Chapter 4 : Planning and scheduling of construction works

Necessity of planning

Planning is the primary function of construction works. Planning addresses issues like;

What to do?

When to do?

Who to do?

Planning lays down the guidelines for execution of work in a systematic manner. Planning brings the
synchronization of resources and actions resulting in satisfactory progress of the work. An efficient plan results
in optimum utilization of resources in hand to the best and also results in the arrangement of resources needed for
the work for its best possible execution. Planning ensures that no work is hampered due to lack of resources and
at the same time it also ensures that no resource is idle without production. Another important aspect of planning
is that the work is executed as per the specification in the set time frame.

Importance of planning:

Planning is important for construction projects owing to following factors;

• The execution of project is done in the set time frame.

• The optimum utilization of resources is achieved.
• Execution of work is done as per the set quality norms.
• Un warranted delays are eliminated.
• The entire team involved in the project knows exactly what to do? When to do? Who to do?
• Surprises are eliminated.
• Obstacles are fore seen and taken care off.

Planning is done at different levels in the organization involved in construction and at different stages of
execution.

Levels of planning:

The organization executing construction work has levels like;

• Top management.
• Middle management.
• Bottom level management.
• Work level management.

Top level management is involved in policy decisions and plan the project in a wholistic manner. The
examples of top-level management include;

• Government departments at Cabinet / ministerial / Secretarial level

• Private company at Board of directors / Chief Executive Officer level
The planning at top level management involves policy for entire activities involved in the completion of the
project. These plans are macro in nature and indicate the major activities like;

➢ Completion of a stage.
➢ Commissioning of a stage.
➢ These plans laydown the guidelines for the planning at lower levels.

Middle level management plans components of the project that is assigned to the level. These plans are more
detailed than macro level plans but in line with top level management plans. In government departments, the
middle level plans are done at region and circle by Chief engineers and superintendent engineers’ level whereas
in case of private companies, middle level planning is done at site chief level. The planning breaks down the
stages in to more specific activities like;

➢ Clearances.
➢ Fund allocation.
➢ Procurement.
➢ Civil Works.
➢ Allied works.
➢ Commissioning works.

Bottom level planning is done at specific site level. This planning is at micro level. In case of
government departments, the bottom level planning is done at division level by executive engineer level where
as in case of private companies at site in charge level. These plans are in line with middle management plans.
These plans are more work specific like;

➢ Site mobilization.
➢ Foundation.
➢ Sub structure.
➢ Super structure.
➢ Finishing works.
➢ Service connections.

Work level planning is done in government department at sub division level or section level where as
in private companies at site engineer and foreman level. These plans involve individual work items pertaining
to the site like;

➢ Earth work excavation.

➢ Footing casting.
➢ Column erection.
➢ Casting of beams.
 Further stage of work level planning is done at individual engineer level or work supervisor level for
execution of each work for a specified time unit like month / week etc.

Stages of planning:

Planning is done at following stages like;

• Pre-tender planning
• Post-tender planning

Pre-tender planning from the owner’s side refers to planning of activities pertaining to a construction
project prior to publishing the tender for the same. It includes preparation of designs, estimates, securing
administrative approval, technical sanction and preparing the tender documents.

Whereas the pre-tender planning from the contractor’s side refers to planning of activities prior to the
submission of tender for a particular work. It includes study of details of work, carrying out strengths –
weaknesses – opportunities – challenges (SWOC) analysis and preparing and reviewing bid for the work.

Post-tender planning from owner’s side refers to planning of activities after the tenders are invited for the
work. It includes management of cashflow, supervision, quality control of the project.

Whereas the post tender planning from the contractor’s side refers to planning of activities after the
contractor secures the contract for the work. It includes execution of project as per the schedule, measuring the
progress and raising the claim for bills.

Project scheduling

Project scheduling is a mechanism to communicate;

What tasks need to get done?

Which organizational resources need be allocated to complete those tasks?

What is the timeframe performing the tasks?

A project schedule is a document collective interpretation of all the work needed to deliver the project on time.

Methods of Project scheduling

The common methods for project scheduling are;

• Bar Chart
• Project Network analysis.
Bar Chart / Gantt Chart

Bar chart is a scheduling tool. In a bar chart, the entire project is divided in to a number of activities with
a clearly defined beginning and end. The time duration needed for the completion of the activity is calculated.
The activity is represented by horizontal bars with length of the bar representing the duration of time required for
the activity. The interdependency of the activity with respect to other activities in the project is determined. All
other activities of the project are also represented in the form of bars. All the activity bars are plotted in a graphical
manner against time taken on horizontal axis. A representative sample of Bar chart is as under;

Time duration for the project = T1 + T3 + T4 + T5

Note : T2 and T3 over lap and hence T3 which is having longer duration is taken for consideration in the
calculation of project duration.

