Introduction to Specific Research

1. Experimental Science
2. Discovery- Based Investigation
3. Hypothesis-based Investigation
4. Basic Research vs. Applied Research
5. Qualities of an Empirical Research Project
Textbook: Senior High School Capstone Research Project Morales-Ramos, Sabit, Bajao, Ramos
1. Experimental Science
Why do we need to conduct experiments and research projects?
• Conducting an investigatory project is an opportunity to apply Recording Original Sound: On
scientific principles in solving real world problems or to look for answer to a research questions.
• It enables you to think critically and identify problems from your own experiences and
observation of everyday life.
Scientific research is an objective, logical, and repeatable attempt to understand the principles
and forces operating the natural universe. Our scientific knowledge is dependent on the study of
structures and processes that needs to be validated directly or indirectly.
Capstone research project is designed for SHS to conduct experiments that will draw their
experiences together to answer a research question or problem. This is focus on narrow and
specific topics.
2. Discovery-based Investigation/non-inquiry investigation
• Relies on verifiable observations and measurements.
• Involves methods to observe a structure or a phenomenon; to record analyze and interpret the
data obtained; and to generate detailed description,
• Examples:
1. Human genome project; is a detailed dissection and description of human DNA.
2. Characterization of the chemical compositions of certain plant extracts
3. Correlation between typhoon intensities and amount of rainfall; measurement and
comparison of UV radiations in various amount of the year.
3.Demonstration/Steps
• Explains a scientific principle of why or how something works through models, illustrations, or
even visual animation. Does not require hypothesis.
1. Project: What scientific principle are you trying to demonstrate or model? This should be
explained by writing a general statement of how the scientific principles works.
2. Research: learn more about the question or principle by knowing by what has been done in
the past. State how your investigation will be different for better audience engagement.
3. Materials: What materials will you need to demonstrate the principle?
4. Procedures: Write a step-by-step procedure of what you plant to do and the rationale of why
the steps in the procedure are important?
5. Conclusions: What do you hope to teach others with your demonstration or model?
Examples:
1. Solar energy as an alternative energy source can be demonstrated by devising a new low-
cost model of a solar cooker.
2. Moringa seeds (malunggay seeds) as a natural coagulant in household-water treatment
can be demonstrated as an alternative method of domestic water purification in
developing countries, where people are used to drinking contaminated turbid water.
4.Collection
• It is a group of various naturally occurring specimens or samples, like plants, animals, rocks,
precious metals, or microorganisms, gathered to show their scientific hierarchy or relationships.
• It demonstrates the newly discovered information that would contribute to an existing scientific
knowledge.
• All Items should be properly categorized using the current taxonomic system of classification
and correctly labeled using scientific names when available.
• The place and date of collection and the name of the collector should be specified.

Steps followed in Collection

1. Project: What will you collect? What scientific questions will your collection illustrate?
2. Research: Learn about an existing collection done in the past or in another similar area
that may relate to your collection. P
3. Materials: What materials or equipment do you need to obtain the specimen for your
collection?
4. Procedure: How will you collect, organize, and label your specimens? How will your
display illustrate your research and collection?
5. Conclusion: What do you hope to learn and teach others with your collection?
Examples:
a) Species richness and diversity of Anurans (frog species) in Angat Watershed in Bulacan
b) Collection and identification of fish larvae in Sampaloc lake, San Pablo, Laguna
c) Population and biodiversity of lichens in Maragondon, Cavite

5.Hypothesis Based Investigation/Inquiry Based Investigation

• When you seek to ask further questions and explanations about a scientific phenomenon, you
need to apply another approach by means of a controlled experimentation.
• It requires one to propose and test a hypothesis. Also known as Inquiry based hypothesis
• Hypothesis is an educated guess or supposition that explains a research question.
• Involves the use of scientific method anchored on a well-defined procedure designed to answer
a researchable question.
Steps
1. Problem: Ask a question or state a purpose
2. Hypothesis: What do you think will happen when you perform an experiment?
3. Procedure: Plan a method to test the hypothesis. Consider the variables to be included and the
number of times the test needs to be repeated.
4. Results: Make observation and collect data. Analyze the results of your experiment. Express
results using graphs, charts or tables.
5. Conclusions: Draw conclusions based on your result. Make a statement considering the
experiment. Was your hypothesis correct? Why or why not? Did anything unexpected happen?
o A Scientific Investigatory Project (SIP) aims to established specific detailed information or
characteristics aout a given group.
o To do this, certain characteriatics need to be determined, defined and compared to another
populations by making exact observations and measurements on variables.
o A variable is a test subject's characteristic that can change or is allowed
Examples
1. A comparative assessment of the degrees of pollution in Laguna de Bay, Pasig River, Manila
Bay and Marikina River using bacterial bioluminescence assay.
Objective: To compare the degrees of pollution in Laguna de Bay, Manila Bay and Marikina
River.
Variable: Degrees of pollution
Population or Group: laguna de Bay, Manila Bay and Marikina River
Remarks: Use of bacterial bioluminescence assay
2. The effect of extended sunlight exposure on the growth patterns of tomato seedlings
Objective: to determine the effect of extended sunlight exposure on the growth patterns of
tomato seedlings.
Experimental treatment: tomato seedlings exposed to various periods of sunlight exposure.
Control variable: tomato seedlings not exposed to sunlight
Population or group: tomato seedlings

