BLR 2023121516181593

Beijing Law Review, 2023, 14, 2109-2135
https://www.scirp.org/journal/blr
ISSN Online: 2159-4635
ISSN Print: 2159-4627
Is It Time to Recognize the Right to an Image?
Timothy S. McNamara
China University of Political Science and Law (CUPL), Beijing, China
How to cite this paper: McNamara, T. S. Abstract

(2023). Is It Time to Recognize the Right
to an Image? Beijing Law Review, 14, One of the surprising developments within technologically advanced societies
2109-2135.
in the 21st century is the new and insidious ways with which violence against
https://doi.org/10.4236/blr.2023.144117
women and children is being perpetuated. From unreasonable standards of
Received: November 3, 2023 female beauty being promoted on social media, to viral humiliation videos
Accepted: December 15, 2023 and revenge pornography, young people and females in particular are being
Published: December 18, 2023
subjected to a widening array of assaults which appear to be leading to an
Copyright © 2023 by author(s) and equally wide range of mental illnesses and unfortunate outcomes such as nar-
Scientific Research Publishing Inc. cissism, depression and teenage suicide. The common thread to all of these
This work is licensed under the Creative
problems often lies in the misuse of the visual image of another. Here, the
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0). commercial success of copyright law highlights a striking failure at the socio-
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ logical level. This paper sets forth a proposed solution, recognition of a here-
Open Access tofore unrecognized human right belonging to the subjects of image capture:
the right to an image. The right to an image, as laid out in this paper, is a
right of image subjects to control against the unreasonable dissemination of
their image. The right to an image can be understood as either a next genera-
tion international human right, or as an unrecognized, yet implied, existent
right under the common law, or both. It is a right which, albeit in a slightly
different variant, appears to be already recognized in Confucian philosophy
under the ancient Oriental concept of “face”. This paper lays out a harm-
based formula for applying the concept of face, and explores a range of scena-
rios under which legal outcomes might be impacted.
Keywords
Right to an Image, Privacy, Dignity, Reputation, Loss of Face
1. Introduction
Under the common law, from time to time, English judges have found it neces-
sary to “recognize” the existence of certain pre-existing common law rights,
DOI: 10.4236/blr.2023.144117 Dec. 18, 2023 2109 Beijing Law Review

T. S. McNamara
(Chafee Jr., 1947: p. 406)1 or even forgotten equitable interests, which can be
discerned from earlier cases. (Day, 1976)2 Although judges may claim they are
able to find such common laws from a careful examination of previous cases, the
exact methodology used for making such determinations is still somewhat mys-
terious. (Reid, 1972: p. 22)3 Moreover, in recent years, the scope for making such
determinations appears to have receded somewhat, perhaps owing to a growing
political sensitivity on the part of the judiciary or simply the inherent deference
given to the ever-increasing number of encroaching statutes on the books. Non-
etheless, the scope for Anglosphere4 judges to create—or more properly stated,
belatedly “discover”—inherent common law has never been abandoned.5
It is argued here that technological innovations associated with digital images,
and their dissemination over the Internet, have given rise to a need to recognize
a new common law right or legal interest, perhaps even a new generation of in-
ternational human right, so as to address the harms stemming from a loss of
face. Specifically, the fact-based scenarios can fall into at least three recognizable
patterns of dissemination: 1) “privacy in public” image capture scenarios in
which uncharacteristic behavior is displayed or unfortunate mishap befalls the
image subject, 2) non-consensual pornographic and suis generis images, and 3)
non-satirical images which are edited or morphed, such as deepfake imagery.
Dissemination of any of these images to the public at large would likely consti-
tute a serious affront to the interests of the image subject, leading to a possible
loss of face.
1
In considering this problem, Professor Chafee puts forward the traditional argument thusly: “So,
when the Wrights launched their airplane at Kittyhawk, there was already in existence a law relating
to airplanes and the aviator’s right to fly over another man’s land. The judge before whom the action
of trespass came would merely have to discover what this law was.” Zechariah Chafee Jr., Do Judges
Make or Discover Law, Harvard University School of Law, p. 405. However, it seems his own view of
the law might be called the “skyscraper theory”: some beams were erected by legislators, others by
judges. Together they created the edifice.
2
While there may be broad acceptance of the need for judicial activism to address lacunae in a sta-
tute’s coverage, there may be less agreement on what those gaps actually are (e.g. whether they were
left intentionally). Judge Day argues that judicial legislation is not only necessary, it is also contem-
plated by the structure of the legal system.
3
Lord Reid dismissed the idea that judges merely declare the law as a “fairy tale”. He advised judges,
when creating common law, to have regard to common sense, legal principle and public policy (in
that order).
4
Notwithstanding the tendency to emphasize the “commonality” amongst the common law legal
systems, it is worth bearing in mind that, in the background, American judges operate under a sys-
tem of self-designated judicial supremacy (see Marbury v. Madison) whereas English law can be
characterized as possessing legislative supremacy. Under the latter, the scope for judicial review is
necessarily curtailed. It is suggested that, at the margin, this may impact legal culture and attitudes
towards judicial activism.
5
In the past century, this power has been used by the judiciary both to create entirely new areas of the
law (e.g. modern negligence) and to redefine crimes so as expand or contract the scope of criminal
wrongdoing (e.g. recognition of marital rape). For the former, see Donaghue v. Stevenson [1932] AC
562, 1932 SC (HL) 31. For the redefinition of marriage, see S v HM Advocate 1989 SLT 469 (in Scot-
land) and R v R [1991] 2 All ER 257 (CA), [1992] 1 AC 599 (HL) (in England and Wales). This be-
lated recognition by the judiciary of the need to more closely align the law with existing societal val-
ues stands as a testament to the likely, eventual, acceptance of some iteration of a right to an image.
DOI: 10.4236/blr.2023.144117 2110 Beijing Law Review

T. S. McNamara
2. Overview—The Nature of the Problem

Misuse of the digital image by nefarious actors is increasingly being manifest in
at least three distinct fact-based scenarios. In the first scenario, dissemination of
images captured in public and quasi-public places, while technically “true”, will
nonetheless unfairly give rise to a risk of harm for the image subject. Such im-
ages might transgress an implied privacy interest (e.g. upskirt images) or unfair-
ly misrepresent the nature of the image subject’s character (e.g. images of a rare
drinker whilst in a state of drunken stupor). Images of public mishaps (e.g. an
identifiable image subject falling down the stairs or being victimized by verbal
abuse) would also fall within this category of harmful image giving rise to a
possible loss of face. The harm threshold, while clearly breached, would usually
not rise to the level of serious harm giving rise to protection under the tradition-
al rubric of defamation law.
A second scenario arises with non-consensual disseminations of suis generis
images. Pornographic and near-pornographic images captured in private and
quasi-private places clearly fall within this category, while many jurisdictions al-
ready prohibit non-consensual disseminations of the pornographic image (gen-
erally under tort or criminal law), such laws will often fail to prevent dissemina-
tion of the near-pornographic. For example, dissemination of images of biki-
ni-clad women, surreptitiously captured in third world go-go bars, will often
lead to loss of face or even a risk of violence for the women concerned. Yet, due
to the high factual (nudity) threshold set for revenge pornography law, these
women will often be left without a remedy.
A third scenario of harm arises from dissemination of false images of iden-
tifiable individuals. Often, this will involve the morphing of two images e.g.
woman A and woman B, creating a “new” image of a “new” person. Such tech-
niques are often employed using deepfake technology to transpose the faces of
ordinary women onto the bodies of other people such as pornographic actresses.
Also falling within this category would be the use of “nudifying” technology
which will typically take an image of a clothed individual and, based on an out-
line of their figure, create a fictional image (i.e. an extrapolation) of how they
might appear if nude. While some deepfake images may be absurd (e.g. a human
head stylistically attached to an animal), for third parties, where the intent of the
creator is to deceive, it is becoming increasingly difficult to differentiate between
the authentic and the fantasy.
Technology, such as AI, is rapidly advancing and the law has had difficulty
distinguishing between the satirical and the harmful. In some sense, such inno-
vations sit on a spectrum, only one step removed from “beautify” and the more
widely used photoshop technologies. What unites all of the cases above, howev-
er, is the harm which identifiable image subjects can suffer under a loss of face,
particularly when the images appear to be real. For image subjects, the truth [e.g.
revenge pornography] or falsehood [e.g. deepfake pornography] of the image
may have little relevance to the pain they endure.

