2.

INTRODUCTION TO PROOF

METHODS OF PROOF
In Science, you use evidence to construct a theory that explains observations. The more evidence
you have, the more you believe the theory. In Science though, it is always possible that some new
observations will make you change the theory.
However, Mathematics is based on deductive proof: you define what is meant by something
and then use logic to prove things about it. You make assumptions called axioms that apply to
a particular set of proofs. In Mathematics, something that has been proven will always be true.
However, you do need to take account of the axioms.

2.01   Mathematical proof
2.02   Counterexamples
2.03   Converse
2.04   Equivalence and negation
2.05   Contrapositive
2.06   Contradiction
2.07   Euclidean geometry
Chapter summary
Chapter review
SYLLABUS SUBJECT MATTER
The nature of proof
• use implication, converse, equivalence, negation, contrapositive
• use proof by contradiction
• use the symbols for implication (⇒), equivalence (⇔), and equality (=)
• use the quantifiers for all and there exists
• use examples and counterexamples

Rational and irrational numbers

• prove simple results involving numbers
• express rational numbers as terminating or eventually recurring decimals and
vice versa
• prove irrationality by contradiction Prior learning

Specialist Mathematics 2019 v1.0 General Senior Syllabus © Queensland Curriculum and Assessment Authority
iStock/Trifonov_Evgeniy
 TERMINOLOGY
acute-angled triangle alternate angles angle-angle (AA)
angle-angle-side (AAS) angles at a point co-interior angles
congruent contradiction contrapositive
converse corollary corresponding angles
counterexample direct proof equilateral triangle
equivalent Euclid’s postulates if and only if (iff)
integer irrational number isosceles triangle
kite lemma member of
necessary and sufficient negation obtuse angled triangle
parallel parallelogram proof
QED rational number real numbers
rhombus right angle-hypotenuse-side (RHS) right-angled triangle
RTP side-angle-side (SAS) side-side-side (SSS)
similar supplementary theorem
trapezium vertically opposite

2.01 Mathematical proof

When something is true in Mathematics, it means it is true in all cases. To prove something is
true, you need to do more than give examples. One example just shows one case.
Consider the statement: If x > y, then x + c > y + c.
This certainly looks true, and if you try x = 5, y = 3 and c = 2, 0 or −3, it is correct.
But these examples do not prove it is true because there are other cases.
To prove it is true, you have to show that it is true for every possible case for which the
statement applies.
In Mathematics, you follow the steps below.

Steps of a mathematical proof

• A precise statement of what is to be proven, usually under a heading of Theorem,
Lemma, Corollary or Required to Prove (RTP)
• The logical steps of the Proof come next, usually with reasons for each step
• A final statement of what has been proven, followed by the initials QED

A theorem is an important result, a lemma is a small theorem used to prove a main theorem
and a corollary is a simple consequence of a theorem. The letters QED stand for quod erat
demonstrandum. This is Latin for ‘that which was required to be proven’ and it shows the
proof is finished.
A direct proof is a proof that starts with the assumption and goes in easy steps to the result.
It is the simplest method.

64 NELSON QMATHS 11. Specialist Mathematics ISBN 9780170412995

 EXAMPLE 1

Prove that if x > y, then x + c > y + c.

Solution

Write what has to be proven. RTP

If x > y, then x + c > y + c
Write the heading and start the Proof
proof with the assumption.
Let x > y.
Do the steps. Then x − y is positive (otherwise x ≤ y)
Then x − y + c − c is positive (adding 0)
Then x − c − y + c is positive (rearrangement).
Do the last step and write QED. Thus x − c > y − c (otherwise the above is not
positive).
QED

In Mathematics, an elegant proof has a small number of steps using a small amount of
mathematical knowledge. Example 1 uses only addition of 0 and the meaning of greater than.
It is very clumsy to keep writing ‘then’, ‘thus’, ‘so’, etc. in a proof. You can use the symbol ⇒
instead. It means ‘it follows that’ or ‘if …. then’.

EXAMPLE 2

Prove that if x > y and c < 0, then cx < cy.

Solution

Write what has to be proven. RTP

If x > y and c < 0, then cx < cy.
Put the heading for the proof and Proof
write the starting assumption.
Let x > y
Write logical steps with reasons. ⇒ x − y is positive (meaning of >)
⇒ c(x − y) is negative (product of −ve and +ve)
⇒ cx − cy is negative (expansion of brackets)
Put QED after the last step. ⇒ cx < cy (meaning of <) QED

ISBN 9780170412995 2. Methods of proof 65

 Not every attempt at a proof is correct. Common errors include incorrect assumptions
(false premise), reversing a statement that is not reversible or applying a general truth to a
case where it doesn’t apply.

EXAMPLE 3

Explain why each of the following ‘proofs’ are wrong.

a People from England speak English
Danny speaks English
Thus Danny is from England

iStock/MarioGuti
b Children learn to read in primary
school
Kayla is an adult
Thus Kayla can read
c  
All boys like to wrestle
Jimmy is a boy
Thus Jimmy likes to wrestle

Solution

a What is the assumption? From England ⇒ speaks English

What is the problem? The assumption is not reversible: you can speak
English but not be from England.
b What is the assumption? Learning to read in primary school is a general statement.
What is the problem? It is not necessarily true, so it could be that Kayla
can’t read. It is a false premise.
c What is the assumption? All boys lie to wrestle is a general statement.
What is the problem? This general statement does not apply to everyone.
It is a false premise.