Basic Research vs. Applied Research

Basic / Fundamental Research - type of research that may have limited direct application but in
which the researcher has careful control of the conditions Applied research - type of research
that has direct value to practitioners but in which the researcher has limited control over the
research setting

4. It must be started by looking into available scientific sources of information that will help the
researcher understand a topic or problem.
5. It must have a research design that is logical and rational based on existing scientific
principles and theories.
6. The experimental results and conclusions must be verifiable and repeated by others.
Procedures must be clearly written.
7. It should address a real world problem or issue. The research findings must be generalizable
and applicable to the society as a whole.

Chapter 2: Research Process and Design

1. Research Process and Research Topic
2. Nature of Research
3. Research Design
4. Sample and sampling procedure
5. Data collection technique
6. Interpretation and analysis of data
Steps in the Research Project:
1. Defining the research problem
2. Reviewing the literature
3. Hypothesis Formulation
4. Preparing Research Design
5. Collection of data
6. Analysis of Data
7. Verification and hypothesis testing
8. Preparation of Project Report
Definition of Research Design
- A plan or strategy which moves from the underlying philosophical assumptions to
specifying the selection of respondents, the data gathering techniques to be used and the
data analysis to be done.
- Keywords: plan, strategy, selection of respondents, data gathering, data analysis

Major Qualitative Research Designs

1. Case study
- Attempts to shed light on a phenomena by studying in-depth a single case example of the
phenomena. The case can be an individual person, an event, a group, or an institution.
2. Ethnography
- Focuses on the sociology of meaning through close field observation of sociocultural
phenomena. Typically, the ethnographer focuses on a community.
3. Phenomenology
- A study that attempts to understand people's perceptions, perspectives, and
understandings of a particular situation. In other words, what is it like to experience such
and such?
4. Grounded theory
- Theory is developed inductively from a corpus of data acquired by a participant observer.
5. Content Analysis
- A detailed and systematic examination of the contents of a particular body of material for
the purpose of identifying patterns, themes, or biases within a material
6. Historical
- Systematic collection and objective evaluation of data related to past occurrences in order
to test hypotheses concerning causes, effects, or trends of these events that may help to
explain present events and anticipate future events.
The Sample and the Sampling Procedure
The Sample
 Population/sample is a well defined group or individuals sharing a common
characteristics or trait. This maybe people, animals, or other organisms. It also
includes rocks, volcanoes, houses, or other non living organisms
 Target population refers to the entire population under study.
 Sample population is a portion of the entire population
1. Judgment or purposive or deliberate sampling
- In this method, the sample selection is purely based on the judgment of the investigator or
the researcher. This is because, the researcher may lack information regarding the
population from which he has to collect the sample. Population characteristics or qualities
may not be known, but sample has to be selected.
- In this method of sampling the choice of sample items depends primarily on the judgment
of the researcher. In other words, the researcher determines and includes those items in
the sample which he thinks are most typical of the universe with regard to the
characteristics of research project.
2. SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING
- Applicable when population, is small, homogeneous & readily available
- All subsets of the frame are given an equal probability. Each element of the frame thus
has an equal probability of section.
- It provides for greatest number of possible samples. This is done by assigning a number
to each unit in the sampling frame.
 - A table of random number or lottery system is used to determine which units are to be
selected.
3. STRATIFIED SAMPLING
- A stratified random sample is a population sample that requires the population to be
divided into smaller groups, called ‘strata’ Random samples can be taken from each
stratum, or group.
4. Systematic Sampling
- Selection of every kth case from a list of possible subjects.
5. Cluster sampling
- In cluster sampling, the entire cluster, if selected, is represented in the data. In this case,
individuals within a blue colored cluster are all sent a questionnaire.
Data Collection Techniques
- Data are the information collected, study, or process whether they are from field or lab
experiments. These are analyzed, interpreted and presented to the people who will benefit
from them.
- Qualitative data are descriptive and unstructured
- Quantitative data are measurable and analyzed using statistical tools
1. Participant Observation
- A qualitative method
- Studies subjects in their own environment
- Uses unobtrusive methods like writing observations in a field notebook
- Strives to be objective and understand the subject’s point of view
- Aims to be detailed and comprehensive