Let us consider an illustration for development of a BAR chart.

A project comprises of following activities with details as below;

Sr. No. Activity Duration in days Interdependency with respect to other activities.
1 A 6 Starting Activity
2 B 12 Starts after completion of A
3 C 8 Starts after completion of A
4 D 7 Starts after completion of B & C
5 E 4 Starts after completion of D and last activity.
The BAR chart for the project is as under;

BAR Chart for the Project.

Advantages of BAR chart

• Simple to construct.
• Easy to read and interpret.
• Project duration can be easily calculated.
• Progress of the project can be shown in the form of mile stones on the activity bars.

Disadvantages of BAR chart

• Difficult to show complex interdependency of activities.

• Does not show the nature of slack or time cushion for activities.
Project Network Analysis.

The network analysis of project involves representation of activities by arrows. The project is represented by
arrow diagram depending upon the interdependency of activities. Two methods are available for project network
analysis namely;

• Critical Path Method (CPM)

• Project Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT).

Critical Path Method (CPM)

• Each activity of the project is represented by an arrow.

• Each activity in the CPM network has a distinct start and end.
• The start and end of the activity are called events and represented by nodes at the tail and head of the
arrow.
• The activities are generally named by distinct alphabet which is written above the arrow.
• The events are represented by numerals. The event number at the tail shall always be less than that at the
head.
• The duration of the activity is represented numeral representing the number of units of the time.
A typical activity in a CPM network is shown as below;

A
1 2
8

Activity “A” is of duration 8-time units

Activity A starts at event 1 and ends at event 2.

Now let us construct a simple CPM network.

Consider a project as under;

Sr. Activity Duration in Activity preceding immediately Activity following immediately

No. days
1 A 3 None B&C
2 B 5 A D
3 C 7 A E
 4 D 4 B F
5 E 8 C F
6 F 3 D&E None
Following points are noticed by the logic given in the above table;

• There are six activities with A as first activity and F as last activity.
• Activities B and C follow activity A indicating that the network branches after conclusion of activity A.
• Activities D and E are followed by common activity F indicating that the network converges after the
conclusion of activities D & E.

A step by step development of the CPM network is as under;

Step 1: Start the network with activity A

Notice that the activity A starts with event 1 and ends at event 2

Step 2: Branch the network at event 2 by placing the activities B and C

Note that Activities B and C start at event 2 and activity B ends at event 3 whereas activity C ends at event 4.

Step 3: Converge the network by placing activities D and E.

Note that activity D starts from event 3 and ends at event 5. Activity E starts from event 4 and ends at event 5.

Step 4: place the activity F at event 5.

 F

Figure 1

Note that the network ends at event 6 indicating the end of the project.

Sometimes, the activity names are indicated by the event numbers at the tail and head of the activities. In such
cases, the interdependency of activities in the network gets self-explained. Consider the following project;

Sr. Activity Duration in

No. weeks
1 1-2 4
2 2-3 7
3 2-4 8
4 3-4 6
5 3-5 4
6 4-5 6
7 5–6 3
Observe the following points from the logic in the table above;

• There are seven activities in the project.

• Activity 1 – 2 is the first activity and activity 5 – 6 is the last activity.
• The network branches at event 2 as 2 – 3 and 2 – 4.
• The Network further branches at event 3 as 3 – 4 and 3 – 5
• The activity 3 – 4 merges with activity 2 – 4 at event 4.
• The network merges at event 5 as activities 4 – 5 and 3 – 5 converge.

The step by step procedure for development of CPM network is as under;

Step 1: Start the network with activity 1 – 2.

Step 2: Branch the network at event 2 as 2 – 3 and 2 – 4.

Step 3: At event 3 further branch the network as 3 – 4 and 3 – 5.

Step 4: Converge the network at event 5 by converging activities 3 – 5 and 4 – 5.

Step 5: End the network by placing the activity 5 – 6.

Figure 2

It seems the logic of CPM network development is pretty clear with the above examples. Now we can proceed to
calculate the project duration from the CPM network.

The project duration of a project represented by CPM network is calculated by running a forward pass along the
network.
Forward pass is determining the time for each event in the forward direction of the network.

Rule for forward pass is as under;

• The event time for first event is always Zero.

