Redn: O2 ( g ) + 4H + (ag ) + 4e− → 2H 2O(l )
Atmospheric Oxidation 2Fe2+(aq) + 2H2O(l)+1/2O2 → Fe2O3(s)+4H+(aq)
Rusting : Corrosion of iron is called rusting formula of rust Fe2O3. xH2O
Prevention of Corrosion : (1). By covering the surface with paint (2). Sacrificial Protection : . An
electrochemical method is to provide a sacrificial electrode of another metal (like Mg, Zn, etc.) which
corrodes itself but saves the object (3) Using anti-rust solution by some chemicals (e.g. bisphenol)

Questions based on Batteries and Corrosion.

1. Define Corrosion. How it is prevented.
2. Rusting of iron is said to be an electrochemical phenomenon. Explain using reactions.
3. Classify Primary Cell or Secondary cell: Dry Cell ,Mercury Cell ,Lead Storage Battery Nickel cadmium
cell .
4. Write the name of the cell which is generally used in transistors. Write the reactions taking place at the
cathode and anode of this cell.
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5. Set up Nernst equation for the standard dry cell.Using this equation show that the voltage of a dry cell
decreases with use.
6. Write the name of the cell which is generally used in hearing aids. Write the reactions taking place at
the cathode and anode of this cell
7. Why does the voltage of a mercury cell remain constant during its operation.
8. Unlike dry cell, the mercury cell has a constant cell potential throughout itsuseful life. Why?
9. Write the name of the cell which is generally used in automobiles & inverters?
10. Write the reaction involved in the Lead Storage Battery. What happens when Lead Storage Battery is
recharged?
11. Write the cell reaction of a lead storage battery when it is discharged. How does the density of the
electrolyte change when the battery is discharged?
12. What is Nickel-Cadmium cell.State its one advantage & disadvantage over Lead Storage Battery.
13. Which cell was used in Apollo space programme.
14. What is Fuel Cell? Explain with diagram & reaction involved in the following cell.
15. Write two advantages of H2-O2 fuel cell over ordinary cell.
16. What advantage do the fuel cells have over primary and secondary batteries?
17. Suggest two materials other than hydrogen that can be used as fuels in fuel cells.
18. Define Corrosion. How it is prevented.
19. The Chemistry of corrosion of iron is essentially an electrochemical phenomenon .Explain the reactions
occurring during the corrosion of iron in the atmosphere.
TOPIC: PRODUCTS OF ELECTROLYSIS
Products of electrolysis depend on the nature of material being electrolysed and the type of electrodes being
used. If the electrode is inert (e.g., Pt or Gold), it does not participate in the chemical reaction and acts only as
source or sink for electrons. On the other hand, if the electrode is reactive, it participates in the electrode
reaction. Thus, the products of electrolysis may be different for reactive and inert electrodes. The products of
electrolysis depend on the different oxidizing and reducing species present in the electrolytic cell and their
standard electrode potentials. Moreover, some of the electrochemical processes although feasible, are so slow
kinetically that at lower voltages these don’t seem to take place and extra potential (called overpotential) has
to be applied, which makes such process more difficult to occur.
o
Note: (i) The reaction at a Cathode with higher value of Ered is preferred (ii)The reaction at anode with lower
o
value of Ered is preferred
S.No Electrolysis of CATHODE ANODE
1 Aqueous solution of AgNO3 with Ag metal(Ag+ are discharged Ag+ions(Silver electrode
silver electrodes compared to H+as its Ered
o
is being reactive dissolves
higher) to produce Ag+ions)
S.No Electrolysis of CATHODE ANODE
2 Aqueous solution of AgNO3 with Ag metal(Ag+ are discharged O2 gas(OH- ions
platinum electrodes compared to H+as its Ered
o
is discharged compared to
higher) NO3-as its Ered
o
is lower)
3 Aqueous solution of CuCl2 with Copper metal Cl2 gas
platinum electrodes
4 Molten NaCl Sodium metal Cl2 gas
5 Aqueous sodium chloride solution H2 gas Cl2 gas
6 Dilute Sulphuric acid with platinum H2 gas O2 gas
electrodes
7 Copper sulphate using inert Copper metal O2 gas
electrodes (Pt)
8 Aqueous sodium bromide H2 gas Br2 gas

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QUESTIONS BASED ON PRODUCTS OF ELECTROLYSIS

1. Predict the products of electrolysis: (a) An aq. Solution of AgNO3 with silver electrodes. (b) An aq.
Solution of AgNO3 with platinum electrodes. (c). An aq. Solution of H2SO4 with platinum electrodes.
(d). An aq. Solution of CuCl2 with platinum electrodes. (e) Aqueous sodium bromide (f) Copper sulphate
using inert electrodes (Pt) (g) Molten NaCl (h) Aqueous sodium chloride solution
2. How will the pH of brine (aq. NaCl solution) be affected when it is electrolysed?
3. Following reactions occur at cathode during electrolysis of Aqueous solution of AgCl solution:
(a)Ag+ (aq) + e-→Ag(s) E0=+0.80V (b) H+ (aq) + e-→H2(s) E0=0.00V on the basis of their standard
electrode potential values which reaction is feasible at the cathode and why?
4. During electrolysis of Aqueous solution of NaBr solution there are two possible reactions
(a)2H2O(I) -→O2 +4H+ + 4e- E0=+1.23V (b) 2 Br- (aq) -→Br2(s) + 2e E0=1.08 V on the basis of their
standard electrode potential values which reaction is feasible at the anode and why?
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STANDARD POTENTIALS AT 298 K IN ELECTROCHEMICAL ORDER

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Unit: 4:- CHEMICAL KINETICS
TOPIC : RATE OF REACTION AVERAGE RATE OF REACTION, INSTANTANEOUS RATE OF REACTION RATE LAW,
RATE CONSTANT, ORDER OF REACTION, MOLECULARITY & UNITS OF RATE CONSTANTS
1. CHEMICAL KINETICS : The branch of chemistry, which deals with the study of reaction rates and their
mechanisms, called chemical kinetics. The word kinetics is derived from the Greek word ‘kinesis’
meaning movement.chemical kinetics tells about the rate of a reaction
2. RATE OF REACTION: The rate of a reaction can be defined as the change in concentration of a reactant
or product in unit time. To be more specific, it can be expressed in terms of: (i) the rate of decrease in
concentration of any one of the reactants, or (ii) the rate of increase in concentration of any one of the
products.
3. AVERAGE RATE OF REACTION :It is the appearance of products or disappearance of reactants over a
long time interval : Consider a reaction: aA + bB → cC + dD
1 [ A] 1 [ B] 1 [C ] 1 [ D]
Rav = - =- =+ =
a t b t c t d t
• Negative sign indicates that the concentration of reactant is decreasing & positive sign indicates that the
concentration of product is increasing
4. INSTANTANEOUS RATE OF REACTION :It is defined as the change in concentration of any one of the
reactants or products at that particular instant of time.Consider a reaction: aA + bB → cC + dD
1 d [ A] 1 d [ B] 1 d [C ] 1 d [ D]
RIns = - =- =+ =
a dt b dt c dt d dt
e.g. 5Br − + BrO3− + 6H + = 3Br3 + 3H 2O
1 d ( Br − ) d ( BrO3− ) 1 d ( H + ) 1 d ( Br2 )
RIns. = − =− =− =+
5 dt dt 6 dt 3 dt
5. UNITS OF RATE OF A REACTION:The units of rate are concentration time–1. For example, if
concentration is in mol L–1 and time is in seconds then the units will be mol L-1s–1. However, in gaseous
reactions, when the concentration of gases is expressed in terms of their partial pressures, then the
units of the rate equation will be atms–1
6. FACTORS INFLUENCING RATE OF A REACTION: (a)concentration of reactants (pressure in case of gases)
(b) Surface area of reactants (c) temperature (d) catalyst
7. RATE LAW : Consider a reaction: aA + bB → cC + dD
Rate  [A]x[B]y ➔ Rate = K[A]x[B]y (Note: The value of x & y may and may not be equal to a & b) ➔
− dR
= K[A]x[B]y, This form of equation is known as differential rate equation, where k is a
dt
proportionality constant called rate constant.
Statement: Rate law is the expression in which reaction rate is given in terms of molar concentration of
reactants with each term raised to some power, which may or may not be same as the stoichiometric
coefficient of the reacting species in a balanced chemical equation..
8. RATE CONSTANT may be defined as the rate of reaction when the concentration of each reactant in the
reaction is unity.
9. Rate law for any reaction cannot be predicted by merely looking at the balanced chemical equation, i.e.,
theoretically but must be determined experimentally.

10. ORDER OF REACTION: The sum of powers of the concentration of the reactants in the rate law
expression is called the order of that chemical reaction. Order of a reaction is an experimental quantity.
Consider a reaction: aA + bB → cC + dD , Rate = K[A]x[B]y Order of Reaction= x + y
Order of a reaction can be 0, 1, 2, 3 and even a fraction
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11. ELEMENTARY & COMPLEX REACTIONS: A balanced chemical equation never gives us a true picture of
how a reaction takes place since rarely a reaction gets completed in one step. The reactions taking place
in one step are called elementary reactions. When a sequence of elementary reactions (called
mechanism) gives us the products, the reactions are called complex reactions.
12. UNITS OF RATE CONSTANT (K)= (Conc )1-n Time-1 where n is order of reaction ,Taking SI units of
concentration, mol L–1 and time, s, the units of k = (mol L-1 )1-n s-1 where n is order of reaction
For example
Reaction Order Unit
Zero order of reaction 0 K =molL-1s-1
First order of reaction 1 K=Sec-1
Second order of reaction 2 K= mol- 1L Sec-1
13. MOLECULARITY OF A REACTION: The number of reacting species (atoms, ions or molecules) taking part
in an elementary reaction, which must collide simultaneously in order to bring about a chemical
reaction is called molecularity of a reaction.
• Unimolecular Reaction: When one reacting species is involved, for example, decomposition of
ammonium nitrite. NH4NO2 → N2 + 2H2O
• Bimolecular Reactions :When two reacting species involve simultaneous collision, for example,
dissociation of hydrogen iodide. 2HI →H2 + I2
• Trimolecular Reactions involve simultaneous collision between three reacting species, for example,
2NO + O2 → 2NO2
• Note: The molecularity greater than three is not observed. Because the probability that more than
three molecules can collide and react simultaneously is very small.
• Molecularity Cannot Be Zero Or A Non Integer.
14. RATE DETERMINING STEP.:The overall rate of the reaction is controlled by the slowest step in a reaction
called the rate determining step.like for example, chances to win the relay race competition by a team
depend upon the slowest person in the team.
Consider the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide which is catalysed by iodide ion in an alkaline
medium
− d [ H 2 O2 ]
2H2O2 ⎯I⎯ ⎯⎯→ 2H2O + O2 ,Rate = = K [ H 2O2 ] [I-] Mechanism: Evidences suggest that this
-
, Alkaline
dt
reaction takes place in two steps (i) H2O2 + I– → H2O + IO– (slow) (ii) H2O2 + IO–→ H2O + I– + O2
Question based on Rate of Reaction Average rate of reaction, Instantaneous rate of reaction Rate law, rate
constant, order of reaction, Molecularity & units of rate constants
1. Define the term rate of reaction.
2. Explain the difference between average rate & Instantaneous rate of reaction
3. For the reaction R →P, the concentration of a reactant changes from 0.03M to 0.02M in 25 minutes.
Calculate the average rate of reaction using units of time both in minutes and seconds.
4. In a reaction2A→Products, the concentration of A decreases from 0.5mol L-1 to 0.4 mol L-1 in 10
minutes. Calculate the rate during this interval?
5. For the reaction 2N2O5(g)→4NO2 (g)+ O2 (g) the rate of formation of NO2(g) is 2.8 x 10-3Ms-1.Calcualte
the rate of disappearance of N2O5(g)
6. For the reaction H2 + Cl2 → 2 HCl , Rate = k ,Write the order,Molecularity & unit of k.
7. For the reaction 2NH3 → N2+ 3H2 Rate = k ,Write the order,Molecularity & unit of k.
8. The decomposition of N2O5 in CCl4 at 318K has been studied by monitoring the concentration of N2O5 in
the solution. Initially the concentration of N2O5 is 2.33 mol L–1 and after 184 minutes, it is reduced to
2.08 mol L–1. The reaction takes place according to the equation 2 N2O5 (g) → 4 NO2 (g) + O2 (g).
Calculate the average rate of this reaction in terms of hours, minutes and seconds. What is the rate of
production of NO2 during this period?
9. Explain the term rate law.