T. S. McNamara
Failure to protect against these harms can have real world consequences. Such
negative effects can range from teenage mental depression and damaged rela-
tionships to loss of employment opportunities (Coleman, 2005: pp. 205-234)6
and even altered election outcomes.7
2.1. Conceptualizing the Affected Interest—Are Psychological

Injuries “Real”?
It may not be universally accepted that all—or any—of the scenarios outlined
above are inducing real harms. For example, we are told that during WWII,
General Patton, when visiting wounded American soldiers in the field hospital,
came across a soldier suffering from PTSD who asked for permission not to re-
turn to the battlefront. However, rather than entertain such concerns, Patton
famously slapped the soldier and labelled him a “coward”. (Dulcinea Staff, 2023)
In effect, Patton may have been rejecting all claims of psychological injury since
the perceived problems were “all in one’s head”, and hence, likely imaginary.8
The modern approach essentially rejects Patton’s view and psychological
troubles are increasingly recognized as real. Moreover, anecdotal evidence sug-
gests successive generations appear to be growing increasingly more sensitive
(i.e. weaker) as their concern with outward appearance and societal acceptance
rises. The quest for affirmation by strangers, social media usage and digital por-
trayals are all temporally, and possibly causally, linked.9 This might be manifest
as everything from an increased usage and acceptance of plastic surgery, to a
new obsession with receiving “likes” (i.e. dopamine hits) on social media, to
even the recent increase in female teenage suicides and depression.
If it is accepted that there is value in protecting individuals from the minor
mishaps and setbacks that now cause them so much suffering, then it is worth
exploring possible new legal avenues for doing so. Existing defamation and crimi-
nal law, for example, will usually set too high a threshold to protect one from the
typical viral humiliation video which circulates on social media. A new law or legal
6
For example, Reggie Love was enrolled at Duke University on a sports scholarship. Yet, he fell asleep
drunk at a fraternity house and his “friends” drew on his face and placed their genitalia against his
face, before taking a photo of this and posting it on the Internet. After the image was widely distri-
buted, Love was suspended from the Duke sports team.
7
Our Foreign Staff, “Russia using ‘deepfakes’ to sway Turkish election for Erdogan, claims frontrun-
ner”, The Telegraph, May 12, 2023.
https://www.telegraph.co.uk/world-news/2023/05/12/turkish-election-deepfake-kemal-kilicdaroglu-r
ussia-erdogan/ (Accessed Nov 20, 2023)
8
Patton’s “shock therapy” may appear to us as rather crude or perhaps even dangerous. Yet, despite
the seeming unsophistication, there is some evidence that psychological injuries are self-induced or
partly self-induced. For example, we may hypothesize that concern over one’s feelings or acceptance
within society is negatively correlated with human happiness. In other words, the less we care what
others think of us, the happier we will be.
9
Tyler Durden, Dozens of States Sue Meta For Sparking Youth Mental Health Crisis, Zero Hedge,
Oct 25, 2023. New York Attorney General Letitia James alleges “Meta has profited from children’s
pain by intentionally designing its platforms with manipulative features that make children addicted
to their platforms while lowering their self-esteem.” See
https://www.zerohedge.com/political/dozens-states-sue-meta-sparking-youth-mental-health-crisis?r
ef=biztoc.com (Accessed Nov 20, 2023.)

T. S. McNamara
principle appears to be needed if we are to properly protect the weak-minded

and the sensitive.
2.2. The Concept of Face

A major challenge in explaining the concept of “face” to Western audiences lies
in the degree to which this philosophical and legal concept is interwoven and
embedded within the fabric of law and society in the East. In order to isolate the
idea of face from pride while still applying it in a meaningful way, the idea of
harm is introduced as a near substitute, something with which Western legal
analysts will be more familiar.
The right to an image, as outlined in this paper, is rooted in and built around
protecting the ancient Oriental idea of face. Yet it is also consistent with the in-
ternational covenants (e.g. Art 19 of the ICCPR “respect for the reputation of
others” and the Art 12 protection of the UDHR against “attack upon [one’s]
honour and reputation”).
In applying the concept of “face” to the law of the digital representation (i.e.
the law of the image), at least four observations may be made:
1) “Face” is not primarily concerned with commercial misuse or non-offensive
exploitation,
2) “Face” is not concerned with privacy per se (e.g. trivial issues surrounding
medical privacy or the geolocation of the image capture),
3) “Face” is a mechanism for maintaining social harmony and is less con-
cerned with individual rights than collective interests, and
4) “Face” is less concerned with image capture than image dissemination.
The right to an image is simply a manifestation of the idea that reputations are
earned and individuals have a right to acquire a good image through their own
good deeds or good behavior. Similarly, individuals who engage in repeated bad
behavior will “deserve” the image which will invariably accrue to them. The physi-
cal image (e.g. the digital representation or painting), if it is harmful and dis-
seminated to the wider public, should only be permitted to be disseminated if it
fairly reflects the underlying reality.
2.3. The Impinged Interest

The right to an image is the right of image subjects to control against unreason-
able disseminations of their image. The key word here is “unreasonable”.
While societies and civilizations may differ in how they respond to the hostile
artist or anti-social photographer, all societies appear to recognize the concept of
the inappropriate. Even psychopaths and sexual deviants generally know when
they have crossed the line and are capturing harmful or private images. For the
latter, this is even evidenced by the surreptitious image capture methods they
employ. Moreover, the normalization and forced societal acceptance of bad be-
havior would not actually convert its nature into good behavior. At most, it
would simply lead to a coarsening of society and a lowering of standards.

T. S. McNamara
Having established that it can be morally wrong to disseminate—and perhaps

even capture—certain images or images within certain contexts, the question
then becomes: what are those images or what is the nature of those contexts? In
other words, when is it unreasonable to capture and disseminate the image of
another?
It could be argued, under a form of the Golden Rule, that any image dissemi-
nation which causes harm to image subjects is an unreasonable dissemination. I
will refer to this as the maximalist conception of the right to an image. Such a
conception effectively denies any competing interest such as truth or freedom of
expression or copyright.
A more modest conceptualization, which I consider the minimalist right to an
image, would distinguish between fundamental and technical truth. The funda-
mental truth relates to repeated or characteristic behavior, such that dissemi-
nated images which are fundamentally true do not unfairly malign: they merely
express considered or consensus opinion. As such, even if these images would be
harmful, they would not be unfairly or unjustly harmful: the image subject would
have ultimate responsibility for how they are perceived, the cameraman or visual
artist would only have penultimate responsibility.
2.4. The Competing Interests

In conceptualizing a workable version of the right to an image, two over-arching
and sometimes competing goals are ever-present: 1) to minimize the impact of
harm on image subjects and 2) to preserve and promote public morality.
A formulation of an unrestricted right to an image could be problematic if it
became simply a veto power for image subjects over any dissemination of their
image. Not only would this often become unworkable in practice (e.g. in the case
of livestreaming shows) but it would also be counter-productive: wrongdoers
might imagine they have license to misbehave in public without risk of censure.
As conceived here, there are at least three competing interests which could
impinge on the right to an image: copyright, freedom of expression and truth. In
practice, these are often overlapping interests. A few examples of disseminations
involving traditional and new technologies may be illustrative.
In the case of artists, both copyright and freedom of expression claims will
usually be manifest and, possibly, the artist’s subjective understanding of the
truth. For example, an artist working as a political dissident could employ either
traditional oil painting techniques or deepfake imagery to express his disdain for
a political leader. On the assumption the jurisdiction does not recognize a public
figure exception, how should we understand this act? Is the medium relevant in
itself or only when it is so realistic as to amount to a deception (i.e. when the
deepfake image and scenario appear to be both damaging and “real”)?
It appears that there are two possible answers here. First, if the right to an im-
age is conceived solely as a pure human right, then the outcome of the trial itself
might be unaffected by whether the harm was done through an oil painting or
deepfake technology. A rights violation is a rights violation, regardless of me-

T. S. McNamara
dium. However, the degree of harm suffered—and the potential for harm is ob-
viously greater with deepfakes, given the potential for deception—might be
relevant in assessing the value of damages.
The second possible answer would be to conceive of the right to an image, at
the level of municipal law, as a form of expanded tort or criminal violation. Un-
der this scenario, actual harm suffered by the claimant would likely be a re-
quirement, both to succeed at trial and to sustain any claim for damages. Like-
wise, compensation would normally, but not necessarily, be assessed based on
harm suffered rather than the defendant’s ability to pay. The important point is
not that deepfakes will necessarily be more damaging (i.e. harmful) than tradi-
tional oil paintings. However, the new medium has the potential to be much
more harmful due to its realism.
Traditional news outlets, journalists and actors are another set of competing
interests that could be negatively impacted by recognition of the right to an im-
age.
The distinction between “fundamentally true” and “technically true” will un-
doubtedly prove particularly problematic when news outlets are trying to estab-
lish the character or reputation of an individual whose image they do not wish to
pixelate. Here, the competing interests of truth and freedom of expression must
contend with what amounts to a near privacy right, i.e. the right to an image.
The Strasbourg Court has considerable experience managing this sort of prob-
lem.
In regards to deepfakes, the news outlets and crime documentaries etc. would
obviously prefer simply to let AI create the imaginary or stylized recreations,
rather than employing paid actors to re-enact dialogues and crime scenes. Al-
though such scenarios would likely violate a suspect’s right to an image, it stands
to reason that the rights of a convicted criminal will be fewer, in practice, than
those of non-convicts. Thus, it is uncertain, but likely, that the “fundamentally
true or fair” formulation would permit the staging of deepfake crime scene re-
enactments using the real or recognizable images of a convicted criminal but not
the images of a mere suspect.
Finally, the new technology of social media has allowed for the rapid horizon-
tal or “viral” dissemination of unusual or extreme images, often from friend to
friend. These images, such as public humiliation videos, may be true or doctored
and can be recognized to some degree by AI. (If the image has not been altered,
it should be possible to back-trace to the initial time and place it was uploaded
onto the Internet.)
Unfortunately, the virality of these images is often correlated to the extremity
of the human condition. For example, a certain segment of the population ap-
pears to find satisfaction in viewing gruesome images and/or the suffering of
others. The rationale for legal tolerance of this form of negative individualism
tends to be couched in freedom of thought or freedom of expression arguments.
The right to an image offers a “pro-society” legal response to this problem.