Some statements are reversible. In that case, you can use the symbol ⇔ to show that it works
WS in both directions. The symbol is generally read as ‘necessary and sufficient’ or ‘if and only if’.
It just means that if the first part is true, so is the second, and vice versa.
Necessary
Homework and
sufficient
For example, ‘PQRS is a quadrilateral’ ⇔ ‘PQRS has 4 sides’ works both ways.
A is sufficient for B means A ⇒ B
A is necessary for B means A ⇐ B (B ⇒ A)

66 NELSON QMATHS 11. Specialist Mathematics ISBN 9780170412995

Exercise 2.01 Mathematical proof
1 Prove that if x > y, then x − c > y − c. Example

1
2 Prove that if x > y and y > z, then x > z (transitivity).

3 Prove that if x > y and c > 0, then cx > cy. Example

x y 2
4 Prove that if x > y and c > 0, then > .
c c
5 Explain why each of the following ‘proofs’ are incorrect. Example

a Cats eat birds b All children love chocolate 3

People eat chickens Joan is a child
Chickens are birds Thus Joan loves chocolate
Therefore people are cats
c 
Native Americans have always eaten a d 
The dog ate my homework is a
lot of rice classic lie
Sitting Bull was a Native American David said the dog ate his homework
Therefore Sitting Bull ate lots of rice Therefore David is lying

Problem solving
6 a Prove that if x + c > y + c, then x > y
b What can you conclude by combining a and Example 1?

7 Prove that x > y > 1 ⇒ x2 > y2 > 1.

8 The following is a classic ‘proof’ that 1 = −1.

What is the incorrect step?

Let x = 1

⇒ x2 = 1

⇒ x2 − 1 = 0

⇒ (x − 1)(x + 1) = 0

( x − 1)( x + 1) 0
⇒
=
( x − 1) ( x − 1)
⇒x+1=0

⇒ x = −1

⇒ 1 = −1

ISBN 9780170412995 2. Methods of proof 67

 2.02 Counterexamples
WS
When you prove a mathematical statement, you have to show it is true for all cases. It can be
Counterexamples
Homework
disproven by just one case where it is not true.

Counterexamples
• A counterexample is an example of a case where a statement is not true
• A single counterexample is all that is needed to disprove a statement

EXAMPLE 4

Find a counterexample to show that x2 > 1 ⇒ x > 1 is not true.

Solution

The squares of negative numbers are positive. (−3)2 = 9 > 1, but −3 < 1
Write the conclusion. x2 > 1 ⇒ x > 1 is not true.

When you are looking for counterexamples, try 0, 1, negatives, large numbers, very small
numbers and numbers at the boundaries of conditions.

EXAMPLE 5

In the Middle Ages, n2 + n + 41 was thought to be a prime number for any positive integer n.
Prove that this is not true.

Solution

Try n = 1. n2 + n + 41 = 1 + 1 + 41
= 43,   which is prime
Try n = 41, the other n + n + 41 = 412 + 41 + 41
2

boundary.
= 41(41 + 2)
= 41 × 43,   which is not prime
Write the conclusion. n2 + n + 41 is not always prime because it is composite
for n = 41.

In fact, n2 + n + 41 is also composite for n = 40.

68 NELSON QMATHS 11. Specialist Mathematics ISBN 9780170412995

Exercise 2.02 Counterexamples
1 Show that x2 > y2 ⇒ x > y is not true. Example

2
4
2 Show that x = 16 ⇒ x = 4 is not true.

3 Show that n3 − 6n2 + 11n − 6 = 0 is not always true for all positive integers.

4 Show that n2 + n + 17 is prime for all positive integers is not true. Example

5
5 Show that 3n2 + 3n + 23 is prime for all positive integers is not true.

Problem solving
1 1
6 Decide whether x > y ⇒ < is true. If it is not true:
x y
a find a counterexample
b try to find a restriction on x and y to make it true.

7 Decide whether x2 + y2 < (x + y)2 is true. If it is not true:

a find a counterexample b try to find a restriction to make it true

8 Decide whether (x − y)2 < x2 + y2 is true. If it is not true:

a find a counterexample
b try to find a simple change or restriction on y to make it true.

9 Decide whether np = mp ⇒ n = m is true. If it is not true:

a find a counterexample
b try to find a simple change or restriction to make it true

1 1
10 Decide whether > is true. If it is not true:
n n +1
a find a counterexample
b try to find a simple change or restriction to make it true.

2.03 Converse
WS
For p ≠ 0, mp = np ⇒ m = n.
Converse
Homework
This is also true in reverse, so m = n ⇒ mp = np.
This means that you can say that for p ≠ 0, mp = np ⇔ m = n.
The reverse of a conditional mathematical statement like this has a special name.

ISBN 9780170412995 2. Methods of proof 69

 Converse
• The converse of ‘if P then Q’ is ‘if Q then P ’
• In symbols, the converse of P ⇒ Q is Q ⇒ P

Writing the converse of a mathematical statement is an important skill. Writing the converse
does not mean that it is true. A statement and its converse could both be true, both be false or
one could be true and one false.
A statement and its converse need to be proved separately.

EXAMPLE 6

Write the converse of each statement.

a People in the army wear uniforms.
b The square of an integer is a positive integer.
c A square is a plane shape with 4 equal sides and equal angles.

Solution

a Identify P and Q. P means a person is in the army

Q means a person wears a uniform
Write the statement in reverse. A person who wears a uniform is in the army.
b Identify P and Q. P means x = n2 where n is an integer
Q means x > 0
Write the reverse statement. A positive integer is the square of an integer.
c Identify P and Q. P means a plane shape is a square
Q means a plane shape has 4 equal sides and
equal angles
Write the reverse statement. A plane shape with 4 equal sides and equal angles
is a square.

In Example 6, the statements in a and b are true but their converses are false. Both statement c
and its converse are true. For another example, the statement x2 = 16 ⇒ x = 4 is false, but its
converse is true.

70 NELSON QMATHS 11. Specialist Mathematics ISBN 9780170412995

 EXAMPLE 7

Write the converse of each statement and decide on the truth of the statement and its
converse.
a Lions hunt and eat wildebeest.
b A quadrilateral whose diagonals cross at 90° is a square.
c If x, y are integers, then xy is an integer.