• The event time for the any event = event time of previous event + activity duration of the activity
leading to the event.
• In case an event is reached by more than one path, there will be more than one event time for that
event. In such cases, always select the highest event time as all the activities leading to the event
conclude at that event time.
• Event time of the final event of the project is the project duration.

Step by step procedure for the forward pass for the CPM network in figure 1 is as under;

Step 1: Mark Zero as the event time for event 1. It is generally written in a box above the event 1.

Step 2: Add duration of activity A to the event time of event 1 to get the time for event 2. i.e. 0 + 3 = 3

Step 3: Add duration of activity B to the event time of event 2 to get the time for event 3 i.e. 3 + 5 = 8

Step 4: Add duration of activity C to the event time of 2 to get the time for event 4 i.e. 3 + 7 = 10
 F

Step 5: Add duration of activity D to the event time of 3 to get time for event 5 i.e.8 + 4 = 12. The event 5 can be
approached through activity E also. Hence add duration of activity E to the event time of 4 to get the second event
time for event 5 i.e. 10 + 8 = 18. Now event 5 has two event times and as per rule of forward pass, the highest
value is to be retained i.e. 18.

Step 6: Add duration of activity F to the event time of 5 to get the time for event 6 i.e. 18+3 = 21. Event 6 is the
last event of the project. Hence the project duration is 21 days.

Backward Pass

It is a process opposite to the forward pass. It starts from the last event of the network and moves in the reverse
direction along the activities in the network. The event times during backward pass are marked in box having
different shape than that of forward pass. The backward pass event times are needed for identifying the critical
activities and also for calculation of floats.

The rule for backward pass is as under;

• Start from the end of project i.e. from the last event. The event time at the last event is equal to the project
duration.
 • The event time for the any event = event time of the event immediately ahead - activity duration of
the activity leading to the event.
• In case an event is reached by more than one path, there will be more than one event time for that
event. In such cases, always select the lowest event time as all the activities leading to the event can
be started at that event time.
• Event time of the start event of the project is Zero.

The step by step procedure for backward pass for the network shown in figure 1 is as under;

Step 1: Mark 21 as the event time for event 6. It is generally written in a triangular box above the forward pass
time.

Step 2: Subtract duration of activity F from the event time of 6 to get the time for event 5 i.e. 21- 3 = 18.

Step 3: Subtract duration of activity E from the event time of 5 to get the event time for event 4 i.e. 18 – 8 = 10.

Step 4: Subtract duration of activity D from the event time of 5 to get the event time for event 3 i.e. 18 – 4 = 14.
Step 5: Subtract duration of activity C from the event time of 4 to get one of the event time for event 2

i.e. 10 – 7 = 3. Subtract the duration of activity B from the event time of 3 to get the second event time for event
2 i.e. 14 – 5 = 9. As per the rule for backward pass, lowest of the two event times for event 2 i.e. 3 is retained.

Step 6: Subtract duration of activity A from the event time of event 2 to get the time for event 1 i.e. 3 – 3 = 0.
Identification of critical path

After the forward and backward pass, the path joining events having same event time in forward as well as
backward pass is called critical path. In the CPM network discussed, the critical path is 1 – 2 – 4 – 5 – 6.

The activities along the critical path are called the critical activities. In the CPM network discussed, the critical
activities are A, C, E and F. The activities not falling along the critical path are called non-critical activities.
Activities B & D are non-critical activities.

The critical path is shown on the network by double line as under;

Figure 3

Critical activities are important as any delay in those activities result in project delay. Non critical activities are
the activities with some time cushion called “float” which facilitates the activities to be rescheduled within limits
to achieve optimum resource management.

Let us repeat the forward pass and backward pass on the second CPM network shown in Figure 2. However, as
the procedure is clearly explained in a step by step manner in the first network, now, the entire procedure is
shown in one single step as under;
 Figure 4
Note the following features on the above network just to fine tune the understanding of CPM network
development, forward pass and backward pass.

• Note that event 4 has two approaches in the forward pass with two event times i.e.12 and 17. Higher value
17 is retained.
• Note that event 5 has two approaches in the forward pass with two event times i.e.15 and 23. Higher value
23 is retained.
• Note that event 3 has two approaches in the backward pass with two event times i.e. 11 and 19. Lower
value 11 is retained.
• Note that event 2 has two approaches in the backward pass with two event times i.e. 4 and 9. Lower value
4 is retained.
• All the events of the network are on the critical path. It gives an impression that all activities are critical.
But with a branched network, such possibility is not possible. Note the activities 1 – 4 and 3 – 5, even
though the events are on critical path, these activities are not.