T. S. McNamara
While those who engage in image capture and dissemination have rights, they
are not the only stakeholders. Those who are image subjects also have rights.
Except for the special cases where those rights have been waived (e.g. profes-
sional models or actors who have received consideration for specified images),
image subjects have a natural right to control against the unreasonable dissemi-
nation of their image.
2.5. Privacy and Its Shortcomings

Recognition of the right to privacy, it was once hoped, would offer sufficient
scope to protect image subjects. (Rufflo, 1987: p. 193)10 However, privacy, as a
concept, has proved surprisingly inadequate in the context of the American pub-
lic square and is often not really fit for purpose.11
Privacy will also be conceived differently in different societies.12 Whereas the
European conceptualization is more informational and economically rooted, the
American conceptualization tends to be more property based, and, in practice,
often operates more as a privilege than a right. The latter may be a consequence
of the distinction between the condition of privacy and the right to privacy. For
example, a rich man and a homeless man may equally share the right to privacy
while the rich man lives behind high groves and the homeless man is usually
visible to the public.
Depending upon the jurisdiction, the right to privacy may be over-inclusive or
under-inclusive or even both. An over-inclusive formulation of the privacy in-
terest might fail to distinguish between sensitive and non-sensitive matters. For
example, medical privacy would label both the information regarding a sexually
transmitted disease and information regarding common hayfever as “private”
without any ranking or prioritizing as to the seriousness of the matter.
Over-inclusion thus carries the risk of trivializing the privacy interest, at least
in the public mind, while under-inclusion will often lead to other interests (such
as dignity and reputation) simply being subsumed into “privacy”, without se-
rious consideration as to the actual nature of the impinged interest. This has led
Professor Bloustein to argue that it is the dignity interest, rather than privacy it-
self, which is often the real impinged interest underlying many of the key cases.
10
In the American context, the famous Warren and Brandeis paper, The Right to Privacy, (4 Harvard
L.R. 193 (Dec. 15, 1890)) had been written specifically in response to the perceived impudent photo-
graphy of nineteenth century style paparazzi on the occasion of the wedding of Warren’s daughter.
The authors foresaw a future of ever more powerful cameras, due to technological advancement,
causing the scope for privacy to shrink, should the law fail to intervene. However, the willingness of
judges to recognize the purported common law right was limited and the right did not gain much
traction in the US until the NY legislature intervened. Inspired by Warren and Brandeis, New York
state has the oldest privacy legislation in the United States. Privacy rights emanate from sections 50
and 51 of the New York Civil Rights Law of 1903.
11
Although all human rights may be considered somewhat reactionary, insofar as they elevate the in-
dividual interest over the collective, privacy is undoubtedly one of the most reactionary. The opacity
in regards to necessary versus unnecessary secrecy is deliberate.
12
In the UK, free speech rights are weaker whereas privacy rights are stronger when compared to the
US.

T. S. McNamara
(Bloustein, 1964: pp. 962-1007)13
2.6. The Technology Bias

Friedrich Nietzsche once stated that all things are matters of mere interpretation
and “whichever interpretation prevails at a given time is a function of power and
not truth”. (Turley, 2023) While this statement may be taken as a criticism of the
law, or philosophy, it appears that technology, too, has its biases.
For example, facial recognition technology now has many and varied applica-
tions. It can be used as an alternative to showing one’s passport when clearing
checkpoints (Anushka, 2023) and it is expected to be deployed when “unlock-
ing” digital wallets. (Burt, 2023) Yet facial recognition technology has also been
criticized for having a racial bias which is “built into” the system: the technology
has had a higher error rate when assessing black faces, (Najibi, 2020) perhaps
due to unconscious biases of the engineers who designed it (Fu et al., 2012).
Likewise, current law underpinning the technology of image capture and dis-
semination is far from neutral. The basic underlying assumptions are all liberta-
rian. For example, aside from a limited number of categorical exceptions (such
as upskirt images and military installation images), the photographer is generally
free to do as he pleases. However, unfortunate image disseminations can cause
psychological harms with consequences that are often as serious as any direct
physical harm. (Mascia, 2023)14 Yet despite this risk of an ensuing harm, and due
to the philosophical bias of the law, the photographer is allowed to operate
without a license: anyone who can afford a camera can buy and use one. We do
not follow such a relaxed policy for hunters or automobile drivers: they generally
require a license and the state reserves the right to revoke this license if they
cause harm.
Perhaps more problematic is the way large technology firms attempt to gather
data for future resale or customer manipulation. Images may be shared volunta-
rily with the large technology firm (e.g. by uploading onto social media) or a
firm such as Google or Amazon may attempt to acquire the images directly from
the public square. The introduction of Google Street View and Google Glass re-
sulted in considerable public backlash in certain locales and were temporarily
scaled back as a result. (Treacy, 2009)15 Amazon most famously acquires images
13
It should be noted that although I have used the terms “dignity”, “honor” and “reputation” more or
less interchangeably, these near synonyms do differentiate themselves somewhat, with a nuance
which may have evolved over time. Thus, although the term “honor” may convey a masculine con-
cept (e.g. proper adherence to military duty), the term “dignity” often evokes a rather feminine im-
agery. For example, a female choice to commit suicide via overconsumption of sleeping pills might
result in a “dignified” death, whereas a male choice of suicide via handgun would not. On the other
hand, dying on the battlefield would be honorable, although not necessarily dignified. Thus, in de-
scribing the impinged interest discussed in this paper, it would often be no less accurate to use the
more neutral term “reputation”. However, in deference to reader familiarity, I have mostly stuck
simply with “dignity”.
14
In the American context, gun violence and mental health are seen as major interconnected social
issues. Most gun deaths in the US are actually suicides.
15
As an example, reaction to the introduction of Google Street View was so hostile in Germany, the
company was not only compelled to pixelate faces and license plates etc., it even agreed to erase foo-
tage of individuals who have informed authorities they do not wish to be identified.

T. S. McNamara
of the public square through its doorbell security service. (Burgess, 2022) How-
ever, in the future, it may also acquire images from within the home with its ro-
bot cleaner. (Johnson, 2022) Recognition of the right to an image would not
prevent any of these instances of image capture although it should curtail some
of the images from being disseminated.
Although image capture through such technological innovations will neces-
sarily impinge the privacy interest, the innovations need not unnecessarily im-
pact the interest which the right to an image seeks to protect (i.e. if the images
are not disseminated). Much like the distinction between privacy in fact and the
right to privacy, a distinction can also be drawn between loss of face (or harm)
and the risk of loss of face (or risk of harm). In other words, images captured
non-consensually (e.g. with Google Glass) will not lead to a right to an image
type infringement unless disseminated.
However, if the concept of harm is conceived in an extremely expansive way,
so as to include exposure to an unwanted risk (such as accidental dissemina-
tion), then the right to an image would also be impinged by the image capture
process. In the abstract, it may be difficult to compare the risk of accidental fu-
ture disclosure under new versus older technologies. Salesmen in both eras
would likely have claimed their products or systems were “secure”. However,
insofar as some understanding of complex technology may be required to prop-
erly navigate under the new framework (e.g. by controlling access to images in
the cloud) the risk of accidental disclosure seems to have risen.
2.7. Philosophical Premises

The right to an image, as set out in this paper, rests on three premises. First, that
the visual manifestation of an image subject which is both recognizable (e.g. dig-
ital image, cartoon, statue etc.) and harmful would likely prove more traumatic
for the image subject than a non-visual assault (e.g. spoken insult or defamatory
written script). Second, that image subjects have a limited right to prohibit dis-
semination of unflattering yet recognizable portrayals of themselves. Third, that
the right of image subjects to prohibit dissemination should not be unlimited: it
may be lost voluntarily by an image subject’s repeated bad or shameful acts or
behavior, (i.e. acts or behavior which affirm the fundamental truth or fairness of
the negative portrayal).
If it is accepted that image subjects have a right to control against unreasona-
ble disseminations of their image, two questions arise: 1) what is an unreasona-
ble dissemination? and 2) how can the risk of such dissemination be mitigated
against?
It is in an attempt to answer these two questions that the balance of this paper
will concern itself.
2.8. Legal Rationale and Formulae: An Outline