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10. Define rate constant.
11. Write a short note on Order of reaction.
12. Give the units of rate constant for zero, first & second order reaction.
13. Express the rate of the following reaction in terms of disappearance of hydrogen & formation of
ammonia in the reaction : 3H2 + N2→2NH3
14. For a reaction, A + B → product, the rate law is given by r = K [A]1/2 [B]2 what is the order of the
reaction?
15. Write the rate equation for the reaction 2A + B →C if the order of the reaction is zero.
16. The conversion of molecules x to y follows second order kinetics. If the concentration of x is increased
to three times, how will it affect the rate of formation of y?
17. Calculate the overall order of a reaction which has the rate expression (a) Rate = k [A] 1/2 [B] 3/2
(b) Rate = k [A] 3/2 [B] -1
18. Identify the reaction order from of the following rate constants. (i) k = 2.3 x 10-5 L mol-1s-1
(ii) k = 3 x10-4 s-1
19. From the rate expression for the following reactions determine their order of reaction and dimensions
of the rate constants.
a) H2O2 (aq) + 3 I - (aq) + 2H+ → 2H2O (l) + 3I-1 Rate = k [H2O] [I-]
b) CH3 CHO (g) →CH4(g) + CO(g) Rate = k [CH3 CHO]3/2
c)3NO→N2O (g) Rate = k [NO]2
d)C2H5Cl→C2H4 + HCl Rate = k[C2H5 Cl]
20. The decomposition reaction of ammonia gas on platinum surface has a rate constant = 2.5 x 10 -4 mol
L-1 S-1. What is the order of the reaction?
21. For the reaction: 2A + B → A2B the rate = k[A][B]2 with k = 2.0 × 10–6 mol–2 L2 s–1. Calculate the initial rate
of the reaction when [A] = 0.1 mol L–1, [B] = 0.2 mol L–1. Calculate the rate of reaction after [A] is
reduced to 0.06 mol L–1.
22. A reaction is first order in A and second order in B. Write differential rate equation.
ii) How is the rate affected when concentration of B is tripled?
iii) How is the rate affected when the concentration of both A and B is doubled?
23. A reaction is second order with respect to a reactant. How is the rate of reaction affected if the
concentration of the reactant is(i) doubled (ii) reduced to half ?
24. For the reaction A→ B the rate becomes 27 times when the concentration of A is increased 3 times.
What is the order of reaction?
25. For the reaction A → B , the rate of reaction becomes three times when the concentration of A is
increased nine times. What is the order of the reaction ?
26. The conversion of molecules x to y follows second order kinetics. If the concentration of x is increased to
three times, how will it affect the rate of formation of y?
27. For the reaction 2X → X2, the rate of reaction becomes three times when the concentration of X is
increased 27 times. What is the order of the reaction ?
28. For the reaction A → B , the rate of reaction becomes three times when the concentration of A is
increased nine times. What is the order of the reaction ?
29. The decomposition of NH3 on platinum surface is zero order reaction. What are the rates of production
of N2 and H2 if k = 2.5 x 10-4 mol L-1 S-1?
30. The decomposition of dimethyl ether leads to the formation of CH4, H2 and CO and the reaction rate is
given by Rate = k [CH3 CHO]3/2 The rate of reaction is followed by increase in pressure in a closed
vessel, so the rate can also be expressed in terms of the partial pressure of dimethyl ether, i.e., Rate = k
(pCH3 CHO)3/2 If the pressure is measured in bar and time in minutes, then what are the units of rate
and rate constants?
31. Explain the tem Molecularity with example.
32. Define Rate determining step, Elementary & Complex reactions
33. Distinguish between order of reaction & Molecularity.
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34. For which type of reactions, order and molecularity have the same value?
35. For a reaction A + B → Products, the rate law is — Rate = k [A][B]3/2
36. Can the reaction be an elementary reaction? Explain
37. For a zero order reaction will the molecularity be equal to zero? Explain.
38. Why can’t molecularity of any reaction be equal to zero?
39. Why molecularity is applicable only for elementary reactions and order is applicable for elementary as
well as complex reactions?
40. Why can we not determine the order of a reaction by taking into consideration the balanced chemical
equation?
41. Mention the factors that affect the rate of a chemical reaction.
42. The possible mechanism for the reaction : 2NO (g) + O2 (g) → 2NO2 (g) is
(i) NO + O2 K NO3 (fast) (II) NO3 + NO ⎯K⎯→ 2
NO2 + NO2 (g) (slow).
Write the rate law for the reaction
43. .For a reaction 2H2O2 ⎯I⎯ ⎯⎯→ 2H2O + O2 the proposed mechanism is as follows
-
, Alkaline

(i) H2O2 + I → H2O + IO (slow) (ii) H2O2 + IO–→ H2O + I– + O2 (fast)

– –

(a)Write the rate law for the reaction. (b) Write the overall order of reaction. (iii)Out of steps (i) & (ii)
which one is rate determining step.
44. For a chemical reaction A + 2B → 2C + D.The experimentally obtained information is given below.
Experiment [A]0 [B]0 Initial rate

1 0.30 0.30 0.096

2 0.60 0.30 0.384
3 0.30 0.60 0.192
4 0.60 0.60 0.768
(i)Derive the order of reaction w.r.t. both the reactants A and B. (ii) write the rate law.(iii) calculate the
value of rate constant k (iv) Write the expression for the rate of reaction in terms of A and C.
45. For a certain chemical reaction 2A + B -→ C+D The following result has been obtained :
Experiment [A] mol L-1 [B] mol L-1 Initial rate mol L-1min-1
I 0.1 0.1 6.0 x 10-3
II 0.3 0.2 7.2 x 10-2
III 0.3 0.4 2.88 x 10-1
IV 0.4 0.1 2.40 x 10-2
Determine the rate law and rate constant for the reaction
19. The reaction between A and B is first order with respect to A and zero order with respect to B. Fill in the
blanks in the following table:
Experiment [A] mol L-1 [B] mol L-1 Initial rate mol L-1min-1
I 0.1 0.1 2.0 × 10–2
II – 0.2 4.0 × 10–2
III 0.4 0.4 –
IV – 0.2 2.0 × 10–2
20. In a reaction between A and B, the initial rate of reaction (r0) was measured for different initial
concentrations of A and B as given below:
A/ mol L–1 0.20 0.20 0.40
–1
B/ mol L 0.30 0.10 0.05
–1 –1 –5 –5
r0/mol L s 5.07 × 10 5.07 × 10 1.43 × 10–4
What is the order of the reaction with respect to A and B?
TOPIC : INTEGRATED RATE LAW EQUATIONS:- ZERO ORDER REACTIONS & FIRST ORDER REACTIONS
1. ZERO ORDER REACTION: In this the rate of the reaction is proportional to zero power of the
concentration of reactants.
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Consider the reaction, R→ P
− d [ R]
Rate = …………………………(i) Rate =K[R]0…………………………….(ii)
dt
− d [ R] − d [ R]
From (i) & (ii) = K[R]0  =K  d [R] = - K dt
dt dt
Integrating both sides
 ∫ d [R] = - K ∫ dt
 [R ] = - K t + C…..(iii) where, C is the constant of integration.
At t = 0, the concentration of the reactant R = [R]0, where [R]0 is initial concentration of the reactant.
[R]0= - K x 0 + C  [R]0= C, Substituting the value of C in equation (iii)
 [R ] = - K t + [R]0
[R] 0 − [ R]
 K=
t

Variation in the concentration vs time plot for a zero order reaction:-

Half life period for a zero order reaction
[R] 0 − [ R]
t=
k
[R]
At t1/ 2 , [R ] = 0
2
[R] 0 − [ R]0 / 2
 t1/ 2 =
k
[ R]
 t1 / 2 =
2K
If we plot [R] against t, we get a straight line
with slope = –k and intercept equal to [R]0.