Getty Images/Panoramic Images

Solution

a Write the converse. Wildebeest hunt and eat lions.

Decide on their truth. The statement is true but the converse is false.

b Write the converse. A square has diagonals that cross at 90°.

Decide on their truth. The statement is false but the converse is true.

c Write the converse. If xy is an integer, then x, y are integers.

Decide on their truth. The statement is true but the converse is false.

Exercise 2.03 Converse

1 Write the converse of ‘Sharks are dangerous animals’. Example

6
2 Write the converse of: x + y an integer ⇒ x, y integers.

3 Write the converse of: adjacent angles x, y on a straight line ⇒ x + y = 180°.

ISBN 9780170412995 2. Methods of proof 71

Example 4 Write the converse of ‘Crocodiles sometimes eat people’ and decide on the truth of the
7 statement and its converse.

5 Write the converse of ‘A quadrilateral is a kite ⇒ diagonals cross at 90°’ and decide on
the truth of the statement and its converse.

6 Write the converse of ‘For integers x, y: one even and the other odd ⇒ x + y odd’ and
decide on the truth of the statement and its converse.

7 Write the converse of ‘xy = 0 ⇒ x = 0 or y = 0’ and decide on the truth of the statement
and its converse.

8 Write the converse of ‘2x + 1 is an odd integer ⇒ x is an integer’ and decide on the truth
of the statement and its converse.

9 Write the converse of ‘x an integer ⇒ 2x is an even integer’ and decide on the truth of
the statement and its converse.

10 If x is an even integer, x2 is an even integer.

a Is the statement true?
b Is the converse true?

11 If x is an integer divisible by 3, x2 is an integer divisible by 3.

a Is the statement true?
b Is the converse true?

12 If x is an odd integer, 2x is an even integer.

a Is the statement true?
b Is the converse true?

2.04 Equivalence and negation

You have used the ideas of equivalence (equality) and congruence previously. Two expressions
are equivalent if they have the same answer. Two geometric shapes are congruent if they are
exactly the same shape and size.

Equivalence
• Two statements P and Q are equivalent if P ⇔ Q
• To prove equivalence you have to show that both P ⇒ Q and its converse,
Q ⇒ P are true
• Equivalent statements are written as ‘P if and only if Q’, ‘P iff Q’ and ‘P is necessary
and sufficient for Q’

72 NELSON QMATHS 11. Specialist Mathematics ISBN 9780170412995

 EXAMPLE 8

Decide if each pair of statements are equivalent.

a x, y are rational; x + y is rational
b x3 > 0; x > 0

Solution

a Consider the forward x, y rational

direction. a c
⇒ x = , y = for integers a, b, c, d
b d
a c
⇒x+y= +
b d
ad + bc
= , which is rational as ad + bc, bd are integers
bd
Consider the converse. Consider x = 5 + 3, y = 5 − 3
Then x + y is rational, but x, y are not rational
State the conclusion. The converse is not true so the statements are not
equivalent.

b Consider the forward x3 > 0

direction.
⇒x×x×x>0
⇒ x > 0 as x if x was negative, then x3 would be negative
Consider the converse. x>0
⇒ x2 > 0 (product of two positives)
⇒ x3 > 0 (product of two positives)
State the conclusion. The statements are equivalent as each implies the other.

Whenever you make a statement, there is a possible opposite statement. For example, the
opposite of ‘all 17-year-olds are in Year 11’ is ‘some 17-year-olds are not in Year 11’. You
could even go as far as ‘at least one 17-year-old is not in Year 11’. You can see this by writing
the opposite by putting in the word ‘not’. This gives ‘not all 17-year-olds are in Year 11’.

Negation
The negation of a statement P is ‘not P ’, written as P or ¬P.

ISBN 9780170412995 2. Methods of proof 73

 EXAMPLE 9

Write the negation of each statement.

a Antarctica is permanently covered in snow and ice.
b The inverse of a rational number is also a rational number.
c Any positive integer can be written as the sum of two different prime numbers.

Solution

a Write the statement to include the The entire surface of Antarctica always
implied meanings. has a layer of snow or ice on top of it.

Now write the negation. There is some part of Antarctica where

the surface is sometimes exposed.

b In this case, ‘a rational number’ really There is at least one rational number
means any rational number, not just one. whose inverse is not a rational number.

c Just one case is enough. There is at least one positive integer

that cannot be written as the sum of two
different prime numbers.
iStock/PatrickPoendl

74 NELSON QMATHS 11. Specialist Mathematics ISBN 9780170412995

 INVESTIGATION

THE GOLDBACH CONJECTURE

Around 1742, Christian Goldbach thought you could write integers as a sum of small
numbers of prime numbers. After corresponding with Leonhard Euler on the subject he
settled on the following conjecture, but could not prove it:
‘Every even number greater than 4 can be written as the sum of two prime numbers.’
This is now known as the strong Goldbach conjecture.
The following is known as the weak Goldbach conjecture:
‘Every odd integer over 5 can be written as the sum of three prime numbers.’
There have been many attempted proofs of the Goldbach conjectures, but none have
been accepted by the Mathematics community.
Fermat’s last theorem was a conjecture for which he said he had a ‘marvellous little
proof ’. It wasn’t until 1995 that it was proven, taking 150 pages of complicated
mathematics.
Investigate the Goldbach conjecture(s) and other conjectures.
Make a list of which have been proven, which disproven and which are unsolved.

Negation is also important in the definition of rational and irrational numbers.