In considering the right to an image, certain factors need to be kept in mind. In
the first place, the interest may be understood as a right of individuals to control

T. S. McNamara
against an unfair or fundamentally untrue, harmful and recognizable, image dis-

semination of themselves. Thus, it is not a right belonging to states or third-party
individuals or extending to animals, for example. As a human rather than prop-
erty right, it is also neither transferrable nor descendible.
Second, the right to an image is not only more modest than the Franco-Romanian
droit a l’image (right of image), since it does not assert a right to prohibit image
capture in public places, but it is also more akin to revenge pornography than
child pornography law, since it is only dissemination rather every step along the
production chain which is prohibited.16
Third, the right to an image only prohibits harmful image dissemination of
recognizable individuals. It does not attempt to limit all disseminations which
are harmful. As a practical matter, harmful disseminations would likely be per-
mitted if the identifying features which render the image subject recognizable
were successfully obscured. (In the case of decontextualized images, such as
faceless upskirt photography, it is an open question whether the concept of “re-
cognizable” should be decided on the basis of a subjective or an objective test.)
Fourth, the right only protects against unfair or fundamentally untrue image
disseminations which are harmful. It does not protect against all harmful disse-
minations. In conceptualizing the right to an image, we need to be cognizant of
other competing interests and values which have also been recognized by the
court (e.g. freedom of speech, importance of truth etc.). This context will deter-
mine what is held to be unfair or fundamentally untrue.
Fifth, as a practical matter, the right is primarily concerned with horizontal
rather than vertical application. In limited circumstances, e.g. police dissemina-
tion of images of “wanted” suspects or suspected criminals, the vertical rights
claim may arise, however.
Sixth, the right makes no distinction between the private acts of public and
private individuals. It is a reputation-based interest, and, in the absence of a
counterbalancing public policy reason, it appears that public officials are also
entitled to a preservation of their dignity when acting in a private capacity.
Seventh, the right to acquire or preserve a good image is an individual right
that carries with it certain implied responsibilities. The most important of these
is to act responsibly and behave respectfully in the public sphere. It is not rea-
sonable to repeatedly behave badly in public and yet still expect to enjoy the
same public image as someone who behaves correctly. This is the basis for the
distinction between the dissemination of the technically true and the fundamen-
tally true image: the former might encompass a first-time drinker, while the lat-
ter would only reference a drunk.
Eighth, responsibility to enforce one’s interest for scenario one type images
[see below] is primarily a matter of private law. It is difficult to envisage how, as
a police matter, state authorities would determine if an individual’s identity had
16
Image “production chain” is used here to refer to areas traditionally criminalized under child por-
nography law (e.g. image capture, image possession, image editing, image marketing and image dis-
tribution or dissemination).

T. S. McNamara
been rendered sufficiently obscure (e.g. by examining the pixelation settings) or

whether the harm threshold had been met. Determining if the right to an image
had been voluntarily forfeited through the image subject’s own repeated bad be-
havior would be an even more arduous task.
Ninth, life in society requires compromise. With the right to the image, many
of the libertarian assumptions fundamental to Western society remain in place:
there are no limits placed on image capture or editing, only on image dissemina-
tion. However, as society grows more diverse and the influence of traditional
(e.g. Confucian and Islamic) ideas grow, it is reasonable to seek some accom-
modation with other perspectives.
Tenth, the right to an image does not directly introduce “face” as a concept
into Western law. At this time in history, such a move would likely be a bridge
too far. Instead, the right to an image simply protects image subjects against
“harm”, rather than loss of face itself, although harm is conceptualized in dignity
and reputation-based terms.
Eleventh, as a practical matter, the most difficult legal issue will be develop-
ment and application of the “harm” threshold. Obviously, the high threshold set
under existing law is generally too high: while defamation and criminal [e.g. re-
venge pornography] laws protect some victims, they do not protect enough. This
is obvious, as manifest from the rising number of social media inspired mental
health issues among young people, drug addiction and suicide rates etc. Yet, the
harm threshold should also not be set too low, either: the law should not aspire
to eliminate all insults or humor from daily life.
Twelfth, the right to an image, as outlined here, contains both elements of
clarity and ambiguity. As a new generation of human right, this is to be ex-
pected. Even within traditional human rights, seemingly simple and straightfor-
ward phrases such as “the right to life”, have given rise to a surprising range of
meanings and interpretations (see, for example, the post-Nuremberg War Crimes
sentencing, the abortion debates and, more recently, Canada’s assisted suicide
program). Likewise, it is envisioned that under municipal law, carve-outs such as
a newsworthiness exception for certain images may also be created. In short, the
right to an image may also come to mean different things to different people al-
though, at its core, the dignity or reputational interest will remain: all people
have a qualified right to face.
2.9. Applying the Law to the Facts

Having now defined the new legal interest, it is time to consider how it might be
applied in practice. Three scenarios, so labelled, will be considered. Scenario one
refers to the “privacy in public” claims, such as uncharacteristic public indecen-
cy, mishap images and affronts to dignity or reputation. Scenario two encom-
passes revenge pornography and “near” pornography images while scenario three
encompasses deepfake and AI-generated images created for harmful, rather than
satirical, intent. For ease of discussion, these will be referred to simply as scena-
rio one, two and three images, respectively.

T. S. McNamara
3. Scenario One Images

A scenario one image will often arise in circumstances factually similar to a
“privacy in public” claim. Such an image, captured while individuals are in a
public or quasi-public place, may be considered as a loss of face image (i.e.
“harmful” image) if one or more of the following circumstances is present:
1) The image depicts the image subject undergoing a serious failure or mishap
which would expose him or her to ridicule or extreme embarrassment, or
2) the image subject is captured while engaged in uncharacteristic behavior,
conduct or circumstances which could expose him or her to shame, ridicule or
extreme embarrassment or hostility, or
3) A sensitive area of an identifiable image subject’s physical features (e.g.
“creepshot” or “voyeur” photo) is captured surreptitiously.
A possible fourth circumstance relates to self-inflicted harmful image disse-
minations, particularly through social media. In the case of humiliation images
voluntarily shared by the image subject himself, it is an open question as to
whether the act of voluntarily disseminating will negate the right to an image
(effectively, whether the right should operate as only a shield, or both a sword
and a shield). In the context of social media and Only Fans etc. individuals may
form part of closed groups and share images within those groups, in an expecta-
tion those images will not be shared or accessed by outsiders. On the other hand,
such expectations may not be entirely reasonable, particularly where the image
subject shared the harmful image in expectation of consideration.
Another problematic circumstance relates to old images and modern mores.
For example, during the most recent federal election in Canada, old images be-
gan to be widely disseminated of Prime Minister Justin Trudeau in “blackface”.
(BBC, 2019) These images had been captured consensually at a time when such
humor was not generally considered offensive.
Finally, it is worth bearing in mind, the man who walks into a public place
consents to being observed by others. However, consent to being observed by
those who are physically present does not necessarily mean one is consenting to
being observed by all people and for all future time (i.e. having one’s image cap-
tured and disseminated). In other words, consent to image capture need not ex-
tend, even by implication, to image dissemination.
3.1. Livestreaming Public Places

Livestreaming has, at times, presented a serious theoretical and technical chal-
lenge to attempts to protect the interests of the image captured.17 Private parties
on Youtube will often livestream from public locales over the Internet while
news and sports TV stations engage in similar disseminations. Legally, however,
it is not clear whether this type of dissemination should be classified as image
capture or image dissemination or both.
Historically, streaming has been abused by pedophiles in some jurisdictions through a loophole
17
under which images might be legally viewed remotely, since the images would not be “possessed”
unless downloaded.

