Mathematics of

Karnatic Music
By
Aakash Narasipure

ISO 9001:2015 CERTIFIED

(i)
© Author
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording and/or otherwise without the prior written permission of
the publisher.

First Edition: 2022

Published by : Mrs. Meena Pandey for Himalaya Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.,
“Ramdoot”, Dr. Bhalerao Marg, Girgaon, Mumbai - 400 004.
Phone: 022-23860170, 23863863; Fax: 022-23877178
E-mail: himpub@bharatmail.co.in; Website: www.himpub.com
Branch Offices :
New Delhi : “Pooja Apartments”, 4-B, Murari Lal Street, Ansari Road, Darya Ganj, New Delhi - 110 002.
Phone: 011-23270392, 23278631; Fax: 011-23256286
Nagpur : Kundanlal Chandak Industrial Estate, Ghat Road, Nagpur - 440 018.
Phone: 0712-2721215, 2721216
Bengaluru : Plot No. 91-33, 2nd Main Road, Seshadripuram, Behind Nataraja Theatre,
Bengaluru - 560 020. Phone: 080-41138821; Mobile: 09379847017, 09379847005
Hyderabad : No. 3-4-184, Lingampally, Besides Raghavendra Swamy Matham, Kachiguda,
Hyderabad - 500 027. Phone: 040-27560041, 27550139
Chennai : No. 34/44, Motilal Street, T. Nagar, Chennai - 600 017. Mobile: 09380460419
Pune : “Laksha” Apartment, First Floor, No. 527, Mehunpura,
Shaniwarpeth (Near Prabhat Theatre), Pune - 411 030.
Phone: 020-24496323, 24496333; Mobile: 09370579333
Lucknow : House No. 731, Shekhupura Colony, Near B.D. Convent School, Aliganj,
Lucknow - 226 022. Phone: 0522-4012353; Mobile: 09307501549
Ahmedabad : 114, “SHAIL”, 1st Floor, Opp. Madhu Sudan House, C.G. Road, Navrang Pura,
Ahmedabad - 380 009. Phone: 079-26560126; Mobile: 09377088847
Cuttack : Plot No 5F-755/4, Sector-9, CDA Market Nagar, Cuttack - 753 014,
Odisha. Mobile: 09338746007
Kolkata : 108/4, Beliaghata Main Road, Near ID Hospital, Opp. SBI Bank,
Kolkata - 700 010. Phone: 033-32449649; Mobile: 07439040301
DTP by : Rakhi
Printed at : SAP Print Solutions Pvt. Ltd., Mumbai. On behalf of HPH.
 Foreword
“The only way to learn singing is to sing every day, the only way to learn
mathematics is to do mathematics every day.” Mathematics is a subject that
has been disliked and disowned by most of the students. It is not a
student’s fault, it is the teacher's work to make any subject or topic
exciting and fun learning to the students.
Mathematics plays an essential role in human evolution. Today,
everything we build is a game of measurement to attain perfection. We
measure our food intake, working hours, and every task of our life, including
sleeping hours, with mathematics in mobile applications. One can hardly
imagine a day without Mathematics. One might agree or deny, but the fact
remains that Mathematics is an inseparable part of human life.
One day, my dear friend, Aakash Narasipure, called me to inform me
that he wrote a book on the Mathematics of Karnatic Music and wanted me
to write a foreword. As a friend and colleague, I was happy and excited for
him. But my immediate reply to his request was, “Number theory is not my
area of interest in Mathematics.” Nevertheless, later, I realized I have
little knowledge of Karnatic music, and I expressed the same to him. All he
asked me to do is read the book and verify the calculations.
We have enjoyed the lengthy debate and discussion of solving a
particular problem using different mathematical techniques and logical
approach at some point of time in our life. I still remember, our favourite
topic of discussion was always, Permutations and Combinations.
As I started to read, I realized, the Karnatic music system is not just a
mere combination of melodies and ragas. Their construction and design are
purely logical and mathematical. This book, Mathematics of Karnatic Music,
decodes the mathematical concepts embedded in Karnatic music, the
fundamentals of Music and the complex mathematical underpinnings of the
art comprehensively. The combination of Music and Mathematics is a
virtuous read and enlightening at the same time.