With the above two illustrations, now the technique of developing CPM network, carrying out forward pass
and backward pass, calculating project duration and identifying critical path along with critical activities is
pretty clear.

Calculation of Float for CPM network.

Float is the time cushion available for activities in the CPM network without affecting the project duration.
Float is available for non-critical activities only. Three types of floats are there namely;

• Total float
• Free Float
 • Independent float

The scope of study in this course is limited to Total float only.

The calculation of float needs development of event times for all the activities in the network. The details of the
event times are as under;

• Each activity has four event times.

• Two of the event times are at the tail of the activity and two more are at the head of the activity.
• The event times at the tail of the activity are called start times
• The event times at the head are called finish times.
• The start time corresponding to forward pass is called earliest start time (EST).
• The start time corresponding to backward pass is called latest start time (LST).
• The finish time corresponding to forward pass is called earliest finish time (EFT).
• The finish time corresponding to backward pass is called latest finish time (LFT).

The EST, LST, EFT, and LFT are calculated as under;

EST for an activity is the start time at the tail of the activity corresponding to forward pass.

EFT = EST + Duration of activity.

LST for a critical activity is always equal to EST.

LST for a non-critical activity = LFT – duration of the activity.

LFT for critical activity = EFT

LFT for non-critical activity is the finishing time corresponding to backward pass.

Based on the above guidelines, let us calculate the EST, EFT, LST and LFT for the network in figure 3

Figure 3 (reproduced)
Activity A
EST = 0
EFT= 0 + 3 = 3
LST = EST = 0 (Critical activity)
LFT = EFT = 3 (Critical activity)
Activity B
EST = 3
EFT = 3 + 5 = 8
LFT = 14 (Non-critical activity)
LST = 14 – 5 = 9 (Non-critical activity)
Note that this value is not appearing on the network diagram at event 2. It is a hidden time.
Activity C
EST = 3
EFT = 3 + 7 = 10
LST = EST = 3 (Critical activity)
LFT = EFT = 10 (Critical activity)
Activity D
EST = 8
EFT = 8 + 4 = 12
Note that this value is not appearing on the network diagram at event 5. It is hidden time.
LFT = 18 (Non- critical activity)
LST = 18 – 4 = 14 (Non- critical activity)
Activity E
EST = 10
EFT = 10 + 8 = 18
LST = EST = 10 (Critical activity)
LFT = EFT = 19 (Critical activity)
Activity F
EST = 18
EFT = 18 + 3 = 21
LST = EST = 18 (Critical activity)
LFT = EFT = 21 (Critical activity)
The total float for an activity is defined as the total duration by which an activity can be delayed without delaying
the project duration. It is given by the formula
;

Total Float (TF) = (LFT – EST) – Duration of the activity (D)

i.e. TF = (LFT-EST)-D

i.e. TF = LFT – (EST+D)

i.e.TF = LFT – EFT

On the above formula for total float, the total floats for activities in the network discussed above are;
Activity A
TF = 3 – 3 = 0
Activity B
TF = 14 – 8 = 6
Activity C
TF = 10 – 10 – 0
Activity D
TF = 18 – 12 = 6
Activity E
TF = 18 – 18 = 0
Activity F
TF = 21 – 21 = 0
The EST, EFT, LST and LFT and total float calculations can be shown in a tabular form as below;
Sr. Activity Duration EST EFT LST LFT Total Float (TF)= (LFT-EST) – D Remark
No. D Alternatively
TF = LFT - EFT
1 A 3 0 3 0 3 0 Critical
2 B 5 3 8 9 14 6 Non-Critical
3 C 7 3 10 3 10 0 Critical
4 D 4 8 12 14 18 6 Non-Critical
5 E 8 10 18 10 18 0 Critical
6 F 3 18 21 18 21 0 Non-Critical
The float calculation for network in figure 4 is as follows;

Figure 4 reproduced

Sr. Activity Duration EST EFT LST LFT Total Float (TF)= (LFT-EST) – D Remark
No. D Alternatively
TF = LFT - EFT
1 1-2 4 0 4 0 4 0 Critical
2 2–3 7 4 11 4 11 0 Critical
3 2-4 8 4 12 9 17 5 Non-Critical
4 3-4 6 11 17 11 17 0 Critical
5 3-5 4 11 15 19 23 8 Non-Critical
6 4-5 6 17 23 17 23 0 Critical
7 5–6 3 23 26 23 26 0 Critical

Tip: To save time, the total float for all critical activities can be straight away marked as Zero without resorting
to any calculation.