T. S. McNamara
This discussion is often linked to facial recognition technology, as the tech-

nology theoretically allows every face in a crowded theater to be rendered identi-
fiable. (Karlsson et al., 2007)18 However, technology also allows individual faces
to be obscured through pixelation.
If it is accepted that individuals have a right to an image, then any harmful
image of themselves which is disseminated by others should be a fundamentally
true and fair representation. Lawyers may debate the meaning of “fundamentally
true” and “fair”. Yet it seems to be only a matter of common sense that humili-
ating or traumatizing images of unlucky victims should not be disseminated to
the wider public without the consent of the subjects of those images.
If such images are to be disseminated without consent then, at a minimum,
the images should either be reflective of characteristic bad behavior or, if not
behavior-oriented, at least be pixelated so that the identity of the victims will be
obscured.19
When infringements to the right to an image occur in this context, it might be
advisable to distinguish between primary and secondary image disseminations.
While the primary disseminator will often lack intent to cause harm (e.g. he un-
expectedly captures a mishap), those who re-upload the offending image (s), i.e.
the secondary disseminators, should be held to a higher standard.
It is worth re-iterating that the right to an image can only protect against an
unreasonable harmful dissemination: it cannot be relied upon to prevent all dis-
seminations or even all harmful disseminations. However, recognition of the
right to an image could fundamentally alter the ways in which social media firms
are allowed to operate. One possible solution, under a maximalist interpretation
of the right to an image, would be to compel pixelation of faces for livestreaming
of members of the public, i.e. those for whom consent to image dissemination
has not been expressly given. In contrast, under the minimalist interpretation of
the right to an image, such consent would only be required where there was an
intent to disseminate a harmful image.
3.2. Morally Ambiguous Images

Within the context of the scenario one image, we must also consider the morally
ambiguous image. Morally ambiguous and morally dubious images point to the
distinction between privacy rights and the right to an image, with the right to an
image often being less inclusive or protective of image subjects. Dubious or
confusing visual depictions might encompass images of entirely innocent acts,
immoral behavior and even early-stage criminal preparations. Dubious images
18
In fact, however, although accuracy has been increasing, it appears that facial recognition operates
on probabilities rather than certainty.
19
A distinction might be drawn, in some cases, between behavior and circumstances that cause loss of
face. However, most harmful images would fall into one of three categories: 1) morally bad acts (e.g.
unprovoked violence by image subjects), 2) unfortunate acts (e.g. falling down the stairs), and 3) un-
fortunate circumstances (e.g. being the victim of bird droppings). Under the restrictive or minimalist
formulation of the right to an image, only those in the first category, in principle, would not be en-
titled to limit image disseminations.

T. S. McNamara
represent a wide category that could be open to more than one interpretation, or
characterization, and may require knowledge of special facts in order to be de-
ciphered correctly. Such images could include a middle-aged man talking to a
teenage girl of a different race, at a bus stop, or of a man talking to a young
woman in an area where prostitutes are known to work. Other examples include
couples entering or leaving “short time” motels, a man talking to a transgen-
dered individual, or famous people seen holding hands with their non-spouses.
In some of these cases, innocent explanations may exist e.g. a man may be
talking to his neighbor or student, or a man new to the city may be asking
strangers for directions etc. If we are to assume that the photographed behavior
reveals no wrongdoing, it could be argued that dissemination of the image alone
without a false or misleading counterfactual explanation attached would not in
itself violate the right to an image. Any offensive interpretation would then rest
upon the viewer’s own discretion or imagination, rather than at the instigation
of the image disseminator. In contrast, however, at least in the ECHR context,
such image disseminations might well violate the Art 8 privacy rights.20
3.3. Arguments Favoring the Right to an Image over Privacy

Rights
Given the under-inclusive nature of the right to an image vis-à-vis privacy
rights, at least three arguments may be advanced in favor of the right to an im-
age. First, it can be argued that morally ambiguous images such as those dis-
cussed above should be disseminated. In contrast to the privacy-protecting li-
bertarian position, which essentially holds that anything which is legally permit-
ted and voluntarily agreed upon can be a positive act, Confucianism recognizes
the importance and value of promoting the obvious social good. Some acts, such
as public drunkenness or drug consumption, adultery or even the unwillingness
of fighting age men to defend their nation should be discouraged even if the ju-
risdiction legally permits this behavior.
Second, if it is accepted that there is value in discouraging bad behavior, then
the obvious question becomes who should do so (?) No doubt, there is value in
discouraging certain behavior and the responsibility for doing so may well fall
upon the community writ large. The softer mechanism of public shaming,
through image dissemination and discussion by other citizens, clearly offers
more scope for rehabilitation and nuance than the clumsy mechanism of the law
20
See, for example, the famous case of von Hannover v. Germany App no 59320/00, (2005) 40 EHRR
1. More generally, there has been an evolution over time between von Hannover (no. 1) and von
Hannover (no. 3). Between von Hannover (no. 1) and von Hannover (no. 2), the German Federal
Court of Justice changed its approach, to comply with the ECHR requirements, and undertook a de-
tailed analysis of the ECrtHR jurisprudence. Under these circumstances, and in view of the margin of
appreciation, the ECrtHR found in von Hannover (no. 2) that Germany had not failed to comply
with its Article 8 obligations. In von Hannover (no. 3), the issue of the photograph again arose, here
over the Princess’s attempt to obtain an injunction prohibiting the further publication of an image
taken surreptitiously of her and her husband while on holiday. However, the ECrtHR found no vi-
olation of Article 8 as the German Courts had taken into consideration the essential criteria and the
ECrtHR’s case law in balancing the competing interests. On the facts, the Court accepted that the
photograph in question had contributed to a debate of general interest.

T. S. McNamara
(e.g. ASBO ordinances in the UK).

Third, the concepts of under-inclusive and over-inclusive are themselves
highly normative and often conclusive. They may reveal more about the legal
analyst than the underlying law itself. It is only after establishing the correct level
of inclusiveness that we can determine whether the legal rule itself is under or
over-inclusive. In contrast to the privacy interest, however, the right to an image
is much more modest and thus unlikely to ever come to be part of the “crimi-
nal’s charter”.
4. Scenario Two Images

Scenario two images refers to sui generis images which may be captured legally
but for which an expectation of privacy (i.e. non-dissemination) nonetheless ex-
ists. Pornographic and near-pornographic images captured in private and qua-
si-private places clearly fall within this category.
Revenge pornography has been defined as the non-consensual posting of an-
other’s sexually explicit images to the Internet or elsewhere for the purpose of
embarrassing or causing emotional harm to the subject of those images (Dris-
coll, 2016: p. 78, 81; Sirianni, 2015)21 Revenge pornography—sometimes more
accurately referred to as non-consensual pornography—often involves the non-
consensual posting of images that were originally given to another with the im-
plied expectation of confidentiality.22
However, while such a definition will address a large percentage of the cases
referred to in the media as “revenge porn”, it will not cover all scenarios. Con-
sider, for example, the famous actress Jennifer Lawrence who took several nude
self-photographs which she uploaded onto the cloud. Her account was later
“hacked” and the images uploaded onto the Internet. Since that time, Jennifer
Lawrence’s hacker has been convicted and sentenced to nine months in prison.
(Bradley, 2018; Ahmed, 2017) However, while American federal law criminalizes
“hacking”, there is still no revenge pornography law at the federal level.
The Jennifer Lawrence scenario appears to reflect a small minority of the
cases. Much more typically, the revenge pornography will initially involve either
the consensual creation of a short and explicit video between two lovers or the
sending of nude photographs from one party to the other (Franks & Waldman,
2019)23. At some point later in the relationship there will be a breakdown, which
leads the jilted party to seek “revenge” by sharing the photos or video with the
21
In one survey, of those victimized, 59% had their full name included with the picture, 49% had in-
formation linking the photo (s) to the social media account, 20% had their phone number shared
and 16% had their home address shared. As well, such sharing caused 82% of those surveyed “signif-
icant impairment” with family or employment relationships. In another survey, a surprisingly large
number of students (i.e. more than fifty percent) expressed a desire to harm or punish their former
partners by publishing their sexual photos online.
22
https://www.dailydot.com/politics/federal-revenge-porn-bill. (Accessed Nov 20, 2023)
23
The proliferation of smart phones, with built-in cameras, since 2010 or so has led to both a meteor-
ic rise in “selfie” culture as well as a concomitant increase in amateur pornography. It appears that
these two phenomena, while distinct, are also linked, as some individuals take self-photos in the
nude. (One study has estimated that ninety percent of revenge pornography victims are women.