Naturalistic Observations
Definition:
 Watching the behavior of humans or animals in a natural environment.
 The researcher does not manipulate the variables and does not interfere with things they
try to remain inconspicuous.
 Example, Rosenhan (1973) Pseudo patients admitted to psychiatric hospitals and
treatment by hospital staff observed.
 In participant observation the observer acts as part of the group being watched.
Simulation: Definition
Do not restrict definition of simulation to experiments conducted on electronic computer models.
Man useful simulations can be and are run with only paper and pen or with the aid of a desk
calculator.
Simulation modelling is an experimental and applied methodology which seeks to:
  Describe the behavior of systems
 Conduct theories or hypotheses that account for the observed behavior
 Use these the ones to predict future behavior, that is, the effects that will be produced by
changes in the system or in its method of operation

Surveys
 Are used to gather information. This instrument may be in the form of questionnaires and
interviews or discussion with individuals. It is a quick way of getting information.
 Questionnaires is a series of written questions answered by participants. The steps
followed are: a) formulating the questions, b) asking the questions, c) tallying the results,
and d) reporting your findings.
 Interviews is a face to face encounter with the participants and is more personal than a
questionnaire.
Interpretation and Analysis of Data
Interpretation of Results/ Tips
 Make sure that analysis of the results are correct. Some common mistakes encountered
during the analysis are misreading the graphs, using the wrong statistical test, or ignoring
a statistical result with high significance. –
  Methods must be correctly executed to give accurate results. Some common mistakes are:
biased sampling, very small sample sized, poor matching of samples, inadequate controls,
or biased in collecting the results.
 Do not ignore the limitation imposed by a certain method.
 Talk to your mentor or science adviser.
Statistical Analysis
Frequency distribution
 The number of observations within a given interval.
 The level of measurement can nominal or ordinal data.
 Can be represented using histogram, pie chart or bar graph.

Percentage
 The proportion of observation within a given interval.
 Data can be nominal or ordinal
 Represented by pie chart or bar graph
Mean – the average within a range of value
Chapter 3: Research Ethics and Safety
Research Ethics and Safety
1. Ethics in research
2. Responsibilities of a researcher
3. Safety and environmental issues
4. Role of a researcher in a society
5. Intellectual property
Ethics in Research
What's Research Ethics?
- It is the field of ethics that systematically analyze the ethical and legal questions raised by
research involving human subjects.
- Its main focus is to ensure that the study participants are protected and, ultimately,
- that clinical research is conducted in a way that serves the needs of such participants and
of society as a whole.
- It works when and only when it is applied before the research is conducted
Why is Research Ethics Important?
- It is a reflection of respect for those who 'take part' in research
- It ensures no unreasonable, unsafe or thoughtless demands are made by researchers
- It ensures sufficient knowledge is shared by all concerned
- It imposes a common standard in all the above respects
Research ethics
- Standards of ethical conduct in science: honesty carefulness, openness, freedom, credit,
social responsibility, mutual respect, respect for subjects.
- Ethical standards of conduct in research play a key role in advancing the goals of science;
in promoting cooperation, collaboration, and trust among researchers; and in attaining the
public's trust and support. –
- European Science Foundation's "Good scientific practice in research and scholarship",
2000
General Ethical Principles
1. Honesty and integrity: be truthful, sincere, upright and fair. Do NOT fabricate, falsify,
add to, subtract from, or misinterpret results. Honor agreements or promises to anyone or
any group. Be consistent in thoughts and actions.
2. Objectivity:
- Subjective information is anything that is based on personal opinion, judgement,
feelings, or point of view
- Objective information is factual and based on observations and measurements
3. Accuracy and cautiousness. The conduct of experiment should be done with accuracy
and precision. Avoid careless errors, negligence, approximations, and inaccuracy.
Consider the following: validity, reliability, credibility of sources of information,
precision of equipment. Document everything.
4. Protection of human subjects. When involves human subjects, either as volunteers or
subjects your research of an interview or questionnaire always ensure the protection of
their rights, dignity, privacy and welfare.
5. Animal care. Animals used in experiments must be approved by the International
Animal Care and Use Committee. (IACUC). Do not conduct unnecessary or excessive
use of animals and poorly designed animal experiments.
6. Care for the environment
7. Respect for Intellectual property
8. Responsible research dissemination