Dummy activity

Dummy activity is an imaginary activity with Zero time duration which is introduced purposefully to achieve
interrelation between activities lying along different paths in a CPM network. A dummy activity is indicated by
arrow with dotted line as under;

1
2

Dummy activity
Let us consider one example of CPM network with dummy activity

Prepare CPM network, calculate the project duration, identify the critical path and calculate the total float for a
project with following details;

Sr. No. Activity Duration in days D Immediately preceding activity Immediately following activity
1 A 2 None B&C
2 B 4 A D&E
3 C 8 A E
4 D 6 B F
5 E 7 B&C F
6 F 3 D&E None
The CPM network with forward pass and backward pass times for all events is as under;

Project duration is 20 days. Critical path ia 1 – 2 – 4 – 5 – 6 and critical activities are A,C,E and F.

The table for calculation of event times and total float is as under;
Sr. Activity Duration EST EFT LST LFT TOTAL FLOAT (TF) =
No. in days LFT – EST – D Remark
D ALTERNATIVELY
LFT - EFT
1 A 2 0 2 0 2 0 Critical
2 B 4 2 6 4 10 4 Non-critical
3 C 8 2 10 2 10 0 Critical
4 Dummy 0 6 6 10 10 4 Non-critical
4 D 6 6 12 11 17 5 Non-critical
5 E 7 10 17 10 17 0 Critical
6 F 3 17 20 17 20 0 Critical
Programme Evaluation and Review Techniques (PERT)
This is a network methodology for project scheduling. It is based on probabilistic time estimates for activities.
This methodology is adopted projects involving activities which are not of routine nature and their time duration
can not be predicted in a deterministic manner. Examples for such projects include research and development,
special works involving new technology.
PERT involves three time estimates for each activity namely;
• Optimistic time (to )
• Most likely time (tm)
• Pessimistic Time (tp)
Optimistic time (to ): Optimistic (आशावादी) time estimate is one in which all the factors influencing the activity

are favourable and the activity can be concluded in the shortest duration.
Most likely time (tm): Most likely (सववसाधारण) time is one in which the factors influencing the activity are in

normal condition i.e. some factors favour and some adversely affect the activity in normal sense. This time
estimate is more than Optimistic time.
Pessimistic Time (tp): Pessimistic (निराशावादी) time is one which majority of factors influencing the activity are

adversely affect the activity. This time estimate always gives highest duration for the activity.
Expected time for completion of activity (TE): As PERT uses three probabilistic time estimate for each activity,
it becomes necessary to calculate the expected time for completion for the activity. PERT uses Beta (ß) probability
distribution for working out the expected time for completion of activity. Accordingly, the expected time is given
by;
1
𝐓𝐄 = 6 (𝐭𝐨 + 𝟒 𝐭𝐦 + 𝐭𝐩)

Consider a project as under for PERT network. Calculate the expected time for completion of each activity,
complete the network and calculate the project duration.
Sr. Activity Duration in days Activity immediately preceding Activity immediately
No. to tm tp following
1 A 3 6 8 NONE C
2 B 5 7 10 NONE D
3 C 4 6 8 A E
4 D 3 6 9 B E
5 E 2 3 4 C&D NONE
The expected time calculation is done as under;
Sr. Activity Duration in days Expected time
1
No. to tm tp 𝐓𝐄 = 6 (𝐭𝐨 + 𝟒 𝐭𝐦 + 𝐭𝐩)

1 A 3 6 8 5.83
2 B 5 7 10 7.17
3 C 4 6 8 6.67
4 D 3 6 9 6
5 E 2 3 4 3

PERT network
Even though the network shows critical and non-critical activities, PERT does not differentiate between critical
and non-critical activities. PERT uses probabilistic method for conclusion of project in the given time duration.

Comparison of CPM and PERT

A comparison of CPM and PERT on various criteria can be done as under;
Criterion for comparison CPM PERT
Control Technique aims at controlling time and Technique aims at control of time.
cost
Orientation Activity oriented technique Event Oriented technique
Time estimate for One time estimate Three time estimates
activities
Nature of projects Repetitive projects with availability of Non repetitive projects with lack of
sufficient historical data of similar historic data support.
activities
Differentiation of critical Clear differentiation No differentiation
and non-critical activities
Suitability for the type of Research and development Project Non research type especially routine
project projects like construction.
Degree of precision of Reasonable precision High precision
time
Activities managed Predictable activities Difficult to predict type of activities