(iii)
 The book starts with a brief introduction of Karnatic music, its origin
and evolution. As I went through the chapters, I realized, Music has an
unseen face called Mathematics. The explanations on Magic Square,
number patterns and verses, and their relationships are the book’s key
takeaways. It was fascinating when I found how every sound stay measured
by its frequency, and various sounds stand precisely arranged in a typical
format that produces good verses. The book also depicts the resemblance in
western and Indian Music using their number patterns. The book helps in
understanding the science of Music and its very essence.
The ten chapters out of eleven take the readers through Karnatic
music’s mathematical expedition in the more innovative and logical approach.
Explanations are simple and easy to understand. The calculations of multiple
iterations stand provided to make sure the readers understand the Karnatic
music system’s construction complexity.
The first few chapters decipher Karnatic music’s mathematical
formations by Sri Purandara Dasaru, known as Karnatic music’s Pitamaha
(grandfather). The following few chapters discuss and decode the theories
of mathematical legendaries, Pythagoras, Ptolemy and Euler. The last few
chapters stay dedicated to discussing Melakarta ragas’ construction (72
ragas) using simple mathematical calculations.
I sincerely request and recommend every Music and Mathematical
enthusiast to read the book and appreciate the effort of my dear friend
Aakash Narasipure.

Abhilash Varma
Founder and CEO of Learn Online

(iv)
 Preface
India’s Music system is of two styles — Hindustani and Karnataka
Sangeetha, colloquially known as North Indian and South Indian music.
Karnataka Sangeetha, also identified as Karnatic music, is being practised
and performed for centuries.

The roles of various musicians in the field of Karnatic music is either

forgotten or lost over time. These contributions are not a mere composition
of music, they are the building blocks or fundamentals of Karnatic music.
Several engineering students, lecturers, and professors worldwide are
working on the frequency and time analysis of the sound waves using various
techniques. The frequency analysis of music and sound is a significant study
today in Digital Signal Processing (DSP) field.
Scientists and students worldwide have come up with various algorithms
to explain the existence of Mathematics in Music. These algorithms are
complex and remain only understood by individuals with sufficient knowledge
in the respective field. It’s either too mathematical to the musicians and
music lovers or too musical to mathematicians.
Analysis of sound waves is a complex work, as it involves the
transformation of sound signals. The Fourier transformation is used in many
pieces of research to analyze the frequency and time domain data. These
transformations will be too multifaceted and arithmetical for the music
enthusiasts.
In this book, I have used a simple and most straightforward method to
explain mathematics in Karnatic music. Even a reader with a non-
mathematical background will understand the importance of calculations.
During my thesis work, I had a hard time understanding and discovering
the mathematical relationship of Notes/Swaram of Karnatic music. Hence, I
spent most of my time understanding the basics; thus, I had lesser time to
work on building an algorithm and higher-level computations. Not all the
faculty members understood Karnatic music, nor all music students and
(v)
teachers understood its mathematics. Also, there were hardly any books
that gave a clear picture of the Mathematics of music. I could scarcely
approach people for help. This situation made me come up with this book so
that the future generation of students and research scholars can have
previously verified data to take their work to higher levels and save time on
understanding the basics.
I have performed all the calculations and application of mathematical
concepts to the better of my understanding. I dedicate this book to all the
mathematics and music lovers, and hope it would be a great reading time for
all the readers.