Rational and irrational numbers WS

a
• A rational number is one that can be expressed as , where a and b are integers Rational and
b Homework
irrational numbers

• An irrational number is one that is not rational

• It follows that a rational number can also be expressed as a terminating or recurring WS

decimal and an irrational one cannot Decimal

Homework
representation

a
Since a rational number can be written as , if you divide a by b it either divides exactly
b
to make a terminating decimal, or gives one of the remainders 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …, b − 1. Since
there are only a finite number of possible remainders, they must repeat, unless the division
terminates. If the division terminates, so does the decimal. If it doesn’t terminate, the
numbers must repeat. Hence the last statement above is true. You should be able to change
between the two representations of rational numbers.

ISBN 9780170412995 2. Methods of proof 75

 EXAMPLE 10

5 9
a Change and to decimal form.
16 14
b Change 0.175 and 0.318181818… to fraction form.

Solution

a Divide 5 by 16. 0.3125

)
16 5.00000000
48
20
16
40
32
80
80
0

Divide 9 by 14. 0.6 4 285714 2

)
14 9.0000000000
84
60
56
40
28
120
112
80
70
100
98
20
14
60
56
40

76 NELSON QMATHS 11. Specialist Mathematics ISBN 9780170412995

 5 9
Write the answers. = 0.3125, = 0.6428571
16 14
b Write 0.175 as x. x = 0.175
Multiply by a power of 10 to make whole 1000x = 175
numbers.
175 7
Write as a fraction and cancel down. x= =
1000 40

Write 0.318 as x. x = 0.31818181818….

There are two numbers recurring so 100x = 31.8181818181….

multiply by 102.
Subtract to remove the recurring part. 99x = 31.5
Change to only whole numbers. 990x = 315
315 63 7
Write as a fraction and cancel down. x= = =
990 198 22
7 7
Write the answers. 0.175 = , 0.318 =
40 22

Exercise 2.04 Equivalence and negation

1 Decide if the following statements are equivalent. Example

a x = 10; 5x = 50 8
2 2
b a = b; a = b
c a2 − 2ab + b2 = 0; a = b
d a3 = b3; a = b
e 
The opposite sides of a quadrilateral are equal; the opposite sides of a quadrilateral
are parallel.

2 For positive integers, are the statements ‘x is a prime number’ and ‘x is not a composite
number’ equivalent?

3 Write the negation of the following statements. Example

a x is an integer 9
b All angles in a quadrilateral are less than 180°
c A number that can be shown on the number line is either a fraction or an integer
d 
A number that can be shown on the number line is either a rational or irrational
number
e If (x − y)2 > x2 + y2, then y is negative

ISBN 9780170412995 2. Methods of proof 77

 Example 4 Change each fraction to decimal form.
10 a
5
b
5
c
6
d
17
e
17
8 7 13 40 18
5 Change each decimal to fraction form.
a 0.225 b 0.423 c 0.514 d 0.562 e 0.6427

Problem solving
6 Are the statements ‘x is a rational number’ and ‘x can be written as a recurring decimal’
equivalent? Justify your answer.

7 Is ‘x is a fraction’ the negation of ‘x is an integer’? Explain your answer.

8 Is being female the converse or negation of being male? Justify your answer.

9 Is being an even number the negation of being an odd number? Justify your answer.

10 Is ‘If you don’t work hard in Maths, you will get a poor result’ equivalent to ‘If you work
hard in Maths, you will get a good result’? Explain your answer.

11 Are the statements ‘An integer that is divisible by 2 is even’ and ‘An integer that is not
divisible by 2 is not even’ equivalent statements, converse statements or negations of
each other? Justify your answer.

2.05 Contrapositive
‘Contra’ means against, so contrapositive literally means ‘against positive’. If you think of
WS the statement ‘Fish have gills’ as the positive statement, then the contrapositive statement is
Contrapositive
Homework
‘Something without gills is not a fish’. You can think of the ‘contra’ part as saying you have to
go backwards when you change to negatives.

Contrapositive
• The contrapositive of P ⇒ Q is Q ⇒ P
• The contrapositive statements P ⇒ Q and Q ⇒ P are equivalent
• Proving Q ⇒ P is the same as proving P ⇒ Q

You may find it easier to prove the contrapositive than to prove the original statement.
You should always consider the contrapositive as an alternative method of proof.

78 NELSON QMATHS 11. Specialist Mathematics ISBN 9780170412995

 EXAMPLE 11

Prove that any prime number greater than 2 is odd.

Solution

Identify P and Q. P = n > 2 is a prime number

Q = n is odd

Start with Q. Proof

Assume n > 2 is not odd
⇒ n is even
⇒ n is divisible by 2
⇒ n is not prime

Write the conclusion. If n > 2 is not odd, then n is not prime

⇒ If n > 2 is prime, then n is odd. QED

In proofs, you often use the phrases, ‘for all’, ‘for any’ or ‘for all cases’. There is a symbol
that makes this shorter to write. There are other symbols for the integers, rational numbers
and so on.

Common symbols used in proofs WS

∀ for all Quantifiers

Homework

Z the set of all integers

+
Z the set of all positive integers
Q the set of all rational numbers
+
Q the set of all positive rational numbers
R the set of all real numbers
R\0 the set of all real numbers except 0
∈ is a member of (is one of )
∃ there exists (there is)
|| is parallel to
 triangle
∠ angle

ISBN 9780170412995 2. Methods of proof 79

 EXAMPLE 12

Prove that ∀ n ∈ Z +, if n2 is divisible by 3, then n is divisible by 3.

Solution

Identify P and Q. P = n2 is divisible by 3

Q = n is divisible by 3
Start with Q. Proof
Suppose n is not divisible by 3
⇒ n = 3m + 1 or 3m + 2 for some integer m
Now square n. ⇒ n2 = (3m + 1)2 or (3m + 2)2
= 9m2 + 6m + 1 or 9m2 + 12m + 4
= 3(3m2 + 2m) + 1 or 3(3m2 + 4m + 1) + 1
⇒ n2 is not divisible by 3
Complete the proof. If n not divisible by 3, then n2 not divisible by 3
⇒ If n2 is divisible by 3, then n is divisible by 3 QED

You can use the same method as above to show that if a square is divisible by 2, 5, 7, 11, …,
then the number must be divisible by 2, 5, 7, 11, …
The contrapositive can be used in geometry. You also combine it with a counterexample to
show that something is not true.