Examples of zero order reaction (a)The decomposition of gaseous ammonia on a hot platinum surface is
a zero order reaction at high pressure (b)The thermal decomposition of HI on gold surface.
2. FIRST ORDER REACTIONS: The rate of the reaction is proportional to the first power of the
concentration of the reactant R.
Consider the reaction, R→ P
− d [ R]
Rate = …………………………(i) Rate =K[R]1…………………………….(ii)
dt
− d [ R] − d [ R]
From (i) & (ii) = K[R]1  = K dt
dt [ R]
− d [ R]
Integrating both sides ∫ = K∫ dt
[ R]
-ln[R]=kt + C ………(iii )where, C is the constant of integration
At t = 0, the concentration of the reactant R = [R]0, where [R]0 is initial concentration of the reactant.
-ln[R]0=kx0 + C  C=-ln[R]0, Su bstituting the value of C in equation (iii)  -ln[R]=kt -ln[R]0
1
K = { ln[R]0 - ln[R]}
t
1 [ R] 2.303 [R ] 0
K= ln 0  k= log
t [ R] t [ R]

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• If we plot ln [R] against t (Fig. 4.4) we get a straight line with slope = –k and intercept equal to ln
[R]0
• If we plot a graph between log [R]0/[R] vs t, (Fig. 4.5), the slope = k/2.303
Half life period for a First order reaction
2.303 [R ] 0 2.303
t= log  t1/ 2 = x0.3010
k [ R] k
0.693
[R] 0  t1 / 2 =
At t1/ 2 , [R ] = K
2
[R ] 0
It can be seen that for a first order reaction,
2.303
 t1/ 2 = log half-life period is constant, i.e., it is
k [ R]0 / 2 independent of initial concentration of the
2.303 reacting species
 t1/ 2 = log 2
k
• Examples : All natural and artificial • Decomposition of N2O5 and N2O are some
radioactive decay of unstable nuclei take more examples of first order reactions
place by first order kinetics.
first order gas phase reaction
3. INTEGRATED RATE EQUATION FOR FIRST ORDER GAS PHASE REACTION A(g) → B(g) + C(g)
2.303 [ P] i
: k= log
t [2 Pi − Pt ]
4. PSEUDO FIRST ORDER REACTION : The reaction which is bimolecular but order is one is known as
Pseudo first order reaction. In this type of reaction one of the reactant is present in large excess i.e.
the concentration does not get altered much during the course of the reaction e.g.
Hydrolysis of ester
+
CH3COOC2H5 + H2O ⎯⎯→ H
CH3COOH + C2H5OH ,Rate = K[CH3COOC2H5]
Inversion of cane sugar is another pseudo first order reaction
+
C12H22O11 + H2O ⎯⎯→ H
C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 Rate = K[C12H22O11]
QUESTION ON INTEGRATED RATE LAW EQUATIONS: - ZERO ORDER REACTIONS & FIRST ORDER
REACTIONS, PSEUDO FIRST ORDER REACTION
25. Derive the Integrated rate equation for Zero order reaction. Find half life period and plot the graph
associated to it.
26. For a zero order chemical reaction: (a) Plot variation in the concentration in [R] vs. time .(b) what are
the units of rate constant k? (c) give the relationship between k and t ½ (half life period) (d) Give the
slope
27. A substance with initial concentration ‘a’ follow zero order kinetics with rate constant ‘k’ mol L-1 s-1. In
how much time will the reaction go to completion?
28. The rate constant for a reaction of zero order reaction in A is 0.0030molL -1s-1.How long will it take for
the intial concentration of A to fall from 0.10 M to 0.075M?
29. The decomposition of NH3 on platinum surface is zero order reaction. If rate constant is 4 x 10-3Ms-
1
,how long will it take to reduce the intial concentration of NH3 from 0.1M to 0.064M.
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30. Derive the Integrated rate equation for first order reaction. Find half life period and plot the graph
associated to it.
31. For a first order chemical reaction: (i) Plot variation in the concentration in ln[R] vs. time & Give the
slope (s) (ii) Draw the plot log [R]0 / [R] vs. time t(s) & Give the slope (iii) what are the units of rate
constant k? (iii) give the relationship between k and t ½ (half life period) (iv) Give the slope
32. For a reaction R→P half-life period is is independent of initial concentration of the reacting
species.What is the order of reaction.
33. (a) Define half life period of a reaction .(b)Write the expressions of half life for (i) first order chemical
reaction (ii) zero order chemical reaction
34. What are pseudo first order reactions? Give one example of such reaction.
35. A first order reaction has a rate constant 1.15 x 10-3 s-1. How long will 5 g of this reactant take to
reduce to 3 g?
36. Time required to decompose SO2Cl2 to half of its initial amount is 60 minutes. If the decomposition is a
first order reaction, calculate the rate constant of the reaction.
37. The initial concentration of N2O5 in the following first order reaction N2O5(g) → NO2(g) + 1/2O2 (g) was
1.24 × 10–2 mol L–1 at 318 K. The concentration of N2O5 after 60 minutes was 0.20 × 10–2 mol L–
1
.Calculate the rate constant of the reaction at 318 K.
38. A first order reaction is found to have a rate constant. k = 5.5 x 10-4 s-1 . Find the half-life of the
reaction.
39. Show that in a first order reaction, time required for completion of 99.9% is 10 times of half-life (t1/2)
of the reaction.
40. For a first order reaction, show that time required for 99% completion is twice the time required for
the completion of 90% of reaction.
41. Calculate the half-life of a first order reaction from their rate constants given :(i) 200 s –1 (ii) 2 min–1 (iii)
4 years–1.
42. The half-life for radioactive decay of 14C is 5730 years. An archaeological artifact containing wood had
only 80% of the 14C found in a living tree.Estimate the age of the sample
43. The rate constant for a first order reaction is 60 s–1. How much time will it take to reduce the initial
concentration of the reactant to its 1/16th value?
44. .During nuclear explosion, one of the products is 90Sr with half-life of 28.1 years. If 1  g of 90Sr was
absorbed in the bones of a newly born baby instead of calcium, how much of it will remain after 10
years and 60 years if it is not lost metabolically.
45. H2O2 decomposes to H2O and O2 in a reaction that is first order and has rate constant k = 1.06 x 10-3
min-1.How long will it take 15% of a sample of H2O2 to decompose.
46. A first order reaction takes 30 minutes for 50% decomposition. Calculate the time required for 90%
completion for this reaction
47. A first order reaction takes 100 minutes for 60% decomposition. Calculate the time required for 90%
completion for this reaction
48. A first order reaction takes 20 minutes for 25% decomposition. Calculate the time required for 75%
completion for this reaction
49. A first order reaction takes 40 min for 30% decomposition. Calculate t1/2.
50. Consider a certain reaction A→ Products with k = 2.0 × 10–2s–1. Calculate the concentration of A
remaining after 100 s if the initial concentration of A is 1.0 mol L–1..
51. Sucrose decomposes in acid solution into glucose and fructose according to the first Order rate law,
with t1/2 = 3.00 hours. What fraction of sample of sucrose remains after 8 hours?
52. A first order reaction has a rate constant 0.0051min-1 .If we begin with 0.10 M concentration of the
reactant ,what concentration of the reactant will be left after 3 hours. The
53. A reactant has a half life of 10 min.(i)Calculate the rate constant for the first order reaction (ii) what
fraction of the reactant will be left after an hour of the reaction has occurred.
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54. The decomposition of phosphine PH3 proceeds according to the following equation: 4PH3→P4 + 6H2 ,It
is found that the reaction follows rate reaction rate=K[PH3] The half life of PH3 is 37.9 second at
120oC. (i)How much time is required for 3/4th of PH3 to decompose? (ii)What fraction of the original
sample of PH3 remains behind after 1 minute?
th
55. For a first order reaction, time taken for half of the reaction to complete is t1 , whereas that for 3
4
of the reaction to complete is t 2 . How are t1 and t 2 related ?
56. For the decomposition of azoisopropane to hexane and nitrogen at 543k, the following data were
obtained. Calculate the rate constant.
t (sec) P(mm of Hg)
0 35.0
360 54.0
720 63.0
57. For the first order thermal decomposition C2H5Cl(g)→ C2H4(g) + HCl (g). Calculate the rate constant.
Experiment Time Pressure (atm)
1 0 0.30
2 300 0.50
58. The Following data were obtained during the first order thermal decomposition of SO2Cl2 at a constant
volume: SO2Cl2(g)→ SO2(g) + Cl2(g). Calculate the rate constant.
Experiment Time Pressure (atm)
1 0 0.4
2 100 0.7
59. The following data were obtained during the first order thermal decomposition of N 2O5 (g) at constant
volume: 2N2O5(g)→2N2O4(g) + O2(g). Calculate the rate constant.
S.No Time Pressure (atm)
1 0 0.5
2 100 0.512
60. Following data were obtained for the reaction : N2O5(g)→2NO2(g) +1/2 O2(g).
Time (s) 0 300 600
-2 -2
[N2O5(g)] 1.6 x 10 0.8 x 10 0.4 x 10-2
(mol/l)
(i) Show that it follows first order reaction (ii)Calculate the half life
61. In a pseudo first order hydrolysis of ester in water, the following results were obtained:
Time (s) 0 30 60 90
[Ester] 0.55 0.31 0.17 0.85
(mol/l)
(i) Calculate the average rate of reaction between the time interval 30 to 60 seconds. (ii) Calculate the
pseudo first order rate constant for the hydrolysis of ester.

TOPIC : TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF THE RATE OF A REACTION(ARRHENIUS EQUATION)

1. TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT : It is the ratio of rate constant at temperature 308 (298 + 10)K to the
rate constant at 298K. It has been found that for a chemical reaction with rise in temperature by 10°,
the rate constant is nearly doubled.
2. ARRHENIUS EQUATION. : The temperature dependence of the rate of a chemical reaction can be
−Ea
accurately explained by Arrhenius equation. k = Ae RT , where A is the Arrhenius factor or the
frequency factor. It is also called pre-exponential factor. It is a constant specific to a particular
reaction. R is gas constant and Ea is activation energy measured in joules/mole (J mol –1).

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• In the Arrhenius equation the factor e -Ea /RT
corresponds to the fraction of molecules that have
kinetic energy greater than Ea.
E
• Taking natural logarithm of both sides of Arrhenius equation ln k=lnA- a & log k = log A -
RT
Ea
2.303RT
• The plot of lnk vs 1/T gives a straight line according to the equation
Slope : -Ea/R & Intercept = lnA

3. Thus, it has been found from Arrhenius equation that increasing

the temperature or decreasing the activation energy will result in an
increase in the rate of the reaction and an exponential increase in
the rate constant.

At Temperature T1 &

At Temperature T2 

K  Ea  1 1 
log  2  =  −  where T is temperature in K.
 1
K 2.303R  T1 T2 
K K K
Note- If rate of reaction doubles 2 = 2, If it triples 2 =3, If quadruples 2 = 4.
K1 K1 K1

3. THRESHOLD ENERGY : It is the minimum energy which the colliding molecules must have for effective
collisions. i.e. those collisions which lead to the formation of product molecules.
4. ARRHENIUS THEORY :It states that product are formed through the Activated Complex :
5. ACTIVATED COMPLEX : Transition state of Reactant and product Or Unstable intermediate formed
between reacting molecule which in highly unstable and readily changes into product.
It can be understood clearly using the following simple reaction. H2(g) + I2(g)→2HI(g)

According to Arrhenius, this reaction can take place only when a molecule of hydrogen and a molecule of
iodine collide to form an unstable intermediate . It exists for a very short time and then breaks up to form two
molecules of hydrogen iodide. The energy required to form this intermediate, called activated complex , is
known as activation energy (Ea).
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6. ACTIVATION ENERGY: It is extra energy which must be supplied to the reactants from outside so that
the colliding particles must produce effective collision i.e.have total energy equal to the threshold
energy. Or It is the energy needed to form the intermediate, called activated complex

The energy required to form this intermediate, called activated complex (C), is known as
activation energy (Ea). Fig. 4.7 is obtained by plotting potential energy vs reaction coordinate.
Reaction coordinate represents the profile of energy change when reactants change into
products. Some energy is released when the complex decomposes to form products. So, the
final heat of the reaction depends upon the nature of reactants and products
7. EFFECT OF CATALYST: Catalyst are specific which reduces the activation energy barrier
by forming an intermediate product It is believed that the catalyst provides an alternate
pathway or reaction mechanism by reducing the activation energy between reactants
and products and hence lowering the potential energy barrier as shown in Fig. 4.11.