Aakash Narasipure

(vi)
 Acknowledgements
ȡʑȯȢȲĦƺ”ǔƤȲ Ȳ‚ȢžȡƸǽǒ”ŽȢȲ|
‘ȡ蝚 Ǖ’ȡǒĤ™ȯ“˜ȡǓ˜ĮȢ šèȢȲ||

Oh! The goddess of words, Sri Saraswathi. The wife of the creator of
the world, Lord Brahma. You are the personification of Sangeetha Shastra.
Oh! The one who adores the flowing Swarams. My salutations to the Goddess
Saraswathi, for blessing me with a little knowledge to write this book.
It is impossible to thank and acknowledge the work of all the musicians
and mathematicians whose work has inspired me to write this book. From
Bharata Muni to Sir Srinivasan Ramanujan, my humble gratitude to all.
However, the effort of few personalities, viz., Sri Purandara Dasaru,
Johannes Kepler, Leonhard Euler, Pythagoras and Ptolemy have inspired me
over the years to comprehend their effort and determination.
My Salutations to my mother, Smt. Veena Kumari for her constant support
and guidance. Thank you for keeping me motivated and happy all the time.
My Namaskarams to all the teachers who taught me Vedas, Sanskrit,
Music and Mathematics, and transferred the respective subjects'
knowledge.
My sincere thanks to my friend and colleague, Mr. Abhilash Varma, for
writing a beautiful Foreword and inputs on the topics.
I would like to recognize the work of Ms. Vishruta Reddy, a student of
NIFT, Chennai, for making beautiful illustrations that have supplemented
the prestige of the book.
I am glad and thankful to Himalaya Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., Mumbai
for publishing this book. It is an honour to be associated with an esteemed
publication house in bringing out this unique book. I wish and pray this book
reaches all the Music and Mathematics aficionados.
Aakash Narasipure
(vii)
(viii)
 Contents
Foreword (iii) & (iv)

Preface (v) & (vi)

Acknowledgements (vii)

1. A Brief Origin of Karnatic Music 1–4

2. Mathematical Approach to Karnatic Music 5 – 14

3. Mathematical Arrangements in Sarali Varase 15 – 28

4. Mathematical Arrangements in Janti Varase 29 – 36

5. Mathematical Arrangements in Daatu Varase 37 – 43

6. Pythagorean Comma 44 – 51

7. Ptolemaic Comma 52 – 58

8. Euler’s Gradus Suavitatis 59 – 65

9. The Twelfth Root of Two 12 2 66 – 73

10. Combinatorics of Melakarta Ragas 74 – 78

11. Katapayadi – The Ancient Hash Function 79 – 102

Terminologies and Definitions 103- 104

Bibliography and References 105 – 107

(ix)
(x)
 CH APT E R

One
A Brief Origin of
Karnatic Music
2 Mathematics of Karnatic Music

Introduction
“Music and mathematics are the two faces of the same coin. They
exist behind each other, only who seeks to see it can see.” --Shakuntala
Devi.
Karnataka Sangeetha is renowned as Karnatic music in the current
times, is one of the classical music systems of India. The British
addressed the region, the south of India as Karnatic. The historical maps
show the area between the river Krishna and the river Kaveri as Karnatic
region. According to a few historians, the meaning of the word
“Karnataka” is “The land that is old.”
Few scholars also mention ‘Karnataka’ as the combination of two
different words ‘Kari’, which means black in Kannada and ‘Nata’ means
land in old Kannada, also Karuppu in Tamil, which means black, Natu,
which means land. Hence the name, the land of black soil, that is
suitable for the cultivation.
One can see the modern version of this name even today, and it is
known as Karunadu. An artistic interpretation was given by Shri
Saragadeva, to the word Karnataka Sangeetha, “Karna”– the ears and
Atana, one that haunts. Hence the creative elucidation “the music that
haunts the ears.”
The reason for identifying this music system as Karnataka Sangeetha
cannot precisely be determined, but this music system saw a significant
development during the Vijayanagar Empire. This system emerged as one
of the central arts in the kingdom, as the empire had several musicians.
Sri Krishnadevaraya, the king of Vijayanagara empire, a musician
himself, was addressed as Karnataka Simhasanadeesha, “The Lord of the
Karnataka’s throne.”
Numerous historians organize the Karnatic music’s origin in a
different approach, as the origin and evolution are two different stages.
The classification of the origin of Karnataka Sangeetha is as follows:
1. The Ancient Period.
2. Medieval Period.
3. Modern period.
A Brief Origin of Karnatic Music 3

The age of Indian music is as same as Indian civilization. The pre-

Vijayanagar period of music is classified into two different stages, Ancient
and Medieval times.
Ancient period: According to historians, this period is around
10,000 to 5,000 BC. The first phase of the music was in Vedas, later
Upanishads, Puranas, followed by Shrimad Valmiki Ramayana, Shrimad
Mahabharata and Shrimad Bhagavatam. Bharata Muni’s Natyashastra
succeeded this. The time of this treatise is said to be around 1st century
to 3rd/4th century. The Dattilla muni wrote Dattilam, around the same
time. This work marked the end of the ancient period.