EXAMPLE 13

Show that ‘If a quadrilateral has 4 equal sides, then it is a square’ is false.

Solution

Identify P and Q. P = a quadrilateral has 4 equal sides

Q = the quadrilateral is a square
Start with Q. Proof
Suppose a quadrilateral is not a square.
Find a counterexample A rhombus has 4 equal sides.
for P .
Complete the proof. It is not true that a non-square does not have 4 equal sides.
⇒ ‘If a quadrilateral has 4 equal sides it is a square’ is false.
QED

80 NELSON QMATHS 11. Specialist Mathematics ISBN 9780170412995

Exercise 2.05 Contrapositive
Examples

1 Prove that ∀ n ∈ Z +, if n2 is even, then n is even. 11,12

2 Prove that if a quadrilateral is a rectangle, its opposite sides are parallel. Example

13
Problem solving
3 Prove that ∀ n ∈ Z +, if 3n + 1 is even, then n is odd.

4 Prove that ∀ n, m ∈ Z +, if nm is odd, then both n and m are odd.

5 Prove that ∀ n, m ∈ Z +, if nm is even, then at least one of n and m are even.

6 Prove that ∀ n, m ∈ Z +, if n + m is even, then n and m are both even or both odd.

7 Prove that ∀ n, m ∈ Z +, if nm > 100, then at least one of n, m > 10.

8 Prove that ∀ a, n, m ∈ Z, if nm is not divisible by a, then n is not divisible by a.

9 Prove that ∀ x, y ∈ R, if xy is irrational, then at least one of x, y must be irrational.

10 Prove that if x is a positive irrational number, then x is irrational.

2.06 Contradiction
Proof by contradiction is similar to contrapositive because you assume the negation of what
you want to prove.

Proof by contradiction
• Assume the negation of what you want to prove
• Show that this leads to something obviously not true
• Say that this is a contradiction, so what you want must be true

Proof by contradiction is sometimes called ‘reducio ad absurdum’, which is Latin for

‘reduction to absurdity’. It is often easier than contrapositive because you do not have to
reach the negation of the assumption.

ISBN 9780170412995 2. Methods of proof 81

 EXAMPLE 14

Prove that there is no greatest integer.

Solution

Assume the negation of what Proof

you want.
Assume there is a greatest integer, n
Find a larger one. ⇒ n + 1 is an integer
State the contradiction. But n + 1 > n
State that it is a contradiction. This contradicts the assumption.
Finish the proof. The assumption is not true, so there is no greatest
integer.   QED

Contradiction is probably the most commonly-used method of proof in higher mathematics.

EXAMPLE 15

Prove that 3 is not rational.

Solution

Assume the negation of what Proof

you want.
Suppose 3 is rational.

a
Write in lowest form. ⇒ 3= for some a, b ∈ Z
b
a
If is not in the lowest form with a, b > 0, cancel until
b
it is.

a2
Square both sides. ⇒3=
b2

Multiply both sides by b2. ⇒ a2 = 3b2

State the meaning. ⇒ a2 is divisible by 3
⇒ a is divisible by 3 (see Example 12, p. 80)
Write a as a multiple of 3. ⇒ a = 3c for some c ∈ Z

82 NELSON QMATHS 11. Specialist Mathematics ISBN 9780170412995

 Substitute and continue. ⇒ (3c)2 = 3b2
⇒ 3b2 = 9c2
⇒ b2 = 3c2
⇒ b2 is divisible by 3
⇒ b is divisible by 3
a
State the contradiction. ⇒ is not in the lowest form (a and b both
b
divide by 3)
a
State that it is a contradiction. This contradicts the assumption that = 3 is
b
rational.
State the conclusion. Thus, 3 is irrational.   QED

The proof above uses two extra pieces of information. The first is that a fraction can always
be cancelled to the lowest form. The second is that if n2 is divisible by a prime number,
then so is n. You have already seen that this is true for the prime numbers 2 and 3 in the
last section. You can use the contrapositive to prove it for any prime number. It follows that
the square root of any prime number will be irrational. If you wanted to show that 17 was
irrational, then you could assume that ‘n2 divisible by 17’ ⇒ ‘n divisible by 17’ unless told to
prove it first. It is also true for any integer that is not a perfect square. For example, it is true
for n = 8 but not for n = 9.

Proof by contradiction is used extensively in geometry.

EXAMPLE 16

Prove that the perpendicular distance from a point to a line is the shortest distance
to the line.

Solution

Assume the negation. Proof

Let the perpendicular distance from the point A to the
line be AB.
Assume that there is a shorter distance AC.
⇒ AC < AB

ISBN 9780170412995 2. Methods of proof 83

 Draw a diagram. B
C

Use Pythagoras’ theorem. ⇒ AC 2 = AB 2 + BC 2

State contradiction. ⇒ AC > AB
Say it is a contradiction. This is a contradiction.
State the conclusion. The assumption is false, so the perpendicular distance is
the shortest distance from a point to a line.

Exercise 2.06 Contradiction

Example

14 1 Prove that there is no greatest even number.

2 Prove that there is no greatest odd number.
3 Prove there are an infinite number of prime numbers. HINT: Multiply them and add 1.
Example

15 4 Prove that 2 is irrational.

5 Prove that 5 is irrational.
Example

16 6 Prove that there is at most one obtuse angle in a triangle.

