Point Absorber Wave Energy Harvesters A Review of

energies
Review
Point Absorber Wave Energy Harvesters: A Review of
Recent Developments
Elie Al Shami, Ran Zhang and Xu Wang *
School of Engineering, RMIT University, Bundoora, Victoria 3083, Australia;
s3652864@student.rmit.edu.au (E.A.S.); s3253199@student.rmit.edu.au (R.Z.)
* Correspondence: xu.wang@rmit.edu.au; Tel.: +3-9925-6028; Fax: +3-9925-6108

Received: 24 November 2018; Accepted: 19 December 2018; Published: 24 December 2018
Abstract: Even though ocean waves around the world are known to contain high and dense amounts
of energy, wave energy harvesters are still not as mature as other forms of renewable energy harvesting
devices, especially when it comes to commercialization, mass production, and grid integration,
but with the recent studies and optimizations, the point absorber wave energy harvester might
be a potential candidate to stand out as the best solution to harvest energy from highly energetic
locations around the world’s oceans. This paper presents an extensive literature review on point
absorber wave energy harvesters and covers their recent theoretical and experimental development.
The paper focuses on three main parts: One-body point absorbers, two-body point absorbers, and
power take-offs. This review showcases the high amount of work being done to push point absorbers
towards technological maturity to eventually kick off commercialization and mass production.
It should also provide a good background on the recent status of point absorber development for
researchers in the field.
Keywords: wave energy converter (WEC), point absorbers; power take-off; renewable energy; review;
recent development
1. Introduction
During the oil crisis in the 1970s, light was shed on renewable energy as an alternative to fossil
fuels. But after the stabilization of the economic and political status of oil, the renewable energy focus
degraded up until the twenty first century, where environmental, ecological and economical concerns
re-established renewable energy as one of the most growing topics in the modern era. The difficulties
related to exploiting most types of renewable energy resources have surpassed the need to develop
novel technologies, and nowadays, most of the research is concentrated around the adaptation of the
renewable and sustainable harvesting systems within the petrol-based power grids.
Solar energy, hydropower and wind energy are all being converted by mature technologies which
are slowly dominating the power grids around the world and have a strong presence within industry
manufacturers. On the other hand, ocean waves energy conversion technology, while it has higher
energy density and efficiency, still hasn’t established itself in the renewable energy market, but is
currently being researched, analysed and optimized to be implemented within power grids around
the world.
Like all other forms of renewable energy resources, ocean wave energy research peaked during
the 1970s after it was first established in the late 18th century [1,2], and then the oil business boomed
again, lowering the focus on all forms of renewable energy resources, including ocean wave energy
harvesting. But recently, due to many factors including the focus on CO2 emissions and environmental
impacts of power resources, the low efficiency of renewable energy harvesting system related to solar
power, hydropower, and wind energy, and the realisation of massive power density within ocean
Energies 2019, 12, 47; doi:10.3390/en12010047 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2019, 12, 47 2 of 36
waves [1–3], the development of ocean wave energy harvesting technologies is peaking again with
very few models reaching the scaled real seas implementation stage [4–7]. Most of the work done in
ocean wave energy harvesting is theoretical only, and that is due to many factors and challenges.
1.1. Wave Energy Resources