Music in Tamil Tradition

Tolkappiyar’s work Tolkappiyan is dated around 3rd century BC to
5th century BC and it is the oldest work of Tamil literature and grammar.
The work has many references to the music and musical method
PatthuVannam.
The works of Sangam period, such as Ettutokai and PattuPattu,
references the string and percussion instruments. The work of
Pancamarabu is considered to be across Sangam period.

Medieval period
Around 6th or 8th century CE, sage Matanga authored a magnum
opus Brihaddeshi, based on Bharata’s Natyashastra, he clearly
distinguished classical and folk music. Sarangadeva wrote Sangeetha
Ratnakara during this period. Gita Govinda, a classic epic by Jayadeva
Kavi from Orissa belongs to this time. This is followed by the
contributions to music during Vijayanagar Kingdom. The fall of the
Vijayanagar Empire marks as the end of the medieval period.
Modern Period: The modern period of Karnatic music begins from
the end of Vijayanagar Empire to the present day. Chaturdandi
Prakashika, a milestone treatise, written by Venkatamakhi, serves as the
beginning of the modern period.
Venkatamakhi was the son of Govinda Deekshita, a musicologist of
native Karnataka, belonging to a Kannada speaking Hoysala Brahmin
4 Mathematics of Karnatic Music

family. Govinda Deekshita worked as a minister for Nayakas of Tanjavur,

appointed as provincial governors by the Vijayanagara empire in the 15th
century. The Vijayanagar Empire’s fall shifted the centre of art and
culture from Vijayanagar (Hampi), to Tanjavur in Tamilnadu. Many
musicians migrated to Tanjavur, as Vijayanagar was attacked and
destroyed by the Islamic rulers, Delhi Sultanates with the help of Bidar,
Bijapur and Golkonda sultanates.
Post this period, Karnataka Sangeetha emerged as the central art of
present day Tamilnadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh and Kerala
regions. During this time, the art continued to be enriched by Sri
Tyagaraja Swami, Muthuswamy Deekshitar and Shyama Shastri’s
compositions, legendarily known as Musical Trinity of Karnatic music.
Numerous compositions of several musicians from the various parts of
South India have added greatly to popularize Karnataka Sangeetha. It is
difficult to mention all the contributions to this art in a few pages.

hhh
 CH APT E R

Two
Mathematical Approach
to Karnatic Music
6 Mathematics of Karnatic Music

Introduction
Karnatic music is a well-organized syllabus. It consists of several
chapters and levels. Each chapter is made up of small topics and it is
formed based on the learning outcome of it. Each melody or sound in
Karnatic music is called frequency notes, in general, known as Swaram
among music learners. The range of frequency in which all the songs are
learnt or taught is known as mid-octave.
Octave is the unit of music signals. It is the interval between two
musical notes, where the frequency of last note is either half or doubled
the frequency of the first note. The word octave represents the number
eight.
Karnatic music is taught and practiced in three different octaves.
They are; lower octave, mid octave, and higher octave. The fundamental
pillar of Karnatic music is its Saptha (seven) Swaram (notes in octave)
they are:

Seven principal notes of Karnatic music system

Sa Ri Ga Ma Pa Da Ni

According to the Bharatha muni’s Natyashastra’s 28th chapter, 23rd

verse.
The seven notes of the music are:
1. Sa – Shadjam
2. Ri – Rishabham
3. Ga – Gandharam
4. Ma – Madhyamam
5. Pa – Panchamam
6. Da – Daivatam
7. Ni – Nishadam
Mathematical Approach to Karnatic Music 7