Problem solving
7 Prove that if a, b ∈ Z, then a2 − 4b ≠ 2.
8 Prove that for a, b, c ∈ Z +, a2 + b2 = c2 ⇒ a or b is even.
9 Prove that if x is irrational, then −x is irrational.
10 Prove that the sum of a rational number and an irrational number is irrational.

11 Prove that the product of a rational number and an irrational number is irrational

12 Prove that the quotient of a rational number and an irrational number is irrational.

13 Prove that the opposite sides of a parallelogram are of equal length.

2.07 Euclidean geometry

The study of geometry was first set out in Euclid’s Elements. The ancient mathematician Euclid
lived from about 325 bce to about 265 bce in Alexandria. He systematically collected all the
geometry of the time in thirteen books (chapters). They have been used ever since.
Euclid used 5 assumptions (postulates) to build Euclidean geometry.

84 NELSON QMATHS 11. Specialist Mathematics ISBN 9780170412995

 Euclid’s postulates
• You can draw a straight line segment through any two points
• You can infinitely extend any line segment to make a straight line
• For any line segment you can draw a circle so that the line segment is a radius with
one end at the centre
• All right angles are congruent
• If the co-interior angles of a transversal and two straight lines in the same plane do
not add up to 180°, then the straight lines will meet if they are indefinitely extended
on the side where the co-interior angles sum to less than 180°.

Euclid was forced to adopt the last postulate, but for a long time people thought it could
be proven from the first four. It is now known to be equivalent to Pythagoras’ theorem,
the assumption that parallel lines are always the same distance apart and many other
assumptions. Euclid defined parallel lines as lines in the same plane that never meet.
Other kinds of geometry make different assumptions about parallel lines.
The contrapositive of the 5th postulate is that the co-interior angles of parallel lines add
up to 180°. Since it is the contrapositive, it is equivalent to the postulate.
A straight line is two right angles, so the sum of angles on a straight line must be 180°.

INVESTIGATION

EUCLID
Find out more about Euclid of Alexandria.
• Where was Alexandria?
• Why was Alexandria famous?
• How was Euclid’s work preserved?
• Can you still get Euclid’s Elements?

ISBN 9780170412995 2. Methods of proof 85

 EXAMPLE 17

Use Euclid’s postulates to prove that the angles in a triangle add up to 180°.

Solution

Draw a triangle ABC and a line Proof

DCE passing through C parallel to C
D E
AB. Extend AB to FABG

F G
A B

State what you have to prove. RTP

∠ABC + ∠ACB + ∠BAC = 180°

Do the proof. ∠FAC + ∠DCA = 180° (co-interior)

∠FAC + ∠BAC = 180° (straight line)
⇒ ∠FAC + ∠DCA − ∠FAC − ∠BAC = 0°
⇒ ∠DCA − ∠BAC = 0°
⇒ ∠DCA = ∠BAC
Similarly, ∠ECB = ∠ABC
Now ∠ECB + ∠ACB + ∠DCA = 180°
⇒ ∠ABC + ∠ACB + ∠BAC = 180° QED

Since the steps to show ∠ECB = ∠ABC are the same as the steps for ∠DCA = ∠BAC, you can
just say ‘similarly’ instead of repeating them.
The angle sum of a quadrilateral must be 360° because it is two triangles. You should
remember the following from Year 10.

86 NELSON QMATHS 11. Specialist Mathematics ISBN 9780170412995

 Basic geometry and shapes
• Vertically opposite angles are equal  
• Angles on a straight line add up to 180° (supplementary)   x y x + y = 180°

x x + y + z = 360°
y
• Angles at a point add up to 360°   z

y x + y = 180°
• Co-interior angles add up to 180°   x

• Alternate angles are equal  

• Corresponding angles are equal  

y x + y + z = 180°
• Angles in a triangle add up to 180°   x z

y z
• Angles in a quadrilateral add up to 360°   w + x + y + z = 360°
w
x

• An equilateral triangle has all 3 sides (and angles) equal  

• An isosceles triangle has 2 sides (and angles) equal  

• A scalene triangle has all sides (and angles) different  

• An acute-angled triangle has only acute angles (less than 90°)  

• A right-angled triangle has a right angle  

• An obtuse angled triangle has an obtuse angle (more than 90°)  

• A trapezium has a pair of parallel sides  

• A parallelogram has opposite sides parallel  

• A rhombus has equal sides  

• A rectangle has 4 right angles  

• A square is a regular quadrilateral; all sides and angles equal  

• A kite has 2 pairs of equal adjacent sides  

ISBN 9780170412995 2. Methods of proof 87

 WS EXAMPLE 18
Complete the proofs
Homework
Find the value of each pronumeral, giving reasons for each step.
a B D b F
114° x
PS C G
D y H
24° E
102° I
Geometrical A A C
proofs order E
activity B

Solution

a Find the third angle in  ABC. ∠BCA = 42° (angle sum of  ABC)

Find ∠DCE. ∠DCE = 42° (vertically opposite)

Use the isosceles triangle. x = 69° (sum of angles in isosceles triangle)

b Find the exterior angle of  EFG. ∠DEF = 102° (corresponding)

Find the adjacent angle. ∠FEG = 78° (angles on a line)

Find the third angle in  EFG ∠FGE = 12° (sum of angles in  EFG)

Find the required angle. y = 12°   (vertically opposite)

Geometric proofs often used for congruent or similar triangles. You can prove that two
triangles are congruent or similar using the following tests.