It is clear from Arrhenius equation that lower the value of activation energy faster will be the
rate of a reaction. A small amount of the catalyst can catalysea large amount of reactants. A
catalyst does not alter Gibbs energy, ΔG of a reaction. It catalyses the spontaneous reactions
but does not catalyse non-spontaneous reactions. It is also found that a catalyst does not
change the equilibrium constant of a reaction rather, it helps in attaining the equilibrium faster,
that is, it catalyses the forward as well as the backward reactions to the same extent so that the
equilibrium state remains same but is reached earlier.

8. Collision Theory of Chemical Reactions:

(a) According to the collision theory rate of reaction depends on the collision frequency
and effective collisions.
(b) The number of collisions per second per unit volume of the reaction mixture is known
as collision frequency (Z).
(c) It is based on kinetic theory of gases. According to this The reactant molecules are
assumed to be hard spheres and reaction is postulated to occur when molecules collide
with each other.
(d) For a bimolecular elementary reaction A + B → Products rate of reaction can be
expressed as Rate = Z AB e−Ea/ RT where ZAB represents the collision frequency of
reactants, A and B and e−Ea/ RT represents the fraction of molecules with energies equal
to or greater than Ea.

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(e) The collisions in which molecules collide with sufficient kinetic energy (called threshold
energy*) and proper orientation, so as to facilitate breaking of bonds between reacting
species and formation of new bonds to form products are called as effective collisions.
(f) To account for effective collisions, another factor P, called the probability or steric factor
is introduced. It takes into account the fact that in a collision, molecules must be
properly oriented i.e., Rate = PZ AB e−Ea/ RT
(g) Another factor which affects the rate of chemical reactions is activation energy.
(h) The Proper orientation of reactant molecules lead to bond formation whereas improper
orientation makes them simply bounce back and no products are formed.

• Thus, in collision theory activation energy and proper orientation of the

molecules together determine the criteria for an effective collision and hence
the rate of a chemical reaction

• Collision theory also has certain drawbacks as it considers atoms/molecules to be

hard spheres and ignores their structural aspect.

•  Exercise…..
1. What is the effect of temperature on the rate constant of a reaction? How can this
temperature effect on rate constant be represented quantitatively?
2. Why does the rate of a reaction increase with rise in temperature?
3. Write Arrhenius Equation. Give its Logarithmic form and Plot graph.
4. Draw a plot of lnk vs 1/T for a chemical reaction .What does the intercept
represent.What is the relation between slope and Ea?
5. With a help of diagram explain the role of activated complex in a reaction.
6. The rate of a reaction quadruples when the temperature changes from 293 K to 313 K.
Calculate the energy of activation of the reaction assuming that it does not change with
temperature.
7. The rate of reaction increases four times when the temperature changes from 300 K to
320 K. Calculate the energy of activation of the reaction assuming that it does not
change with temperature.(R=8.314JK-1mol-1)
8. The rate of chemical reaction doubles for an increase of 10 K in absolute temperature
from 298K. Calculate Ea.
9. The rate constants of a reaction at 500K and 700K are 0.02s–1 and 0.07s–1 respectively.
Calculate the values of Ea and A.

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10. The rate constants of a reaction at 650K and 700K are 2.15 x 10-8Lmol-1s–1 and 2.39 x 10-
7
Lmol-1s–1 respectively. Calculate the values of Activation energy.
11. A first order reaction is 50% completed in 40 minutes at 300K and in 20 minutes at 320
K. Calculate the value of Activation energy
12. The first order rate constant for the decomposition of ethyl iodide by the reaction
C2H5I(g) → C2H4 (g) + HI (g) at 600K is 1.60 × 10–5 s–1. Its energy of activation is 209
kJ/mol. Calculate the rate constant of the reaction at 700K.

13. The Rate constant for the first order reaction is given by following equation

Calculate Ea for this reaction and rate constant k if its half

period be 200 min.
14. The rate constant for the first order decomposition of H2O2 is given by the following
equation: log k = 14.34 – 1.25 × 104 K/T Calculate Ea for this reaction and at
what temperature will its half period be 256 minutes?
15. The decomposition of hydrocarbon follows the equation k = (4.5 × 1011s–1) e-28000K/T
Calculate Ea.
16. The activation energy for the reaction 2 HI(g) → H2(g) + I2(g) is 209.5 KJ mol-1 at 581K.
Calculate the fraction of molecules of reactants having energy equal to or greater than
activation energy.
17. The rate constant for the decomposition of hydrocarbons is 2.418 × 10 –5s–1 at 546 K. If
the energy of activation is 179.9 kJ/mol, what will be the value of pre-exponential factor.

18. The decomposition of A into product has value of k as 4.5 x 103 s–1 at 100C and energy of
activation 60 kJ mol–1. At what temperature would k be 1.5 × 104s–1?
19. The time required for 10% completion of a first order reaction at 298K is equal to that
required for its 25% completion at 308K. If the value of A is 4 × 1010s–1. Calculate k at
318K and Ea.
20. Define the terms : (i) Threshold Energy (ii) Activated Complex (iii) Activation energy
21. Explain the Effect of Catalyst on activation energy.
22. What is the effect of adding a catalyst on (i)Activation energy (ii)Gibbs Energy
23. Write a note on Collision Theory of Chemical Reactions.
24. In some cases, it is found that a large number of colliding molecules have energy more
than threshold value, yet the reaction is slow. Why ?
25. The reaction between H2(g) and O2(g) is highly feasible yet allowing the gases to stand
at room temperature in the same vessel does not lead to the formation of water.
Explain.
26. Oxygen is available in plenty in air yet fuels do not burn by themselves at room
temperature. Explain.
27. Thermodynamic feasibility of the reaction alone cannot decide the rate of the reaction.
Explain with the help of one example.
28. Why in the redox titration of KMnO4 vs oxalic acid, we heat oxalic acid solution before
starting the titration?

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UNIT: 5:- SURFACE CHEMISTRY

TOPIC : ADSORPTION , ABSORPTION, DESORPTION ,SORPTION,TYPES OF ADSORPTION,ADSORPTION
ISOTHERMS, APPLICATIONS OF ADSORPTION
1. SURFACE CHEMISTRY deals with phenomena that occur at the surfaces or interfaces.
2. ADSORPTION: The accumulation of molecular species at the surface rather than in the bulk of a solid or
liquid is termed adsorption.
3. ADSORBATE: The molecular species or substance, which accumulates at the surface, is termed
adsorbate.
4. ADSORBENT: The material on the surface of which the adsorption takes place is called adsorbent.
Solids, particularly in finely divided state, have large surface area and therefore, charcoal, silica gel,
alumina gel, clay, colloids, metals in finely divided state, etc. act as good adsorbents. Activation of
adsorbent means increasing the adsorbing power of an adsorbent. This is done by the increasing the
surface area of the adsorbent. It can be done by making the surface rough and subdividing the
adsorbent into smaller pieces
5. ADSORPTION IN ACTION:
(a) If a gas like O2, H2, CO, Cl2, NH3 or SO2 is taken in a closed vessel containing powdered charcoal, it is
observed that the pressure of the gas in the enclosed vessel decreases. The gas molecules concentrate
at the surface of the charcoal, i.e., gases are adsorbed at the surface.
(b) In a solution of an organic dye, say methylene blue, when animal charcoal is added and the solution is
well shaken, it is observed that the filtrate turns colourless. The molecules of the dye, thus, accumulate
on the surface of charcoal, i.e., are adsorbed.
(c) Aqueous solution of raw sugar, when passed over beds of animal charcoal, becomes colourless as the
colouring substances are adsorbed by the charcoal.
(d) The air becomes dry in the presence of silica gel because the water molecules get adsorbed on the
surface of the gel. It is clear from the above examples that solid surfaces can hold the gas or liquid
molecules by virtue of adsorption.
6. DESORPTION:The process of removing an adsorbed substance from a surface on which it is adsorbed is
called desorption.
7. DISTINCTION BETWEEN ADSORPTION & ABSORPTION
Adsorption Absorption
In adsorption, the substance is concentrated In absorption, the substance is uniformly distributed
only at the surface and does not penetrate throughout the bulk of the solid
through the surface to the bulk of the
adsorbent
In adsorption the concentration of the In absorption the concentration is
adsorbate increases only at the uniform throughout the bulk of the solid
surface of the adsorbent
Water vapours are adsorbed by silica gel. Water vapours are absorbed by anhydrous calcium
chloride
7. SORPTION: Both adsorption and absorption can take place simultaneously also. The term sorption is
used to describe both the processes
8. MECHANISM OF ADSORPTION.
(a) Adsorption arises due to the fact that the surface particles of the adsorbent are not in the same
environment as the particles inside the bulk. Inside the adsorbent all the forces acting between the
particles are mutually balanced but on the surface the particles are not surrounded by atoms or
molecules of their kind on all sides, and hence they possess unbalanced or residual attractive forces.
These forces of the adsorbent are responsible for attracting the adsorbate particles on its surface.
(b) The extent of adsorption increases with the increase of surface area per unit mass of the adsorbent at
a given temperature and pressure. Thus, finely divided metals and porous substances having large

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surface areas are good adsorbents.Also powdered substances are more effective adsorbents than their
crystalline forms
(c) Adsorption is always exothermic :During adsorption, there is always a decrease in residual forces of the
surface, i.e., there is decrease in surface energy which appears as heat. Adsorption, therefore, is
invariably an exothermic process. In other words, ΔH of adsorption is always negative.
(d) Adsorption is accompanied by decrease in entropy: When a gas is adsorbed, the freedom of movement
of its molecules become restricted. This amounts to decrease in the entropy of the gas after adsorption,
i.e., ΔS is negative.
(e) Adsorption is thus accompanied by decrease in enthalpy as well as decrease in entropy of the system
(f) Adsorption of a gas on the surface of solid is spontaneous process. For a process to be spontaneous,
the thermodynamic requirement is that, at constant temperature and pressure, ΔG must be negative.
On the basis of equation, ΔG = ΔH – TΔS, ΔG can be negative if ΔH has sufficiently high negative value as
– TΔS is positive. Thus, in an adsorption process, which is spontaneous, a combination of these two
factors makes ΔG negative.
9. TYPES OF ADSORPTION: PHYSISORPTION & CHEMISORPTION
PROPERTY PHYSISORPTION CHEMISORPTION
TYPE OF FORCES/ 1. It arises because of van der Waals’ 1. It is caused by chemical bond
BOND forces. formation.

SPECIFICITY 2. It is not specific in nature 2. It is highly specific in nature.