The nomenclature
The word Shadjam in Sanskrit is a combination of two words. Shat +
jam = Shadjam. Shat means six, and jam means giving birth. The one
who gives birth to the rest of the six notes is called Shadjam.
Rishabham in Sanskrit translates to a bull. Isn’t it easy to identify a
bull existing among the cows? The same is the nature of the note
Rishabham; its presence lasts, like a bull among the cows. This note
brings out the emotions of excitement, wonder and anger.
Gandharam is a combination of two words, Gan (speech) and
Dharam (container). This note holds or contains the emotion of speech,
or feelings of conveying the message.
Madhyamam literally translates to “the centre one.” Since the note
Ma lies in the middle, with three notes on either side, it is named as
Madhyama.
Panchamam means the fifth one, as it is the fifth note from the
fundamental note (Shadjam). The same interval exists between the
Rishabham and Dhaivatam, and also between Gandharam and
Nishadam.
Dhaivatam means a divine one. Smart listeners perceive this note,
Dhi meaning intelligent and Vaan means, one who poses it. Hence one
who possess the intelligence to perceive this note is called Dhi Vaan, and
the note is called Dhaivatam.
Nishadam: Just as night is the end of the day, the last note that ends
the Saptha swarams is Nishadam, which means night/the end.
The first chapter of Karnatic music is Sarali varase, an easy variation
of sound (Sarala translates to easy in Kannada). This chapter acts as a
foundation for all the students to learn subsequent lessons and hence
the important one. Nowadays, a total of fourteen lessons are taught in
the Sarali varase approximately. Arohanam and Avarohanam are the two
main characteristics of any song in Karnatic music, and hence the same
is taught in all the Sarali varase.
Arohanam is the sequential increment in the frequency notes where
each successive note is higher than the previous note. Avarohanam is
defined as the sequential decrement in the frequency note, wherein each
8 Mathematics of Karnatic Music

subsequent note is at a lower frequency than the previous one. In general,

the Arohanam and Avarohanam structures are ascending and
descending order of frequency notes.

Musical scales
The musical scale is the particular frequency range which singers
maintain during the course of singing. There are many scales depending
up on the natural quality of the voice. The frequency of each note differs
on each scale, but the relationship among them remains constant.
The different scales are A, A sharp, B, B sharp, C, C sharp, etc. They
are classified based on the range of frequency one can maintain while
singing, which is different for each singer.

Frequencies of the Swaram/Notes

The frequency of each musical note depends on the scale of a singer.
The frequency of the fundamental note (lower Sa) differs from scale to
scale. Irrespective of scale, the relationship among the notes remains the
same. The Shadjam (Sa) is a constant note, and it remains stable at any
given pitch. The higher Sa belongs to the next octave; hence only seven
Swaram is considered. There is a total of 16 notes in Karnatic music.

16 notes of Karnatic music

Number Carnatic swaram Representation

1 Shadjam Sa/S

2 Shuddha Rishabham Ri1/R1

3 Chatusruti Rishabham Ri2/R2

4 Shatsruti Rishabham Ri3/R3

5 Shuddha Gandharam Ga1/G1

6 Sadharana Gandharam Ga2/G2

Mathematical Approach to Karnatic Music 9

7 Antara Gandharam Ga3/G3

8 Shuddha Madhyamam Ma1/M1

9 Prati Madhyamam Ma2/M2

10 Panchamam Pa/P

11 Shuddha Dhaivatam Da1/D1

12 Chatusruti Dhaivatam Da2/D2

13 Shatsruti Dhaivatam Da3/D3

14 Shuddha Nishadam Ni1/N1

15 Kaishiki Nishadam Ni2/N2

16 Kakali Nishadam Ni3/N3

The first note ‘Sa’, is known as Shadjam, which has the lowest
frequency.
The next Swaram ‘Ri’, known as Rishabham, exists in three different
frequency ranges for all the instruments to vocal sound. Hence it is sub-
classified into three notes Ri1, Ri2, and Ri3.
Among all the three, Ri1 has the lowest frequency and Ri2 has
frequency slightly higher than Ri1, and Ri3 has the highest frequency
frequency, among these three notes. The Ri1, Ri2, and Ri3 are known as
Shuddha Rishabham, Chatusruti Rishabham, and Shatsruti Rishabham.
The slightly higher frequency than Ri is ‘Ga’ known as Gandharam it
also exists in three different frequency ranges like Rishabham. Hence it is
classified into three notes Ga1, Ga2, and Ga3. Ga1 has the lowest
frequency, and Ga2 has frequency marginally higher than Ga1 and Ga3
has the highest frequency among the three notes.
Ga1, Ga2, and Ga3 are known as Shuddha Gandharam, Sadharana
Gandharam, and Antara Gandharam, respectively. The frequency note
Ga1 is almost similar to Ri2, and Ga2 is similar to Ri3. Hence these
notes are considered to be the same for the rest of the research work. A
similar classification is also done for other overlapping Da and Ni.
10 Mathematics of Karnatic Music

The Ma1 and Ma2 are known as Shuddha Madhyamam and Prati
Madhyamam, having frequencies higher than Gandharam. The
frequencies of Ma1 and Ma2 don’t overlap, since the frequencies differ by
a considerable amount.
The Panchamam or Pa has only one frequency value. Hence it is not
subdivided.