WS Triangle congruency and similarity tests

Congruent triangles
Homework
Triangles are congruent if:
proofs
• Side-side-side (SSS); Three sides are equal
• Side-angle-side (SAS); Two sides and the included angle are equal
• Angle-angle-side (AAS); Two angles and corresponding sides are equal
• Right angle-hypotenuse-side (RHS); 
The hypotenuse and another side are
equal in right-angled triangles
Triangles are similar if:
• Angle-angle (AA); Two angles are equal
• Side-angle-side (SAS); Two sides of equal angles are in proportion
• Side-side-side (SSS); Three sides are in proportion
• Right angle-hypotenuse-side (RHS); 
The hypotenuse and another side are in
proportion in right-angled triangles

88 NELSON QMATHS 11. Specialist Mathematics ISBN 9780170412995

You can use direct proof, counterexamples, contrapositive or contradiction in geometric
proofs. You often need to prove equivalence by proving both a statement and its converse.

EXAMPLE 19 WS

Proving properties of
Homework
Prove that a quadrilateral is a kite if and only if one of its diagonals bisects the other at 90°. quadrilaterals

Solution

Draw a diagram of a kite ABCD Proof

with diagonals intersecting at E.
Assume that ABCD is a kite. Draw the diagonals to
intersect at E.
B
E C
A

Consider  ABC and  ADC. AB = AD  (kite)

BC = DC  (kite)
AC = AC  (same)
⇒  ABC ≡  ADC  (SSS)

Now consider  EBC and  EDC. ∠BCE = ∠DCE  ( ABC ≡  ADC)

BC = DC  (kite)
∠CBD = ∠CDB  (iscoceles  CBD)
⇒  EBC ≡  EDC
Finish the forward proof. ⇒ BE = ED and
∠CED = ∠CEB = 90°   (equal angles on a line)
⇒ diagonal AC bisects BD at 90°.
Now start the converse. Draw a Conversely, assume that ABCD is a quadrilateral and
quadrilateral with one diagonal AC bisects BD at E.
bisecting the other at 90°. B

A E C

ISBN 9780170412995 2. Methods of proof 89

 Consider  EBC and  EDC. EB = ED  (bisected)
Now consider  EBA and  EDA. ∠CED = ∠CEB = 90°  (given)
EC = EC  (same)
⇒  EBC ≡  EDC  (SAS)
Similarly, EBA ≡  EDA*

Use the congruent triangles. ⇒ BC = CD and AB = AD

Finish the converse proof. ⇒ ABCD has two pairs of equal adjacent sides
⇒ ABCD is a kite
Finish the whole proof. The proposition and its converse have been proved.
QED

*The steps for  EBA ≡  EDA are the same as for  EBC ≡  EDC, immediately above. You
can omit the steps and write ‘similarly’ for such a case.
The proof is typical of many direct geometric proofs.

Exercise 2.07 Euclidean geometry

Example 1 Use Euclid’s postulates to prove that corresponding angles on parallel lines are equal.
17
2 Prove the converse of ‘co-interior angles on parallel lines add up to 180°’.
Hint: Use the contrapositive.

3 Prove that alternate angles on parallel lines are equal.

4 Prove the converse of question 3.

5 Prove the converse of question 1.

6 Show that the exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the interior
opposite angles.

Example 7 Find the value of each pronumeral, giving reasons for each step.
18 a S b R c I
i 32°
63° I 75° T
G h C
L 76°
j
G N
I A
111° K
30° P
T 83° L
P H E

90 NELSON QMATHS 11. Specialist Mathematics ISBN 9780170412995

 8 Find the value of each pronumeral, giving reasons for each step.
C
a T b
41°
F 89° Y
115°
G h
E A
I g
86°
81°
T
H N
c F d
R
28°
I
77°
E
B S i
K

U
T
f T
97°
Q N A

9 Show that a quadrilateral is a parallelogram if and only if the diagonals bisect each other. Example

19
Problem solving
10 Show that a quadrilateral is a rhombus if and only if the diagonals bisect each other at 90°.

11 Show that a line segment between the midpoints of two sides of a triangle is parallel to
and half the length of the third side.

12 State and show the converse of question 11.

13 Show that the diagonally opposite angles of a quadrilateral are equal if and only if it is a
parallelogram.

ISBN 9780170412995 2. Methods of proof 91

 2. CHAPTER SUMMARY

Methods of proof
Steps of a mathematical proof
• A precise statement of what is to be proven, usually under a heading of Theorem,
Lemma, Corollary or Required to Prove (RTP)
• The logical steps of the Proof come next, usually with reasons for each step
• A final statement of what has been proven, followed by the initials QED
Types of proof
• A direct proof is a proof that starts with the assumption and goes in easy steps to the result.
• A counterexample is an example of a case where a statement is not true
• A single counterexample is all that is needed to disprove a statement
• The converse of ‘if P then Q’ is ‘if Q then P ’
• In symbols, the converse of P ⇒ Q is Q ⇒ P
• Two statements P and Q are equivalent if P ⇔ Q
• To prove equivalence you have to show that both P ⇒ Q and its converse, Q ⇒ P are true
• Equivalent statements are written as ‘P if and only if Q’, ‘P iff Q’ and ‘P is necessary and
sufficient for Q’
Contrapositive
• The negation of a statement P is ‘not P ’, written as P or ¬P.
• The contrapositive of P ⇒ Q is Q ⇒ P
• The contrapositive statements P ⇒ Q and Q ⇒ P are equivalent
• Proving Q ⇒ P is the same as proving P ⇒ Q
Proof by contradiction
• Assume the negation of what you want to prove
• Show that this leads to something obviously not true
• Say that this is a contradiction, so what you want must be true
Rational and irrational numbers
a
• A rational number is one that can be expressed as , where a and b are integers
b
• An irrational number is one that is not rational
• It follows that a rational number can also be expressed as a terminating or recurring
decimal and an irrational one cannot

92 NELSON QMATHS 11. Specialist Mathematics ISBN 9780170412995

Mathematics symbols used in proofs

∀ for all
Z the set of all integers
+
Z the set of all positive integers
Q the set of all rational numbers
Q+ the set of all positive rational numbers
R the set of all real numbers
R\0 the set of all real numbers except 0
∈ is a member of (is one of  )
∃ there exists (there is)
|| is parallel to
 triangle
∠ angle