REVERSIBILITY 3. It is reversible in nature 3. It is irreversible.
NATURE OF GAS 4. It depends on the nature of gas. 4. It also depends on the nature of
More easily liquefiable gases are gas. Gases which can react with the
adsorbed readily. adsorbent show chemisorptions
ENTHALPY OF 5. Enthalpy of adsorption is low (20-40 5. Enthalpy of adsorption is high
ADSORPTION kJ mol-1). (80-240 kJ mol-1) .
TEMPERATURE 6. Low temperature is favourable for 6. High temperature is favourable
physisorption. It decreases with for chemisorption. It increases with
increase of temperature. the increase of temperature.

ACTIVATION 7. No appreciable activation 7. High activation energy is

ENERGY energy is needed. sometimes needed.
SURFACE 8. It depends on the surface 8. It also depends on the surface
AREA. area. It increases with an area. It too increases with an
increase of surface area. increase of surface area.

FORMATION OF 9. It results into multimolecular layers 9. It results into unimolecular layer.

LAYERS on adsorbent surface under high because there are strong forces. of
pressure.because there are weak van attaraction therefore it is
der Waals’ forces. of attaraction monolayered
10. CHARACTERISTICS OF PHYSISORPTION
(a) Lack of specificity: A given surface of an adsorbent does not show any preference for a particular gas as
the van der Waals’ forces are universal. It is not specific in nature .
(b) Nature of adsorbate: The amount of gas adsorbed by a solid depends on the nature of gas. In general,
easily liquefiable gases (i.e., with higher critical temperatures) are readily adsorbed as vander Waals’
forces are stronger near the critical temperatures. Thus, 1g of activated charcoal adsorbs more sulphur
dioxide (critical temperature 630K), than methane (critical temperature 190K) which is still more than
4.5 mL of dihydrogen (critical temperature 33K).
(c) Reversible nature & exothermic: Physical adsorption of a gas by a solid is generally reversible &
exothermic. Solid + Gas↔ Gas/Solid + Heat , According to Le-Chatelier’s principle if we increase

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 2020 ……Chemistry Simply the best……….ENJOY CHEMISTRY
temperature equilibrium will shift in the backward direction i.e gas is released from the absorbed
surface. Physisorption decrease with the increase of temperature.
(d) Surface area of adsorbent: The extent of adsorption increases with the increase of surface area of the
adsorbent. Thus, finely divided metals and porous substances having large surface areas are good
adsorbents.
(e) Enthalpy of adsorption: Enthalpy of adsorption is quite low (20– 40 kJ mol-1). This is because the
attraction between gas molecules and solid surface is only due to weak van der Waals’ forces.
11. CHARACTERISTICS OF CHEMISORPTIONS:
(a) High specificity: Chemisorption is highly specific and it will only occur if there is some possibility of
chemical bonding between adsorbent and adsorbate. For example, oxygen is adsorbed on metals by
virtue of oxide formation and hydrogen is adsorbed by transition metals due to hydride formation.
(b) Irreversibility: As chemisorption involves compound formation, it is usually irreversible in nature.
Chemisorption is also an exothermic process but the process is very slow at low temperatures on
account of high energy of activation. Like most chemical changes, adsorption often increases with
rise of temperature. Physisorption of a gas adsorbed at low temperature may change into
chemisorption at a high temperature. Usually high pressure is also favourable for chemisorption.
(c) Surface area: Like physical adsorption, chemisorption also increases with increase of surface area of
the adsorbent.
(d) Enthalpy of adsorption: Enthalpy of chemisorption is high (80-240 kJ mol-1) as it involves chemical
bond formation.
(e) It is monolayered as there are strong forces of attraction.
12. ADSORPTION ISOTHERMS: The variation in the amount of gas adsorbed by the adsorbent with pressure
at constant temperature can be expressed by means of a curve termed as adsorption isotherm.
13. FREUNDLICH ADSORPTION ISOTHERM: Freundlich, in 1909, gave an empirical relationship between the
quantity of gas adsorbed by unit mass of solid adsorbent and pressure at a particular temperature.
x
• The relationship can be expressed by the following equation: =k.P1/n. (n > 1)………….(i) where
m
x is the mass of the gas adsorbed on mass m of the adsorbent at pressure P, k and n are constants
which depend on the nature of the adsorbent and the gas at a particular temperature.
• The relationship is generally represented in the form of a curve where mass of the gas adsorbed
per gram of the adsorbent is plotted against pressure (Fig.). These curves indicate that at a fixed
pressure, there is a decrease in physical adsorption with increase in temperature. These curves
always seem to approach saturation at high pressure.

x 1
• Taking logarithm of eq. (i) log = log k + log P ……………… (2)
m n
• The validity of Freundlich isotherm can be verified by plotting log x/m on y-axis (ordinate) and log P
on x-axis (abscissa). If it comes to be a straight line, the Freundlich isotherm is valid, otherwise not
(Fig.). The slope of the straight line gives the value of 1/n . The intercept on the y-axis gives the value
of log k.
• Freundlich isotherm explains the behavior of adsorption in an approximate manner. The factor 1/n
can have values between 0 and 1 (probable range 0.1 to 0.5). Thus, equation (2) holds good over a
limited range of pressure.
• When 1/n = 0, x/m = constant, the adsorption is independent of pressure.
• When 1/n = 1, x/m = k P, i.e. x/m α P, the adsorption varies directly with pressure

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 2020 ……Chemistry Simply the best……….ENJOY CHEMISTRY
• Both the conditions are supported by experimental results. The experimental isotherms always seem
to approach saturation at high pressure. This cannot be explained by Freundlich isotherm. Thus, it
fails at high pressure.

7. Adsorption from Solution Phase: The following observations have been made in the case of adsorption
from solution phase:
• The extent of adsorption decreases with an increase in temperature.
• The extent of adsorption increases with an increase of surface area of the adsorbent.
• The extent of adsorption depends on the concentration of the solute in solution.
• The extent of adsorption depends on the nature of the adsorbent and the adsorbate.
The precise mechanism of adsorption from solution is not known. Freundlich’s equation approximately
describes the behaviour of adsorption from solution with a difference that instead of pressure, concentration
of the solution is taken into account, i.e.
x
=k.C1/n. (n > 1) (C is the equilibrium concentration, i.e., when adsorption is complete).On taking logarithm of
m
x 1 x
the above equation, we have log = log k + log c,Plotting log against log C a straight line is obtained
m n m
which shows the validity of Freundlich isotherm.

8. Applications of Adsorption:
a) Production of high vacuum: The remaining traces of air can be adsorbed by charcoal from a vessel
evacuated by a vacuum pump to give a very high vacuum
b) Gas masks: Gas mask (a device which consists of activated charcoal or mixture of adsorbents) is usually
used for breathing in coal mines to adsorb poisonous gases.
c) Control of humidity: Silica and aluminium gels are used as adsorbents for removing moisture and
controlling humidity.
d) Removal of colouring matter from solutions: Animal charcoal removes colours of solutions by
adsorbing coloured impurities.
e) Heterogeneous catalysis: Adsorption of reactants on the solid surface of the catalysts increases the rate
of reaction.
f) Separation of inert gases: Due to the difference in degree of adsorption of gases by charcoal, a mixture
of noble gases can be separated by adsorption on coconut charcoal at different temperatures.
g) In curing diseases: A number of drugs are used to kill germs by getting adsorbed on them.
h) Froth floatation process: A low grade sulphide ore is concentrated by separating it from silica and other
earthy matter by this method using pine oil and frothing agent .
i) Adsorption indicators: Surfaces of certain precipitates such as silver halides have the property of
adsorbing some dyes like eosin, fluorescein, etc. and thereby producing a characteristic colour at the
end point.
j) Chromatographic analysis: Chromatographic analysis based on the phenomenon of adsorption finds a
number of applications in analytical and industrial fields.

QUESTION BASED ON ADSORPTION , ABSORPTION, DESORPTION ,SORPTION,TYPES OF

ADSORPTION,ADSORPTION ISOTHERMS, APPLICATIONS OF ADSORPTION
1. Distinguish between the meaning of the terms adsorption and absorption. Give one example of each.
2. Define the terms desorption & Sorption.
3. What is the difference between Physisorption and Chemisorption?
4. What is the sign of ΔH & ΔS when a gas is adsorbed by an adsorbent.

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5. Explain the reason for following :

a) Powdered substances more effective adsorbents than their crystalline forms.
b) Finely divided substance is more effective as an adsorbent.
c) NH3 gas adsorbs more readily than N2 gas on the surface of Charcoal.
d) Adsorption is accompanied by decrease in entropy.
e) Enthalpy of chemisorption is high .
f) Adsorption is always exothermic.
g) Physical adsorption is reversible , while chemisorption is irreversible
h) Physisorption decrease with the increase of temperature.
i) Physical adsorption is multilayered, while chemisorption is monolayered.
j) It is important to have clean surface in surface studies.
k) We add alum to purify water.
l) Adsorption of a gas on the surface of solid is generally accompanied by a decrease in entropy. Still it
is spontaneous process.
m) White precipitate of silver halide become coloured in the presence of dye eosin.
6. Discuss the effect of pressure and temperature on the adsorption of gases on solids.( Hint:Effect of
Temperature and Pressure: The adsorption of gases on solids decreases with increase in temperature at
constant pressure Effect of Pressure: The adsorption of gases on solids Increases with increase in
pressure at constant Temperature.)
7. Out of NH3 & CO2 which gas will be adsorbed more readily on the surface of activated Charcoal & why?
8. Arrange H2, CH4, CO2 and NH3 in order of the ease with which the gases are adsorbed on the surface of
charcoal.
9. What do you understand by activation of adsorbent? How is it achieved?
10. Why is chemisorption referred to as activated adsorption?
11. What is the effect of temperature on chemisorptions.
12. Explain Adsorption from solution phase.
13. Give applications of adsorption.
14. Explain clearly how the phenomenon of adsorption finds application in : (a) Production of high vacuum
(b) Heterogeneous catalysis (c) Froth floatation process (d)Controlling humidity.
15. Why do physisorption and chemisorption behave differently with rise in temperature?
16. What is the role of activated charcoal in gas mask used in coal mines?
17. Give an example where physisorption changes to chemisorption with rise in temperature. Explain the
reason for change.
18. What are the factors which influence the adsorption of a gas on a solid? (Hint: (i)Nature of adsorbate (ii)
Surface area of adsorbent (iii) Temperature (iv) Pressure)
19. What is an adsorption isotherm?
20. Describe Freundlich adsorption isotherm.