Overlapping notes of Karnatic music system

Sa R1 R2 R3 G1 G2 G3 M1 M2 P D1 D2 D3 N1 N2 N3

G1 G2 N1 N2

There is a perfect mathematical relationship between each swaram of

Karnatic music. If the first note Sa is 240 Hz, then the value of the next
higher frequency note is obtained by the ratio
Ri1 = 32/31(240 Hz) = 248Hz
The frequency ratio association between each swaram/note and the
frequency limits of each note is tabulated.

Swaram Ratio Frequency in Hz

Sa 1:1 240

R1 32:31 248

R2 16:15 256

R3 10:9 266.6

G1 32:27 284.4

G2 6:5 288

G3 5:4 300

M1 4:3 320

M2 27:20 324

P 3:2 360

D1 128:81 379
Mathematical Approach to Karnatic Music 11

D2 8:5 384

D3 5:3 400

N1 16:9 426.6

N2 9:5 432

N3 15:8 450

SA 2:1 480

Structure of Sarali varase - the first lesson of

Karnatic music
All the sarali varase is taught and sung in a specific rœgam named
Mayamalavagowla. It is one of the most famous rœgam of Karnatic music,
and it is classified as 15th melakarta raga by a musician Venkatamakhi.
The Arohanam-Avarohanam structure of Mayamalavagowla is as
follows:
Arohanam: S R1 G3 M1 P D1 N3 S
Avarohanam: S N3 D1 P M1 G3 R1 S
The notes in this rœgam are Shuddha Rishabham – Ri1, Antara
Gandharam – Ga3, Shuddha Madhyamam – Ma1, Shuddha Dhaivatam –
Da1 and Kakali Nishadam – Ni3. As it is a Melakartarœgam, by definition,
it is a sampoorna rœgam. There are fourteen different sarali varase, and
each one has a different swaram pattern from the other.

Frequency limits of notes of Mayamalavagowla rœgam

Order of Swaram Frequency of Frequency

swaram range (in Hz)
frequency ratio notes (in Hz)

1 Sa - 1:1 240 240 to 247

2 Ri1 - 32:31 248 248 to 299

3 Ga3- 5:4 300 300 to 319

12 Mathematics of Karnatic Music

4 Ma1 - 4:3 320 320 to 359

5 Pa - 3:2 360 360 to 378

6 Da1 - 128:81 379 379 to 449

7 Ni3 - 15:8 450 450 to 479

8 SA - 2:1 480 480

Chart Title
600

500

400

300

200

100

0
Sa Ri Ga Ma Pa Da Ni SA SA Ni Da Pa Ma Ga Ri Sa

Frequency (Hz) v/s notes in a line graph (Theoretical)

To practically verify the notes’ frequency relations, I recorded two

audios of 1st Sarali varase in keyboard at different scales (lower and
higher scale) and one human voice audio in E scale. If the frequency ratio
relation among these notes were true, I was expecting to receive a similar
pattern. Indeed, the results were as expected. The plotted graphic
patterns were identical irrespective of their frequencies of the
first/fundamental note.
Mathematical Approach to Karnatic Music 13

Swaram Keyboard Lower Keyboard larger Vocal E scale

scale scale

Sa 327 992 419

Ri 352 1049 447

Ga 413 1250 546

Ma 443 1319 580

Pa 494 1482 652

Da 527 1570 667

Ni 622 1868 843

SA 661 1978 881

SA 661 1981 868

Ni 622 1866 860

Da 525 1570 695

Pa 494 1482 659

Ma 440 1318 580

Ga 414 1248 560

Ri 353 1049 451

Sa 327 989 427

14 Mathematics of Karnatic Music

2000

1500

Key_1
1000
Key_2

500 Vocal_1

Sa Ri Ga Ma Pa Da Ni Sa Sa Ni Da Pa Ma Ga Ri Sa

Frequency (Hz) v/s notes in a line graph (Practical)

The comparisons of plots of the notes’ theoretical and practical

frequency verify that there is a unique relationship between each note in
Karnatic music. This proof is necessary to understand the complicated
mathematical calculations of the further chapters.

hhh