T. S. McNamara
world.
Also falling within scenario two, albeit a slight variance from the above, would
involve a third party, such as a computer repair employee, accessing such images
while in the course of employment. The employee(s), often hiding behind the
veil of anonymity, might later upload the images onto the Internet. This was
thought to be how images spread of both a famous Hong Kong actor and Hunter
Biden (son of the US President).
In the American context, the core legal issues with respect to revenge pornog-
raphy have traditionally been twofold: 1) whether giving consent to a partner to
take an image also constitutes consent to him distributing that image and 2)
whether the First Amendment protects revenge pornography (Driscoll, 2016: p.
82).24
Although the problem may have abated somewhat in recent years, revenge
pornography has been a serious problem in the United States. One survey found
that ten percent of former partners threaten to post sexually explicit images after
breakup and sixty percent of this cohort later follow through (Eichorn, 2013).25
Even where there is no follow-through, many will live in fear that such exposure
will lead to loss of employment or relationships.
While many jurisdictions already prohibit non-consensual disseminations of
the pornographic image (generally under tort or criminal law), such laws will
often fail to prevent dissemination of the near-pornographic. For example, dis-
semination of images of bikini-clad women, surreptitiously captured in third
world go-go bars, will often lead to loss of face or even a risk of violence for the
women concerned. Yet, due to the high factual (nudity) threshold set under re-
venge pornography law, these women will often be left without a remedy.
Also falling within scenario two would be “hacking” that could result in image
capture (e.g. web cameras surreptitiously and remotely activated) or images sto-
len from one’s computer or smartphone etc. Here, the issue of the legality or
circumstance of the image capture itself will often pale as a priority: the victim’s
main concern may simply be to prevent image dissemination. As the right to an
image prioritizes the rights of image subjects over copyright holders, the onus
for establishing consent to disseminate would then fall upon the image dissemi-
nator.26 Under the implementing legislation, failure of a nefarious image dis-
seminator to prove such consent could be conceived as a criminal violation or a
tortious matter or both.
It is thus envisioned that the right to an image can protect against not only
scenario one but also scenario two and three type disseminations. Rather than a
piecemeal or enumerated list type approach (e.g. revenge pornography, hacking,
24
Sarah E. Driscoll, Supra note 30, at 82.
25
Based on a survey of 1182 American adults aged 18 - 54.
26
In devising the right to an image, it is worth considering the relationship between the copyright
holder and the image subject. Under copyright law, the general rule holds that the physical image is
the property of its creator (e.g. photographer or painter). However, revenge pornography laws impli-
citly recognize that intellectual property conceptualizations are not supreme: there are higher inter-
ests, implied interests, such as dignity, which sometimes must take priority.

T. S. McNamara
disinformation etc.), a single, unifying legal principle could be invoked. From

the perspective of theoretical analysis, this could be extremely useful.
4.1. Criminalizing the Image vs. Criminalizing the Malicious Act

There is broad agreement on the reasonableness of criminalizing the “original
sin” i.e. the first, malicious, upload. However, the third parties involved in sub-
sequent downloads and uploads will generally have no true knowledge of the
circumstances or relationship of the primary parties. There is nothing unique to
the images which will distinguish the revenge pornography image from the
non-revenge pornography image. Often, the images were captured in happier
times. Thus, attempts to criminalize the handling of these images by third par-
ties, as certain States have attempted to do, will likely be found unconstitutional
in the US (Driscoll, 2016: pp. 105-106).27
At times, human behavior has been unpredictable to the point of largely cir-
cumventing the legislation. For example, in the UK, which introduced revenge
pornography legislation in 2015, a jilted wife found video footage on her hus-
band’s phone involving himself and another married woman. In anger, the wife
uploaded the video, presumably with the goal of causing problems for the mar-
ried rival but also with the goal of causing problems for her husband. Her act
succeeded on both counts: the other woman was forced to divorce and her own
husband was terminated from his employment. However, the legislation had
been narrowly tailored and as she was both the uploader and a third party, her
acts fell outside the scope of the jurisdiction’s revenge pornography legislation.
(Buchan, 2016)
It is often factually difficult to determine who uploaded the material onto the
Internet. For example, if Jane Doe sent a nude photograph of herself to John
Doe, which was later found on one of the websites specializing in this genre of
pornography, it is likely that the photo was uploaded: 1) by Jane Doe herself; 2)
by John Doe or 3) by a hacker who accessed either Jane or John Doe’s computer
or phone. In some cases, it is very difficult for the police to determine who up-
loaded the photo, particularly in jurisdictions which do not operate on a “real
ID” system. (With regards to digital images, there is no “copy decay” to distin-
guish copies from originals: all digital images remain exact replicas of each other,
unlike traditional photos.)
Thus, in jurisdictions without a real ID requirement for Internet access, re-
venge pornography law has often been hampered by factual uncertainty over
who initially uploaded the image (i.e. the “original sinner”). However, under the
right to an image, the general rule is that third parties would be restricted from
non-consensual disseminations of harmful images. Thus, the problem should
largely go away under the right to an image as, in general, no one would be will-
ing to undertake the liability risk of uploading or re-uploading harmful images
of total strangers. This outcome becomes more likely if a “real ID” system of
Rhode Island is a case in point: criminalizing distribution of such images without the subject’s
27
consent.

T. S. McNamara
Internet access is introduced. However, where the women are professional pros-
titutes it is unclear if they still have a reasonable expectation their images would
remain private (Driscoll, 2016: p. 107).
4.2. Traditional (Tortious) Remedies to Control Image

Distribution
The advent of the Internet has greatly expanded the scope and ease through
which tortious injuries may incur as a result of wrongful image distribution
online. In the American context, there are four traditional remedies under tort
law to which plaintiffs may avail themselves: appropriation, public disclosure of
private facts, intentional infliction of emotional distress and false light claims.
1) Appropriation
Appropriation refers to the exploitation of attributes of the plaintiff’s identity
(Prosser, 1960: p. 401). The first case to deal with this concerned the breach of
an implied contract: the photographer who took the plaintiff’s photo proceeded
to put it up for sale.28 Historically, many of the cases have concerned the unau-
thorized use of a plaintiff’s name, picture or likeness to advertise a product
(Prosser, 1960: pp. 401-402).29 However, if the plaintiff’s photo is only used as a
base, and the final version has a sufficiently minimal resemblance to the plaintiff,
the defendant advertiser may escape liability.30
Some States recognize both common law and statutory causes of action for
appropriation. Under the typical common law appropriation cause of action it
will be necessary to prove:
a) Defendant’s use of the plaintiff’s identity;
b) Appropriation of the plaintiff’s name or likeness to the defendant’s advan-
tage (commercial or otherwise);
c) Lack of consent; and
d) Resulting injury to the plaintiff.31
Although appropriation may be difficult to establish in typical upskirt photo
scenarios, where faces are visible, even if digitally altered, courts are willing to
uphold the appropriation claim.32 Success for the plaintiff will rest very much on
fact-specific factors as the court in Cohen v. Herbal Concepts, Inc.,33 stated iden-
tification would rest on “the clarity of the photograph, the extent to which iden-
tifying features are visible, and the distinctiveness of those features”.34 In this
case, the man had identified his nude wife and nude daughter from a photo, de-
spite their faces not being visible.35 On the other hand, if identification were im-
28
Pollard v. Photographic Co., 40 Ch. D. 345 (1888).
29
William L. Prosser, Supra note 40, at 401-402.
30
See Freed v. Lowe’s, Inc., 175 Misc. 616, 24 N.Y.S. 2d 679 (Sup. Ct. 1941) where the plaintiff failed
and Loftus v. Greenwich Lithographing Co., 192 App. Div. 251, 182 N.Y.S. 428 (1920) where the
plaintiff succeeded. Prosser speculates the difference between success and failure lies in the extent of
the resemblance.
31
Hoffman v. Capital Cities/ABC, Inc., 33 F. Supp. 2d 867, 873 (C.D. Cal. 1999).
32
Cohen v. Herbal Concepts, Inc., 63 N.Y. 2d 379, 384 (1984).
33
63 N.Y. 2d 379, 384 (1984).
34
35

T. S. McNamara
possible then the action would fail.

2) Public disclosure of private facts
This is a cause of action based on the offensive and unwanted publicity given
to such non-newsworthy facts or information which are not in the public record
or not well known.36 However, this tort also requires that the plaintiff’s identity
be revealed from the image itself (Calvert & Brown, 2000: p. 564).
To prevail, the plaintiff must establish a “reasonable expectation of privacy” in
the images (Beasley, 2006: p. 93).37 Context will be determinative (as the same
image could be perceived as either revenge pornography or a courtship photo)
(Levendowski, 2014: p. 436). Arguably, the concept of reasonable behavior with
regards to fast evolving, and at times difficult to understand or control, technol-
ogy may be somewhat fluid. For example, the District of Puerto Rico has stated
that a “reasonable person does not protect his private pictures by placing them
on an Internet site” even if password-protected.38
3) Intentional infliction of emotional distress
Intentional infliction of emotional distress is a cause of action which might be
sustained where the images have been posted on the Internet or otherwise made
available.
4) False light claim
This cause of action is similar to defamation, where the images have been ma-
nipulated to create a false impression e.g. putting the head of a celebrity on the
body of another person (Calvert & Brown, 2000: p. 565). Even if no reputational
harm incurs, psychological harm to the victim can result. (Calvert & Brown,
2000: p. 565) This underscores the importance of the subjective versus objective
formulation of the right to an image: adoption of a subjective test would not
necessarily favor the plaintiff (as they may be particularly thick-skinned) but
could act as a disincentive to the would-be defendant (since the potential plain-
tiff’s nature as thick-skinned or thin-skinned might be unknown).
An example of the false light tort would be the use of the plaintiff’s picture in
an article with which he has no reasonable connection (such as the photo of a
decent model alongside a story about “man hungry” women) (Prosser, 1960: p.
414). Another example would be inclusion of the plaintiff’s mug shot in a rogue
gallery of convicted criminals when, in fact, the plaintiff had only been arrested
but never convicted of a crime (Prosser, 1960: p. 399).
A false light action is not necessarily defamatory, although it tends to be
(Prosser, 1960: p. 400). At a minimum, it must at least be something objection-
able to the ordinary man under the circumstances (i.e. the test is not subjective,
is not designed to protect the hypersensitive) (Prosser, 1960: p. 400). Prosser
gives the example of a street photographer who makes a minor error when writ-
36
See Shulman v. Group W Prods., Inc., 18 Cal. 4th 200, 214 (1998) and Clay Calvert; Justin Brown,
Supra note 339, at 563.
37
See also Restatement (Second) of Torts §§ 652D & 652B (1977).
38
United States v. Gines-Perez, 214 F. Supp. 2d 205, 225 (D.P.R. 2002) (declining to find that a crim-
inal defendant had a reasonable expectation of privacy under the Fourth Amendment with respect to
images posted on a password-protected, non-public website).