TOPIC : CATALYSIS, HOMOGENEOUS AND HETEROGENEOUS CATALYSIS, ADSORPTION THEOR OF

HETEROGENEOUS CATALYSIS, SHAPE-SELECTIVECATALYSIS BYZEOLITES, ENZYME CATALYSIS
1. CATALYST: Substances, which alter the rate of a chemical reaction and themselves remain chemically
and quantitatively unchanged after the reaction, are known as catalysts.
2. PROMOTERS: Promoters are substances that enhance the activity of a catalyst.
3. POISONS decrease the activity of a catalyst.
4. HOMOGENEOUS CATALYSIS :When the reactants and the catalyst are in the same phase (i.e., liquid or
gas), the process is said to be homogeneous catalysis.e.g. (i)2SO 2(g) + O2(g) ⎯NO(g)
⎯⎯→ 2SO3(g)
(ii) CH3COOCH3(l) + H2O(l) ⎯⎯⎯→ CH3COOH(aq) + CH3OH(aq)
HCI(l)

(iii) C12H22O11(l) + H2O(l) ⎯H⎯SO⎯

2 4
⎯ (l)
→ C6H12O6(l) + C6H12O6(l)
5. HETEROGENEOUS CATALYSIS: The catalytic process in which the reactants and the catalyst are in
different phases is known as heterogeneous catalysis.
(i)2SO2(g) ⎯Pt(s)
⎯→
⎯ 2SO3(g) (ii) N2(g) + 3H2 (g) ⎯Fe(s)
⎯⎯→ 2 NH3(g) 58

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6. ADSORPTION THEORY OF HETEROGENEOUS CATALYSIS: This theory explains the mechanism of
heterogeneous catalysis. The mechanism involves five steps:
• Diffusion of reactants to the surface of the catalyst.
• Adsorption of reactant molecules on the surface of the catalyst.
• Occurrence of chemical reaction on the catalyst’s surface through formation of an intermediate
(see Figure).
• Desorption of reaction products from the catalyst surface, and thereby, making the surface
available again for more reaction to occur.
• Diffusion of reaction products away from the catalyst’s surface.

7. ACTIVITY OF A CATALYST: It is the ability of catalyst to accelerate chemical reaction, e.g.

2H2 + O2 ⎯ ⎯→ No Reaction , H2 and O2 in presence of platinum react to form water explosively
2H2 + O2 ⎯⎯→ Pt
2H2O
8. SELECTIVITY OF A CATALYST: It is its ability to direct a reaction to yield a particular product. For
example, starting with H2 and CO, and using different catalysts, we get different products.
ZnO −Cr2O3
(i)CO (g) + 3H2(g) ⎯⎯→Ni
CH4 + H2O (ii)CO(g) + 2H2(g) ⎯Cu
⎯/ ⎯ ⎯⎯→ CH3OH
(iii)CO(g) + H2(g) ⎯⎯→ HCHO
Cu

9. SHAPE SELECTIVE CATALYST: The catalytic reaction that depends upon the pore structure of the catalyst
and the size of the reactant and product molecules is called shape-selective catalysis.
10. ZEOLITES are good shape-selective catalysts because of their honeycomb-like structures. They are
microporous aluminosilicates with three dimensional network of silicates in which some silicon atoms
are replaced by aluminium atoms giving Al–O–Si framework. . Zeolites are being very widely used as
catalysts in petrochemical industries for cracking of hydrocarbons and isomerisation. An important
zeolite catalyst used in the petroleum industry is ZSM-5. It converts alcohols directly into gasoline
(petrol) by dehydrating them to give amixture of hydrocarbons.
11. ENZYME CATALYSIS: Enzymes are complex nitrogenous organic compounds which are produced by
living plants and animals. The enzymes are, thus, termed as biochemical catalysts and the phenomenon
is known as biochemical catalysis. Enzyme catalysis is unique in its efficiency and high degree of
specificitye.g. The invertase enzyme converts cane sugar into glucose and fructose. C12H22O11(l) + H2O(l)
⎯invertase
⎯⎯ ⎯→ C6H12O6(l) + C6H12O6(l)

12. CHARACTERISTICS OF ENZYME CATALYSIS : The following characteristics are exhibited by enzyme
catalysts:(i) Most highly efficient (ii) Highly specific nature (iii) Highly active under optimum
temperature: The rate of an enzyme reaction becomes maximum at a definite temperature, called the
optimum temperature. On either side of the optimum temperature, the enzyme activity decreases. The
optimum temperature range for enzymatic activity is 298-310K. Human body temperature being 310 K
is suited for enzyme-catalysed reactions.(iv) Highly active under optimum pH: The rate of an enzyme-
catalysed reaction is maximum at a particular pH called optimum pH, which is between pH values 5-7.
(v) Increasing activity in presence of activators and co-enzymes: The enzymatic activity is increased in
the presence of certain substances, known as co-enzymes. It has been observed that when a small non-
protein (vitamin) is present along with an enzyme, the catalytic activity is enhanced considerably.
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Activators are generally metal ions such as Na+, Mn2+, Co2+, Cu2+, etc. These metal ions, when weakly
bonded to enzyme molecules, increase their catalytic activity. Amylase in presence of sodium chloride
i.e., Na+ ions are catalytically very active. (vi) Influence of inhibitors and poisons: Like ordinary catalysts,
enzymes are also inhibited or poisoned by the presence of certain substances. The inhibitors or poisons
interact with the active functional groups on the enzyme surface and often reduce or completely
destroy the catalytic activity of the enzymes. The use of many drugs is related to their action as enzyme
inhibitors in the body
13. MECHANISM OF ENZYME CATALYSIS: The enzyme-catalysed reactions proceed in 2 steps.
Step 1: Binding of enzyme to substrate to form an activated complex.E + S ⎯ ⎯→ ES≠
Step 2: Decomposition of the activated complex to form product. ES≠ ⎯ ⎯→ E + P
≠
Where E = Enzyme, S = Substrate, ES = activated complex, P= Product

14. CATALYSTS IN INDUSTRY:

Industrial process Catalyst used
1. Haber’s process for manufacture of ammonia Fine divided iron, molybdenum as Promoter
2. Ostwald’s process for the manufacture of nitric acid. Platinised asbestos
3. Contact process for the manufacture of sulphuric Platinised asbestos or vanadium pentoxide
acid (V2O5)
QUESTION BASED ON CATALYSIS, HOMOGENEOUS AND HETEROGENEOUS CATALYSIS, ADSORPTION THEOR
OF HETEROGENEOUS CATALYSIS, SHAPE-SELECTIVECATALYSIS BYZEOLITES, ENZYME CATALYSIS MECHANISM
OF ENZYME CATALYSIS
1. Define the terms: (i) Catalyst (ii) Promoters (iii) Poisons
2. Name the catalyst and the promoter used in Haber’s process for Manufacture of ammonia.
3. Distinguish between Homogenous and Heterogeneous Catalysis.
4. Give examples of Homogenous and Heterogeneous Catalysis
5. Explain the Adsorption theory to explain mechanism of Heterogeneous Catalysis.
6. What role does adsorption play in heterogeneous catalysis?
7. Write a short note on: (a) Activity and Selectivity of catalyst (b) Shape selective catalyst (c)Enzyme
catalysis [characteristics, mechanism & examples](d) catalysis by zeolites
8. CO (g) & H2(g) react to give different products in the presence of different catalysts. Which ability of the
catalyst is shown by these reactions?
9. What are enzymes? Write in brief the mechanism of enzyme catalysis.
10. Do the vital functions of the body such as digestion get affected during fever?
11. Why is it necessary to remove CO when ammonia is obtained by Haber’s process?( Hint :CO act as
poison for the catalyst used in manufacture of ammonia by Haber’s process.)
12. Why the ester hydrolysis is slow in the beginning and becomes faster after sometime?( Hint :RCOOR’ +
H20  RCOOH + R’OH,The acid produced in the reaction act as catalyst(Auto catalyst) for the
reaction.Hence the reaction becomes faster after some time .
13. What is the role of desorption in the process of catalysis. (Hint:Desorption makes the surface of the
solid catalyst free for adsorption of the reactants on the surface).
14. Why are substances like platinum and palladium often used for carrying out electrolysis of aqueous
solutions?(Hint:.they are not attacked by the ions of the electrolyte or the products of electrolysis).
15. What is the role of desorption in the process of catalysis
TOPIC: COLLOIDS, TYPES OF COLLOIDAL SOLUTIONS, PREPARATION OF COLLOIDS, PURIFICATION OF
COLLOIDAL SOLUTIONS & PROPERTIES OF COLLOIDAL SOLUTIONS
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1. A Colloid is a heterogeneous system in which one substance is dispersed (dispersed phase) as very fine
particles in another substance called dispersion medium. Colloidal particles are larger than simple
molecules but small enough to remain suspended. Their range of diameters is between 1 and 1000 nm
(10–9 to 10–6 m).
2. Classification Based on Physical State of Dispersed Phase and Dispersion Medium
Dispersed Dispersion Type of Examples
Phase medium Colloid
Solid Solid Solid sol Coloured glasses and gem stones
Solid Liquid Sol Paints, cell fluids
Solid Gas Aerosol Smoke, dust
Liquid Solid Gel Cheese, butter, jellies
Liquid Liquid Emulsion Milk, hair cream
Liquid Gas Aerosol Fog, mist, cloud, insecticide sprays
Gas Solid Solid sol Pumice stone, foam rubber
Gas Liquid Foam Froth, whipped cream, soap lather
If the dispersion medium is water, the sol is called aquasol or hydrosol and if the dispersion medium is alcohol,
it is called alcosol.
3. Classification Based on Nature of Interaction between Dispersed Phase and Dispersion Medium
(a) LYOPHILIC SOL(LIQUID-LOVING)
i. Particles of dispersed phase have greater affinity i.e strong interaction for dispersion medium .
ii. Colloidal sols directly formed by mixing substances like gum, gelatine, starch, rubber, etc., with a
suitable liquid (the dispersion medium) are called lyophilic sols.They can be easily prepared by shaking
or warming.
iii. These sols are quite stable and cannot be easily coagulated
iv. They are reversible because if the dispersion medium is separated from the dispersed phase (say by
evaporation), the sol can be reconstituted by simply remixing with the dispersion medium.
v. Examples : gum, gelatine, starch, rubber, etc
(b) LYOPHOBIC SOL (LIQUID-HATING)
i. Particles of dispersed phase have no affinity i.e less interaction for dispersion medium.
ii. They cannot be prepared by directly mixing.It can be prepared only by special methods.
iii. These sols are readily precipitated (or coagulated) on the addition of small amounts of electrolytes, by
heating or by shaking and hence, are not stable.
iv. They are irreversible because once precipitated, they do not give back the colloidal sol by simple
addition of the dispersion medium. Hence, these solsare also called irreversible sols. Lyophobic sols
need stabilizing agents for their preservation.
v. Examples : colloidal solutions of gold, silver, Fe(OH)3, As2S3, etc
LYOPHILIC SOL (LIQUID-LOVING.) LYOPHOBIC SOL (LIQUID-HATING)
Strong interaction between dispersed phase & Very Less Interaction between dispersed phase &
dispersion medium dispersion medium
It can be prepared by directly mixing It cannot be prepared by directly mixing
Quite stable Not stable
cannot be easily coagulated readily precipitated (or coagulated)
They are reversible They are irreversible
Mostly of organic nature Mostly of Inorganic nature
Ex. Gelatin, Starch, Gum, Albumin & Cellulose Ex. Transition metal salt in water Gold, As , colloidal
Solution solutions of gold, silver, Fe(OH)3, As2S3, etc
4. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON TYPE OF PARTICLES OF THE DISPERSED PHASE
MULTIMOLECULAR COLLOIDS MACRO MOLECULAR COLLOIDS ASSOCIATED COLLOIDS
A large number of atoms or Formation by aggregation of big These are the substances
Smaller molecules of size molecules. which behave as normal 61