Euclid’s postulates
• You can draw a straight line segment through any two points
• You can infinitely extend any line segment to make a straight line
• For any line segment you can draw a circle so that the line segment is a radius with one
end at the centre
• All right angles are congruent
• If the co-interior angles of a transversal and two straight lines in the same plane do not
add up to 180°, then the straight lines will meet if they are indefinitely extended on the
side where the co-interior angles sum to less than 180°.
• The last postulate is equivalent to ‘co-interior angles of parallel lines add up to 180°’
Basic geometry and shapes
• Vertically opposite angles are equal  
• Angles on a straight line add up to 180° (supplementary)   x y x + y = 180°

x x + y + z = 360°
• Angles at a point add up to 360°   y
z

y x + y = 180°
• Co-interior angles add up to 180°   x

• Alternate angles are equal  

• Corresponding angles are equal  

ISBN 9780170412995 2. Methods of proof 93

 y x + y + z = 180°
• Angles in a triangle add up to 180°   x z

y z
• Angles in a quadrilateral add up to 360°   w + x + y + z = 360°
w
x

• An equilateral triangle has all 3 sides (and angles) equal  

• An isosceles triangle has 2 sides (and angles) equal  

• A scalene triangle has all sides (and angles) different  

• An acute-angled triangle has only acute angles (less than 90°)  

• A right-angled triangle has a right angle  

• An obtuse-angled triangle has an obtuse angle (more than 90°)  

• A trapezium has a pair of parallel sides  

• A parallelogram has opposite sides parallel  

• A rhombus has equal sides  

• A rectangle has 4 right angles  

• A square is a regular quadrilateral; all sides and angles equal  

• A kite has 2 pairs of equal adjacent sides  

Triangles are congruent if:
• Side-side-side (SSS); Three sides are equal
• Side-angle-side (SAS); Two sides and the included angle are equal
• Angle-angle-side (AAS); Two angles and corresponding sides are equal
• Right angle-hypotenuse-side (RHS); The hypotenuse and another side are equal in
right-angled triangles
Triangles are similar if:
• Angle-angle (AA); Two angles are equal
• Side-angle-side (SAS); Two sides of equal angles are in proportion
• Side-side-side (SSS); Three sides are in proportion
• Right angle-hypotenuse-side (RHS); The hypotenuse and another side are in
proportion in right-angled triangles

94 NELSON QMATHS 11. Specialist Mathematics ISBN 9780170412995

 2. CHAPTER REVIEW

Methods of proof
1 Prove that for positive numbers w, x, y, z: w > x and y > z ⇒ wy > xz Examples

1, 2
2 Explain why each of the following ‘proofs’ are wrong.
a
Example
Boys like to wrestle.
3
Mohamed is a boy.
Therefore Mohamed likes to wrestle.
b Working in a noisy place without ear protection causes deafness.
Tom is deaf.
Thus Tom must have worked in a noisy environment.

3 Find a counterexample for each statement. Examples

a x > y ⇒ x2 > y2 4, 5
2
b x + 24 > 10x

4 What is the converse of each statement? Example

6
a All lions are carnivores.
b x, y integers ⇒ xy is an integer
Example
5 Write the converse of ‘xy is a perfect square ⇒ x, y are perfect squares’ and decide on the 7
truth of the statement and its converse.

6 Decide if each pair of statements are equivalent. Example

n 8
a 0 ≤ x ≤ 1; 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 for n > 0
b 
Opposite sides of a quadrilateral are equal; Opposite sides of a quadrilateral are
parallel
c A quadrilateral is a kite; The diagonals of a quadrilateral cross at 90°

7 Write the negation of each of statement. Example

a All rational numbers can be written as recurring decimals 9

b Australians live in the southern hemisphere
c An acute-angled triangle has only acute angles

8 a Express 5 and 9 in decimal form.

Example

12 25 10
b Express 0.745 and 0.375 in fraction form.
Examples

9 Use the contrapositive to prove that if x2 is irrational then x is irrational. 11, 12

ISBN 9780170412995 2. Methods of proof 95

Example 10 Prove that if a quadrilateral has an acute angle then it is not a rectangle.
13
11 Prove that there is no least integer.
Example

14 12 Prove that 7 is irrational.

Example

15 13 Prove that there is at most one right angle in a triangle.

Example

16 14 Use Euclid’s postulates to prove that the angle sum of a trapezium is 360°.
Example

17 15 Find the value of each pronumeral, giving reasons for each step.
Example
a b N
18
B
50°

U O
L B
138° 108°
Y
118°

g V 99°
i
X
T E F

c Z d

B
165° 69°
132°
T T

59°
O N
j h
H O J

Example 16 Prove that a quadrilateral is a square if and only if it has equal diagonals that bisect each
19 other at 90°.

96 NELSON QMATHS 11. Specialist Mathematics ISBN 9780170412995

Problem solving
17 Prove that for any real numbers x2 + y2 ≥ 2xy.
1 1
18 Decide whether < is true for m < 0. If it is not true:
n n+m
a find a counterexample
b try to find a simple change or restriction to make it true.

19 Are the statements ‘x > 0’ and ‘x < 0’ converses, negations of equivalents of each other?
Justify your answer.

20 Prove that ∀ n ∈ Z +, if n2 is divisible by 6, then n is divisible by both 2 and 3.

x
21 Prove that if is irrational, then at least one of x, y must be irrational.
y
22 Prove that the difference of a rational and irrational number is irrational.

23 Show that a line segment between the points on two sides of a triangle that divide the
1
sides in the ratio 1:4 (from the common vertex) is parallel to and the length of the
5
third side.

ISBN 9780170412995 2. Methods of proof 97