T. S. McNamara
ing a story: such a plaintiff would not be entitled to recover (Prosser, 1960: p.
400).
4.3. Drawing the Line on Individualized “Harm”

The right to an image, as a dignity-based interest, takes a somewhat distinct ap-
proach: the key question is not the tortious “did the image cause actual harm?”
but rather “is the image harmful?”. The latter question can be answered objec-
tively, without any reference to the motive of the disseminator, his knowledge or
intent. Barring consent to the dissemination, the expectations of the image sub-
ject would also become irrelevant. This approach, it is submitted, saves the right
to an image from the risk of excessive subjectivism which might otherwise be-
come a consideration given the “fundamentally true” or “fair” formulation.
Of course, no discussion of the illicit image, or where the line between the
lawful and the unlawful should be drawn, can take place without acknowledging
the centrality of the freedom of speech discussion in international law. Article 19
of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) states that:
Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right in-
cludes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive
and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of
frontiers. (UN General Assembly, 1948)
However, this article makes no reference to pornography and while it is possi-

ble that pornography had been on the minds of the writers, there is no evidence
to suggest so. Indeed, the focus appears to be on intellectual freedom i.e. ideas
and information, and it is unclear if pornography has an “intellectual” compo-
nent. On the other hand, the plain meaning interpretation of the words suggests
that the medium itself should not be controlled and any attempt to exclude por-
nographic or other unpopular expressions would amount to a prior restraint.
The actual distinction between pornographic and erotic or artistic expression,
for example, may be more subjective, culturally specific and ambiguous than is
commonly realized.
Yet, it is likely overstating the case to claim that the UDHR guarantees the
right to create pornography. Freedom of belief and political expression were
guaranteed. So, too, were women’s rights (see article 2) and dignity interests (see
article 1) which, in some analyses, pornography would be an affront to. More-
over, this conception of freedom of speech has at times been severely circum-
scribed: at the time the UDHR entered into effect, no Member State had com-
pletely de-criminalized pornography.
In terms of a line of demarcation, the concept of harm as it relates to the right
to an image bears little connection to the legality or illegality of the image, for
example. Under the proposed test, the harmful image will almost certainly in-
clude not only the vast majority of currently illegal and tortious images but also
many that have traditionally been seen as lawful.
As an example of introducing a new and lower standard in practice, the

T. S. McNamara
change in California’s paparazzi control law applied the lower “offensive to a

reasonable person” standard, replacing the “highly offensive to a reasonable per-
son” standard, and thereby enhanced privacy protection for the photographed.39
The right to an image, it is submitted, should adopt a similar standard in regards
to dissemination.
As an example of nuance under the law, in Boring v. Google,40 the “heightened
expectation of privacy” standard was considered, as the highly placed cameras
peered over hedges and into a backyard, exceeding the viewing capacity of a
normal pedestrian passerby. This standard was applied despite the fact back-
yards are not completely private: people in nearby apartments or hotels can of-
ten see in, as can overhead balloons or drones etc.41
It is the contention of this paper that much of the thinking which now domi-
nates Western narratives over the appropriate limits to image capture and dis-
semination has become misguided. In particular, the importance of dignity has
been lost, often swallowed up by the larger privacy claims, while individual af-
fronts or transgressions are often downplayed, unless they can fit into a larger
political narrative.
This has manifest itself at times as increasing concern over group identity and
group rights at the expense of the individual, and group consciousness as group
guilt or group innocence. Thus, revenge pornography may be framed as a
women’s rights issue even when all of the parties involved in a film’s creation
and dissemination were female. At other times this has even manifest itself as
analytical confusion (e.g. “what is a woman?”). Clearly, attempts to re-draw
analytical lines and formulate legal tests are political acts.
The right to an image attempts to negate some of the unfortunate tendencies
by stressing the importance of dignity and reputation as a “higher form” of pri-
vacy right whilst also shifting the discussion back to individual victims and indi-
vidual wrongdoers.
5. Scenario Three Images

Although the concept of revenge pornography followed here relates to real peo-
ple committing real sexual acts, the term, in its most expansionist sense, is some-
times associated with deepfake pornography. For example, Levendowski de-
scribes the transplanting of an ordinary person’s head onto a sexually explicit
39
Cal. Civ. Code § 1708.8 (a) (Deering 2005).
40
598 F. Supp.2d 696 (W. D. Pa. 2009). Most of the Boring claims failed, with only the trespassing
claim having merit. The Third Circuit found that “[p]ublication is not an element” of intrusion upon
seclusion. Furthermore, only “the most exquisitely sensitive… would suffer same or humiliation”
from their property appearing on Google Street View.
41
The seeds for such a conception may not be obvious although US law is generally less priva-
cy-protecting than European law. When free speech issues are involved, a large contingent of Amer-
ican and America-based globalist lawyers appear eager to change that. The desire to foster interna-
tional standardized norms is manifest in criticisms of US law, both implicit and explicit. An implied
criticism, for example, appears to lie in the concept of “heightened expectation of privacy”. This
concept implicitly rejects the hard distinction between public/private or expectations exist-
ing/expectations non-existing. By framing the idea in terms of a “heightened expectation”, a new,
nuanced possibility opens up: a concept of privacy without seclusion.

T. S. McNamara
body as an example of revenge pornography, since this imagery was non-

consensual.42 However, this might also encapsulate a grey area of “spoof” pho-
tography and, not being “true” revenge pornography, is excluded for the pur-
poses of our analysis, at least when created for obvious comedic effect. Instead,
this might be better understood as deepfake pornography.
Deepfake, a portmanteau of “deep learning” and “fake”, refers to audio or
visual material which has been digitally altered so as to make it appear a person
is doing or saying something they have not really done or said. (Chesney & Cit-
ron, 2019) This could involve, for example, a political candidate being falsely
portrayed as saying something racist, misogynistic or transphobic, so as to sabo-
tage his election campaign.
Deepfakes erode trust, a necessary component in relationships and political
discourse. (Chesney & Citron, 2019: p. 895-896) Furthermore, women and mar-
ginalized groups are disproportionately targeted for abuse, including abuse such
as deepfake pornography. (Chesney & Citron, 2019: p. 896) The libertarian re-
sponse, of allowing this scourge to remain unregulated, would harm the most
vulnerable members of society. (Chesney & Citron, 2019: p. 896) On the other
hand, some libertarians argue that any restrictions on speech will actually only
favor the already powerful, given their control over regulatory processes. (Ches-
ney & Citron, 2019: p. 897)
Despite the international nature of access to images on the Internet, there are
several practical (i.e. technological and legal) difficulties that often make it im-
possible for authorities in one jurisdiction to effectively exercise their powers
abroad. For example, remote computer investigations (e.g. US authorities ac-
cessing an American citizen’s computer abroad) might amount to a search if
conducted under domestic law (Perritt, 1996: p. 109).
Arguably, conduct should be criminalized when the cost of enforcing private
rights is so high the persons harmed cannot reasonably pursue legal remedies
(Perritt, 1996: p. 110). Of course, harms to the state should also be criminalized,
yet these harms can be defined over-broadly to include simple political criticism
(e.g. dissident images) (Perritt, 1996: p. 110).
The right to an image suffers from the same trilemma: image capture, image
dissemination and the relevant parties may all involve three or even four juris-
dictions. However, an international treaty that recognized the right to an image
could also address the enforcement issue.
The failure to regulate deepfake pornography presents a serious challenge to
human rights, given its close association with revenge pornography and the risk
that it poses in terms of emotional distress, humiliation and reputational injury
(Franks & Waldman, 2019: p. 893). Moreover, deepfake pornography is com-
pletely at odds with a society that values the pursuit of truth and is problematic
because some ideas are “unanswerable” (Franks & Waldman, 2019: pp. 894-895).
The problems of morphed images (between two or more real persons), syn-
The level of such spoof and photoshopped pornography may be quite high, by one estimate ac-
42
counting for twelve percent of such images. Amanda Levendowski, Supra note 52, at 424.