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substance on dissolution In this type of colloids, colloidal
electrolytes at low
aggregate together to form particles are themselves large concentration but get
species having size in the molecules of colloidal
associated and behave as
colloidal range. dimensions. colloidal solutions. These
(diameter<1nm) These are polymers with high associated particles are also
(Aggregation of large number molecular mass called micelles.
of small stoms or molecules) Ex. → Starch, Cellulose, Protein (Aggregation of large number
Ex. → Gold, Sol, Sulphur sol etc. of ions in concentrated
(Au) (S )
8
They are generally lyophillic. solutions)
They are generally lyophobic. Ex. → Soap & Detergent
5. CRITICAL MICELLE CONCENTRATION (CMC) & KRAFT TEMPERATURE (TK) : The formation of micelles
takes place only above a particular temperature called Kraft temperature (Tk) and above a particular
concentration called critical micelle concentration (CMC).
6. MECHANISM OF MICELLE FORMATION: Let us take the example of soap solutions. Soap is sodium or
potassium salt of a higher fatty acid and may be represented as RCOO–Na+ (e.g., sodium stearate
CH3(CH2)16COO–Na+, which is a major component of many bar soaps). When dissolved in water, it
dissociates into RCOO– and Na+ ions. The RCOO– ions, however, consist of two parts — a long
hydrocarbon chain R (also called non-polar ‘tail’) which is hydrophobic (water repelling), and a polar
group COO– (also called polar-ionic ‘head’), which is hydrophilic (water loving). The RCOO– ions are,
therefore, present on the surface with their COO– groups in water and the hydrocarbon chains R staying
away from it and remain at the surface. But at critical micelle concentration, the anions are pulled into
the bulk of the solution and aggregate to form a spherical shape with their hydrocarbon chains pointing
towards the centre of the sphere with COO– part remaining outward on the surface of the sphere. An
aggregate thus formed is known as ‘ionic micelle’. These micelles may contain as many as 100 such ions.
Similarly, in case of detergents, e.g., sodium laurylsulphate, CH3(CH2)11SO4–Na+, the polar group is – SO4–
along with the long hydrocarbon chain. Hence, the mechanism of micelle formation here also is same as
that of soaps.
7. CLEANSING ACTION OF SOAPS :It has been mentioned earlier that a micelle consists of a hydrophobic
hydrocarbon – like central core. The cleansing action of soap is due to the fact that soap molecules form
micelle around the oil droplet in such a way that hydrophobic part of the stearate ions is in the oil
droplet and hydrophilic part projects out of the grease droplet like the bristles (Fig. 5.7 NCERT). Since
the polar groups can interact with water, the oil droplet surrounded by stearate ions is now pulled in
water and removed from the dirty surface. Thus soap helps in emulsification and washing away of oils
and fats. The negatively charged sheath around the globules prevents them from coming together and
forming aggregates.
8. PREPARATION OF COLLOIDS : CHEMICAL METHODS
(a) Double decomposition: As2 O3 + 3H2S → As2S3 + 3H2O
(b) Oxidation: 2H2S + SO2 → 2H2O + 3S (c) Reduction:2AuCl3 + 3SnCl2 → 3SnCl4 + 2Au
(d) Hydrolysis : FeCl3 + 3H2O → Fe(OH)3 + 3HCl
9. ELECTRICAL DISINTEGRATION OR BREDIG’S ARC METHOD: This method is suitable for the preparation
of colloidal solutions of metals like gold, silver, platinum etc.This Process involves dispersion as well as
condensation. An arc is struck between the metal electrodes under the surface of water containing
some stabilizing agent such as a trace of KOH. The water is cooled by immersing the container in a ice
bath. The intense heat of the arc vapourises some of the metal which condenses under cold water. Ex.
Pt, Ag, Cu, Au, Sol are prepared by this method.
10. PEPTIZATION : Peptization may be defined as the process of converting a precipitate into colloidal sol
by shaking it with dispersion medium in the presence of a small amount of electrolyte. The electrolyte
used for this purpose is called peptizing agent. This method is applied, generally, to convert a freshly
prepared precipitate into a colloidal sol. Freshly prepared ferric hydroxide on treatment with a small
amount of ferric chloride solution at once forms a dark reddish brown solution. Ferric chloride acts as a
peptizing agent. During peptization, the precipitate adsorbs one of the ions of the electrolyte on its
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surface. This causes the development of positive or negative charge on precipitates, which ultimately
break up into smaller particles of the size of a colloid.
11. Purification of Colloidal Solutions; The process used for reducing the amount of impurities to a
requisite minimum is known as purification of colloidal solution.
12. Dialysis: It is a process of removing a dissolved substance from a colloidal solution by means of diffusion
through a suitable membrane. It is a process of purification of sols containing electrolyte by keeping the
sol in a bag made of parchment or cellophane and suspending the bag in pure water. Small molecules or
ions can pass through the membrane, but the sol is retained.(Fig. 5.9 ,138). The apparatus used for this
purpose is called dialyser.
13. Electro-dialysis: The process of dialysis is quite slow. It can be made faster by applying an electric field
if the dissolved substance in the impure colloidal solution is only an electrolyte. The process is then
named electrodialysis. The colloidal solution is placed in a bag of suitable membrane while pure water is
taken outside. Electrodes are fitted in the compartment as shown in (Fig. 5.10 page138) . The ions
present in the colloidal solution migrate out to the oppositely charged electrodes.

14. Ultrafiltration: Ultrafiltration is the process of separating the colloidal particles from the solvent and
soluble solutes present in the colloidal solution by specially prepared filters, which are permeable to all
substances except the colloidal particles. Colloidal particles can pass through ordinary filter paper
because the pores are too large. However, the pores of filter paper can be reduced in size by
impregnating with colloidion solution to stop the flow of colloidal particles. The usual colloidion is a 4%
solution of nitrocellulose in a mixture of alcohol and ether. An ultra-filter paper may be prepared by
soaking the filter paper in a colloidion solution, hardening by formaldehyde and then finally drying it.
Thus, by using ultra-filter paper, the colloidal particles are separated from rest of the materials.
Ultrafiltration is a slow process.
PROPERTIES OF COLLOIDAL SOLUTIONS
15. COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES: Colloidal particles being bigger aggregates,the number of particles in a
colloidal solution is comparatively small as compared to a true solution. Hence, the values of colligative
properties (osmotic pressure, lowering in vapour pressure, depression in freezing point and elevation in
boiling point) are of small order as compared to values shown by true solutions at same concentrations.
16. TYNDALL EFFECT: When a beam of light is passed through a colloidal solution and viewed perpendicular
to the path of incident light ,the path of beam is illuminated by a bluish light. The Tyndall effect is due to
the fact that colloidal particles scatter light in all directions in space. This scattering of light illuminates
the path of beam in the colloidal dispersion. The bright cone of the light is called Tyndall cone.Tyndall
effect is used to distinguish between a colloidal and true solution.