T. S. McNamara
thetic or computer-generated images (CGI) and child pornography are often

factually confusing and overlapping. For example, the face of a child could be
merged with the body of an adult or vice versa. Or, sexual cartoons may have
characters with no defined age, despite their wearing school uniforms. Some-
times the CGI or cartoon will be based upon real females, or at least some of
their features will be.
International treaties may, in the future, address this problem with more
tightly-bound definitions of the key terms. Regrettably, however, there is still no
mechanism by which individuals may directly petition a UN body when they feel
their rights have been violated, nor is there an international court to adjudicate
such individualized claims in the same way as the ECrtHR operates.
Recognition of the right to an image could address many of these issues, par-
ticularly where the affected individual is identifiable. Under the right to an im-
age there is no requirement that the age of the image subject be specified or even
that the photo be “real”, only that it be harmful, disseminated and the victim be
recognizable. Even a CGI or cartoon drawing of an identifiable individual could
be a violation of the right to an image.
In practice, deepfake revenge pornography is considered much less serious
than deepfake child pornography. While true child pornography is always
criminalized, revenge pornography is often considered merely tortious. Thus,
while the relevant authorities may share information with another jurisdiction,
they are unlikely to arrest or attempt to extradite someone who is suspected of
committing an act of revenge pornography abroad (i.e. suspected of uploading
abroad or suspected of uploading locally where the victim and/or the image
capture itself occurred abroad).
The laws to combat non-consensual pornography (“revenge pornography”),
typically prohibit image dissemination but not image capture. In contrast, there
is a rare but more serious type of pornography which is not only harmful but
also hideously disgusting to the general populace. This type of pornography re-
volves around image capture of acts which violate international norms and ap-
pear to be customarily illegal (e.g. incest, child pornography, bestiality and ne-
crophilism). Child pornography is the most discussed of these acts although
many of the laws which address child pornography cover the other acts as well.
As such, discussions of the right to an image will likely appear superfluous in
such a context: given the severity of the criminal penalties involved, a photogra-
pher involved in these other acts would likely consider a discussion of a right to
an image violation to be the least of his concerns. Nonetheless, the issue could
arise with spoof or morphed images which might, or might not, amount to
criminal offences.
Thus, the right to an image may offer a useful backstop if, for some reason,
ordinary criminal law fails to protect.
6. Conclusion
There can be no doubt that a basic sense of morality does exist within main-

T. S. McNamara
stream society. Yet this universal value is often violated by the non-consensual
image disseminator in at least three specific contexts, as outlined above. What
unifies the three scenarios is that in all three there is a violation of the image
subject’s right to control against harmful disseminations of his or her image.
In theory, the regional and international instruments, such as the UDHR and
the ECHR, should offer adequate protection against these infringements, either
under the dignity or the privacy rubric. In practice, however, the dignity con-
ceptualization is often under-inclusive and fails to provide the same level of re-
putational protection as the right to an image would. In contrast, the privacy in-
terest is often over-protective, failing to recognize the nuance or subtlety re-
quired when distinguishing between the reputation-harmful and the reputa-
tion-harmless privacy infringement. In the long run, over-protection may be
almost as harmful as under-protection, insofar as the affected interest risks be-
coming trivialized.
In response to this quandary, in order to offer both the correct type and the
correct level of protection for image subjects, this paper has laid out, in skeleton
form, the right to an image. The formula developed to protect this interest is, in
many ways, a compromise. For some, it will swing the balance too far away from
freedom of expression and, for others, it will not swing it far enough. However,
Professor Solove, and the ECrtHR, show us that it is sometimes possible to find a
balance, despite the binary tendency of the law.
The “fundamentally untrue or unfair” formulation is designed to distinguish
between characteristic and uncharacteristic behavior of image subjects. Only
images of atypical unfortunate circumstances or uncharacteristic bad behavior
would be deserving of protection. Nonetheless, some will argue that no restric-
tions should ever be placed on the photographer operating in the public square
while others will argue that the photographer has no right to ever disseminate,
or perhaps even capture, images without consent. To upset both extremes sug-
gests perhaps a good balance has been found.
As technology such as facial recognition, digital identity and Central Bank
Digital Currencies (CBDC) continue to develop, privacy will increasingly be lost,
yet dignity need not be. The technology under which every face in a stadium can
be recognized and broadcast does not mean that every face should be. Under
circumstances where full spectrum images are taken, and the photographer dis-
seminates them without close examination, or instantaneously, or without the
mens rea of one who seeks to harm or humiliate, it is one thing. Yet, where he
disseminates with the intent to harm or humiliate, it is quite another. The mu-
nicipal authority may need to determine the duty of care.43
Confucius tells us that the beginning of wisdom is to call things by their true
name. For many years, the law has struggled to define the vague, yet heartfelt,
43
It is open to the implementing legislation to provide differentiated sanctions based on the duty of
care and the seriousness of the infringement. For example, a scenario one infringement could result
in merely a financial sanction whereas scenario two and three infringements would more likely be
deemed criminal matters.

T. S. McNamara
and widely understood interest which is triggered by the disseminations of the

hostile artist or anti-social photographer. Defamation has failed when the por-
trayal was either technically true or clearly a work of fiction, a spoof. Likewise, a
privacy infringement cannot really be claimed when images, already in the pub-
lic sphere, are simply morphed. To address Confucius, the term “right to an im-
age” has been coined to describe the affected interest. It is a term which serves to
solely denote visual portrayals whose disseminations can result in loss of face for
the image subjects.
Conflicts of Interest
The author declares no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this pa-
per.
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Beijing Law Review, 2023, 14, 2109-2135

Is It Time to Recognize the Right to an Image?

China University of Political Science and Law (CUPL), Beijing, China

How to cite this paper: McNamara, T. S. Abstract

DOI: 10.4236/blr.2023.144117 Dec. 18, 2023 2109 Beijing Law Review

DOI: 10.4236/blr.2023.144117 2110 Beijing Law Review

2. Overview—The Nature of the Problem

DOI: 10.4236/blr.2023.144117 2111 Beijing Law Review

2.1. Conceptualizing the Affected Interest—Are Psychological

DOI: 10.4236/blr.2023.144117 2112 Beijing Law Review

principle appears to be needed if we are to properly protect the weak-minded

2.2. The Concept of Face

2.3. The Impinged Interest

DOI: 10.4236/blr.2023.144117 2113 Beijing Law Review

Having established that it can be morally wrong to disseminate—and perhaps

2.4. The Competing Interests

DOI: 10.4236/blr.2023.144117 2114 Beijing Law Review

DOI: 10.4236/blr.2023.144117 2115 Beijing Law Review

2.5. Privacy and Its Shortcomings

DOI: 10.4236/blr.2023.144117 2116 Beijing Law Review

(Bloustein, 1964: pp. 962-1007)13

2.6. The Technology Bias

DOI: 10.4236/blr.2023.144117 2117 Beijing Law Review

2.7. Philosophical Premises

2.8. Legal Rationale and Formulae: An Outline

DOI: 10.4236/blr.2023.144117 2118 Beijing Law Review

against an unfair or fundamentally untrue, harmful and recognizable, image dis-

DOI: 10.4236/blr.2023.144117 2119 Beijing Law Review

been rendered sufficiently obscure (e.g. by examining the pixelation settings) or

2.9. Applying the Law to the Facts

DOI: 10.4236/blr.2023.144117 2120 Beijing Law Review

3. Scenario One Images

3.1. Livestreaming Public Places

DOI: 10.4236/blr.2023.144117 2121 Beijing Law Review

This discussion is often linked to facial recognition technology, as the tech-

3.2. Morally Ambiguous Images

DOI: 10.4236/blr.2023.144117 2122 Beijing Law Review

3.3. Arguments Favoring the Right to an Image over Privacy

DOI: 10.4236/blr.2023.144117 2123 Beijing Law Review

(e.g. ASBO ordinances in the UK).

4. Scenario Two Images

DOI: 10.4236/blr.2023.144117 2124 Beijing Law Review

DOI: 10.4236/blr.2023.144117 2125 Beijing Law Review

disinformation etc.), a single, unifying legal principle could be invoked. From

4.1. Criminalizing the Image vs. Criminalizing the Malicious Act

DOI: 10.4236/blr.2023.144117 2126 Beijing Law Review

4.2. Traditional (Tortious) Remedies to Control Image

DOI: 10.4236/blr.2023.144117 2127 Beijing Law Review

possible then the action would fail.

DOI: 10.4236/blr.2023.144117 2128 Beijing Law Review

4.3. Drawing the Line on Individualized “Harm”

However, this article makes no reference to pornography and while it is possi-

DOI: 10.4236/blr.2023.144117 2129 Beijing Law Review

change in California’s paparazzi control law applied the lower “offensive to a

5. Scenario Three Images

DOI: 10.4236/blr.2023.144117 2130 Beijing Law Review

body as an example of revenge pornography, since this imagery was non-

DOI: 10.4236/blr.2023.144117 2131 Beijing Law Review

thetic or computer-generated images (CGI) and child pornography are often