17. BROWNIAN MOVEMENT: When colloidal solutions are viewed under a powerful ultra microscope, the
colloidal particles appear to be in a state of continuous zig-zag motion all over the field of view.The
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Brownian movement has been explained to be due to the unbalanced bombardment of the particles by
the molecules of the dispersion medium. The Brownian movement has a stirring effect which does not
permit the particles to settle and thus, is responsible for the stability of sols.
18. COLOUR: The colour of colloidal solution depends on the wavelength of light scattered by the dispersed
particles. The wavelength of light further depends on the size and nature of the particles. The colour of
colloidal solution also changes with the manner in which the observer receives the light. For example, a
mixture of milk and water appears blue when viewed by the reflected light and red when viewed by the
transmitted light. Finest gold sol is red in colour; as the size of particles increases, it appears purple,
then blue and finally golden.
19. ELECTROPHORESIS: The movement of colloidal particles towards positive or negative electrode in
electric field is called electrophoresis . When electric potential is applied across two platinum electrodes
dipping in a colloidal solution, the colloidal particles move towards one or the other electrode. .
Positively charged particles move towards the cathode while negatively charged particles move towards
the anode. (Fig. 5.13 page 142). Electrophoresis provides an experimental proof to show that the
colloidal particles are charged particles.
20. ELECTROOSMOSIS : When electrophoresis, i.e., movement of particles is prevented by some suitable
means, it is observed that the dispersion medium begins to move in an electric field. This phenomenon
is termed electroosmosis.
21. COAGULATION: The process of changing the colloidal particles in a sol into the insoluble precipitate by
addition of some suitable electrolytes is known as coagulation. The process of settling of colloidal
particles is called coagulation or precipitation of the sol. The coagulation of the lyophobic sols can be
carried out in the following ways:
a) By electrophoresis: The colloidal particles move towards oppositely charged electrodes, get discharged
and precipitated.
b) By mixing two oppositely charged sols: Oppositely charged sols when mixed in almost equal
proportions, neutralise their charges and get partially or completely precipitated. Mixing of hydrated
ferric oxide (+ve sol) and arsenious sulphide (–ve sol) bring them in the precipitated forms. This type of
coagulation is called mutual coagulation.
c) By boiling: When a sol is boiled, the adsorbed layer is disturbed due to increased collisions with the
molecules of dispersion medium. This reduces the charge on the particles and ultimately lead to settling
down in the form of a precipitate.
d) By persistent dialysis: On prolonged dialysis, traces of the electrolyte present in the sol are removed
almost completely and the colloids become unstable and ultimately coagulate.
e) By addition of electrolytes: When excess of an electrolyte is added, the colloidal particles are
precipitated. The reason is that colloids interact with ions carrying charge opposite to that present on
themselves. This causes neutralisation leading to their coagulation. The ion responsible for
neutralisation of charge on the particles is called the coagulating ion. A negative ion causes the
precipitation of positively charged sol and vice versa.
22. HARDY SCHULZE RULE – This rule states that the precipitating effect of an ion on dispersed phase of
opposite charge increases with the valency of the ion. The higher the valency of the flocculating ion, the
greater is its precipitating power. Thus for the precipitation of As2S3 sol (-ve) the precipitating power of
Al3+ , Ba2+, and Na+ ions is in the order Al3+ > Ba2+ > Na+ Similarly for precipitating Fe(OH)3 sol (positive)
the precipitating power of [Fe(CN)6]-3 , SO42- and Cl- ions is in the order [Fe(CN)6]3- > SO42- > Cl-
23. COAGULATING VALUE : The minimum concentration of an electrolyte in millimoles per litre required to
cause precipitation of a sol in two hours is called coagulating value. The smaller the quantity needed,
the higher will be the coagulating power of an ion.
24. COAGULATION OF LYOPHILIC SOLS : There are two factors which are responsible for the stability of
lyophilic sols. These factors are the charge and solvation of the colloidal particles. When these two
factors are removed, a lyophilic sol can be coagulated. This is done (i) by adding an electrolyte and (ii) by
adding a suitable solvent. When solvents such as alcohol and acetone are added to hydrophilic sols, the
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dehydration of dispersed phase occurs. Under this condition, a small quantity of electrolyte can bring
about coagulation.
25. Protection of colloids : Lyophilic sols are more stable than lyophobic sols. This is due to the fact that
lyophilic colloids are extensively solvated, i.e., colloidal particles are covered by a sheath of the liquid in
which they are dispersed. Lyophilic colloids have a unique property of protecting lyophobic colloids.
When a lyophilic sol is added to the lyophobic sol, the lyophilic particles form a layer around lyophobic
particles and thus protect the latter from electrolytes. Lyophilic colloids used for this purpose are called
Protective Colloids.
26. CHARGE ON COLLOIDAL PARTICLES: Colloidal particles always carry an electric charge. The nature of
this charge is the same on all the particles in a given colloidal solution and may be either positive or
negative. The charge on the sol particles is due to one or more reasons, viz., due to electron capture by
sol particles during electrodispersion of metals, due to preferential adsorption of ions from solution
and/or due to formulation of electrical double layer. Preferential adsorption of ions is the most
accepted reason. The sol particles acquire positive or negative charge by preferential adsorption of +ve
or –ve ions. When two or more ions are present in the dispersion medium, preferential adsorption of
the ion common to the colloidal particle usually takes place. This can be explained by taking the
following examples:
(a) When silver nitrate solution is added to potassium iodide solution, the precipitated silver iodide adsorbs
iodide ions from the dispersion medium and negatively charged colloidal solution results. However, when
KI solution is added to AgNO3 solution, positively charged sol results due to adsorption of Ag+ ions from
dispersion medium. AgI/I– (Negatively charged)AgI/Ag+( Positively charged)
(b) If FeCl3 is added to excess of hot water, a positively charged sol of hydrated ferric oxide is formed due to
adsorption of Fe3+ ions. However, when ferric chloride is added to NaOH a negatively charged sol is
obtained with adsorption of OH- ions. Fe2O3.xH2O/Fe3+ (Positively charged) Fe2O3.xH2O/OH– (Negatively
charged
27. ELECTRICAL DOUBLE LAYER :The surface of a colloidal particle acquires a +ve charge by selective
adsorption of a layer of positive ions around it. This layer attracts counter ions from the medium which
form a second layer of –ve charges. The combination of the two layers of +ve and –ve charges around
the sol particle was called Helmholtz double layer. According to modern vies, the first layer of ions is
firmly held and is termed Fixed layer while the second layer is mobile which is termed a Diffused layer.
The combination of the compact and diffused layer is referred as the Stern double layer. The diffused
layer is only loosely attached to the particle surface and moves in the oppositve direction under an
applied electric field.
28. ZETA POTENTIAL :The potential difference between the fixed layer and the diffused layer of opposite
charge is called Electrokinetic Potential or Zeta Potential.
29. EMULSIONS Liquid-liquid colloidal dispersions are called emulsion, e.g., milk, emulsified oils and
medicines. There are two types of emulsions. (i) Oil dispersed in water (O/W type) and (ii) Water
dispersed in oil (W/O type). In the first system, water acts as dispersion medium. Examples of this type
of emulsion are milk and vanishing cream. In milk, liquid fat is dispersed in water. In the second system,
oil acts as dispersion medium. Common examples of this type are butter and cream.
30. DEMULSIFICATION :The process of breaking emulsion is called Demulsification, e.g., freezing, boiling,
centrifugation or chemical methods are used to destroy emulsifying agent.
31. COLLOIDS AROUND US
• Blue colour of the sky: Dust particles along with water suspended in air scatter blue light which reaches
our eyes and the sky looks blue to us.
• Artificial Rain : It is possible to cause artificial rain by throwing electrified sand or spraying a sol carrying
charge opposite to the one on clouds from an aeroplane.
• Blood: It is a colloidal solution of an albuminoid substance. The styptic action of alum and ferric chloride
solution is due to coagulation of blood forming a clot which stops further bleeding.
• Soils: Fertile soils are colloidal in nature in which humus acts as a protective colloid. On account of
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• Formation of delta: River water is a colloidal solution of clay. Sea water contains a number of
electrolytes. When river water meets the sea water, the electrolytes present in sea water coagulate
the colloidal solution of clay resulting in its deposition with the formation of delta.
32. APPLICATIONS OF COLLOIDS
• Electrical precipitation of smoke: Smoke is a colloidal solution of solid particles such as carbon, arsenic
compounds, dust, etc., in air. The smoke, before it comes out from the chimney, is led through a
chamber containing plates having a charge opposite to that carried by smoke particles. The particles on
coming in contact with these plates lose their charge and get precipitated. The particles thus settle
down on the floor of the chamber. The precipitator is called Cottrell precipitator.
• Purification of drinking water: The water obtained from natural sources often contains suspended
impurities. Alum is added to such water to coagulate the suspended impurities and make water fit for
drinking purposes.
• Tanning: Animal hides are colloidal in nature. When a hide, which has positively charged particles, is
soaked in tannin, which contains negatively charged colloidal particles, mutual coagulation takes place.
This results in the hardening of leather. This process is termed as tanning. Chromium salts are also used
in place of tannin.
• Medicines: Most of the medicines are colloidal in nature.For example, argyrol is a silver sol used as an
eye lotion.Colloidal antimony is used in curing kalaazar. Colloidalgold is used for intramuscular injection.
Milk ofmagnesia, an emulsion, is used for stomach disorders. Colloidal medicines are more effective
because they have large surface area and are therefore easily assimilated.
• Photographic plates and films: Photographic plates or films are prepared by coating an emulsion of the
light sensitive silver bromide in gelatin over glass plates or celluloid films.
• Rubber industry: Latex is a colloidal solution of rubber particles which are negatively charged. Rubber is
obtained by coagulation of latex.
Questions ………………………………
1. Differentiate among a True solution , a suspension and a Colloidal solution give a suitable example of
each.
2. How are colloids classified on the basis of (i) Physical states of components (ii) Nature of dispersion
medium and (iii) Interaction between dispersed phase and dispersion medium.
3. Write the Dispersed Phase & Dispersion Medium of the following Colloidal Solutions. (a) Smoke (b)
Butter (c) Milk (d)Fog (e) Froth (f)dust
4. What type of colloid is formed when (a) Liquid is dispersed in a solid. (b) Gas is dispersed in a liquid. (c)
solid is dispersed in a Gas. (d) Liquid is dispersed in a liquid (e) solid is dispersed in a liquid. Give
Examples for each case.
5. What are the physical states of dispersed phase and dispersion medium of froth?
6. Explain the terms with suitable examples :( i) Alcosol (ii) Aerosol (iii) Hydrosol.
7. What are Lyophilic and Lyophobic sols? Give one example of each type.
8. Why hydrophobic sols are easily coagulated?
9. What is difference between multimolecular and macromolecular colloids? Give one example of each.
10. Define associated colloids giving an example.
11. Define the terms : (i)Critical Micelle concentration (CMC) (ii)Kraft Temperature (TK) (iii)ionic micelle’
12. What type of solutions are formed on dissolving different concentrations of soap in water?
13. What are micelles? Give an example of a micellers system.
14. Write chemical methods of preparation of colloids.
15. How are following colloidal solutions prepared? (i)Sulphur in water (ii)Gold in water
16. Write physical methods Preparation of Colloids.
17. Write a note on: (i) Bredig’s Arc methods (b) Peptization
18. Explain the following with diagrams: (a) Dialysis (b) Electro-dialysis (c) ultrafiltarion
19. Explain the following terms (a) Tyndall effect (b) Brownian movement (c) Electrophoresis.(d) Hardy
Schulze rule. (e) Zeta Potential
20. What is the reason for Brownian movement in colloidal solution. 66

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21. Explain Coagulation. Describe any three methods by which coagulation of lyophobic sols can be carried
out.
22. How can a colloidal solution and true solution of the same colour be distinguished from each other.
23. What happens when electric field is applied to colloidal solution?
24. On the basis of Hardy-Schulze rule explain why the coagulating power of phosphate is higher than
chloride.
25. Most effective electrolyte causing the coagulation of Fe2O3.H2O/Fe3+ is a) MgCl2 b) KCl c) K4 [Fe(CN)4]
d)AlCl3
26. Which one of the following electrolytes is most effective for the Coagulation of Fe(OH)3 sol & why
.(a)NaCl (b)Na2SO4 (c) Na3PO4
27. Out of BaCl2 & KCl which one is more most effective for the Coagulation of negatively charged sol &
why .
28. A colloidal solution of AgI is prepared by two different methods. (A) AgNO 3 solution is added to excess KI
solution. (B) KI solution is added to excess AgNO3 solution. What is the charge on the Ag I colloidal
particles in the two cases. Explain.
29. Why is Fe(OH)3 colloid positively charged, when prepared by adding FeCl3 to hot water?
30. How does it become possible to cause artificial rain by spraying silver iodide on the clouds?
31. What are emulsions? What are their different types? Give example of each type. Give four uses of
emulsions.
32. What is Demulsification? Name two demulsifiers.
33. How do emulsifying agents (emulsifier) stabilise the emulsion?
34. What happens when gelatin is mixed with gold sol?
35. How does the precipitation of colloidal smoke take place in Cottrell precipitator?
36. What is the reason for stability of colloidal solution.
37. Give reason for the following :
(a) Leather gets hardened after Tanning.
(b) Delta is formed at the meeting point of sea water and river water.
(c) Bleeding stop by rubbing moist alum.
(d) some medicines more effective in the colloidal form
(e) Sky looks blue to us.
(f) ferric chloride preferred over potassium chloride in case of a cut Leading to bleeding
(g) Lyophilic sols are more stable than lyophobic sols
(h) Lyophilic sols are also called as reversible sols.
(i) Artificial Rain is caused by spraying salt over clouds.
(j) Gelatin which is a peptide is added in icecreams
(k) Same substance can act as both colloids & crystalloids.
38. Explain what is observed:
(i) When a beam of light is passed through a colloidal sol.
(ii) An electrolyte, NaCl is added to hydrated ferric oxide sol or ferric hydroxide.
(iii) Electric current is passed through a colloidal sol.
(iv) Ferric hydroxide sol gets coagulated on addition of sodium chloride solution
(v) Cottrell’s smoke precipitator is fitted at the mouth of the chimney used in factories.
(vi) Persistent dialysis of a colloidal solution is carried out.
(vii) An emulsion is centrifuged.

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