Wind blowing over the surface of the ocean due to the earth gravity generates ocean waves and
creating tremendous energy potential which can be converted to electrical energy.
Wave energy is originated from the solar energy, as the sun’s thermal radiation causes a change in
the air temperatures which leads to generating wind and ultimately creating propagating waves along
the surface of the ocean. What makes wave energy interesting is the fact that it is way denser than solar
or wind energy, as the energy gets more concentrated going from solar to wind to wave. According
to Falnes [8], per unit volume of energy, solar radiation containing 0.1–0.3 kWm−2 transforms to
wind energy containing 0.5 kWm−2 which finally causes the propagation of ocean waves containing
2–3 kWm−2 of energy. This high energy density can potentially translate to harvested power with
higher efficiency compared to other forms of renewable energy harvesting.
This conversion is realized through wave energy devices specifically designed to harvest this
energy from the waves, mostly utilizing the surface motion and excitation forces of ocean waves
and sometimes the pressure fluctuations below the surface. In ters of ocean wave energy harvesting,
the power contained within a unit of wavefront length (Wm−1 ) in deep waters is defined as [5,8,9]:
1
J= ρg2 Hs 2 Te (1)
64π
where ρ is the water density, g is the gravitational constant, Hs is the significant wave height, defined
as the mean wave height of the third highest waves, and mathematically calculated as four times
the standard deviation of the ocean surface elevation. Te is the energy period, it is defined as
simulating an entire sea state with one sine wave, the energy period would be the period of this
sine wave. Mathematically, it is calculated as 0.86 times the peak wave period of the spectrum for the
Pierson–Moskowitz spectrum and 0.91 times the peak wave period for the JONSWAP spectrum.
This equation indicates that the power density contained within ocean waves relies on the wave
height and wave period of propagating ocean waves. Oceanography defines something called sea state,
which is the state (wave height and wave period) of the ocean waves propagating in a certain region at a
certain time (sea states are usually seasonal). The sea states are mostly random, but studies have proved
that they can be quantified over regions and months of the year with ocean climate studies based on
either wind observation, or buoy implementation to record the wave data over a long time, such as
the WERATLAS program [10] (European Wave Energy Atlas) designated to indicate the available
wave energy in the European shores. Researchers were able to derive a mean of the significant wave
height and period, hence the power contained within waves, for specific regions around the world
during every month of the year [3,11–13]. This variance in the sea state is one of the first challenges for
ocean wave energy harvesting. From Equation (1), the wave energy resources are quantified as the
power per unit length, and according to Barstow, et al. [14] the southern hemisphere has higher energy
potential, and less seasonal variations during annual averages, which makes places like Australia
encouraging for wave energy harvesting. The wave energy resources in Australia have been analysed
by Morim, Cartwright, Etemad-Shahidi, Strauss and Hemer [3], and the design parameters for a
one-body point absorber specifically designed for the Australian shores were calculated by Illesinghe,
Manasseh, Dargaville and Ooi [11]. It was concluded that the southern Australian shorelines have a
largest energy potential with peak wave periods ranging between 8–12 s and significant wave heights
ranging between 2–4 m, these relatively high wave periods present another challenge for wave energy
converters which will be discussed further on.
Energies 2019, 12, 47 3 of 36
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 38

1.2. Wave Energy Harvesters
According
According to to Drew,
Drew, Plummer
Plummer and
and Sahinkaya
Sahinkaya [1] [1] there
there was
was over
over 1000
1000 designed
designed wave
wave energy
energy
harvesters
harvesters in
in 2009
2009 from
from both
both patents
patents and
and publications,
publications, andand these
these designs
designs can
can be
be classified
classified into
into three
three
different types from a working principle perspective: the oscillating water column (OWC),
different types from a working principle perspective: the oscillating water column (OWC), oscillating oscillating
body
body systems,
systems, and
and overtopping
overtopping devices
devices [2].
[2]. Most
Most of
of these
these devices
devices rely
rely on
on resonance
resonance to to harvest
harvest the
the
most energyfrom
most energy fromthethe somehow
somehow periodic
periodic ocean ocean waves,
waves, as the
as when when the incident
incident wave frequency
wave frequency coincides
coincides with theresonant
with the natural natural frequency
resonant frequency of thea device,
of the device, a harvested
harvested power peakpower peaklike
occurs, occurs, like in1
in Figure
Figure 1 belowthe
below around around
6–8 sthe 6–8period
wave s waverange.
period range.
Figure
Figure 1. Captured
Captured power
power of
of aa point
point absorber
absorber WEC vs. wave
wave period
period calculation
calculation using
using different
different
numerical methods [15]
numerical methods [15].
1.3. Challenges
1.3. Challenges
Ocean wave
Ocean wave energy
energy harvesters
harvesters differ
differ in
in size,
size, technologies
technologies and
and type
type of
of operations,
operations, but
but they
they all
all
share common challenges:
share common challenges:
• Seasonal variations:
Seasonal variations: AsAsdiscussed
discussedearlier, thethe
earlier, seasea
states are not
states are consistent, and they
not consistent, andchange during
they change
the year. This results in variable operating conditions and high difficulty
during the year. This results in variable operating conditions and high difficulty in designing in designing a Wave a
Energy Converter (WEC) which can cope and operate efficiently with
Wave Energy Converter (WEC) which can cope and operate efficiently with these variations.these variations.
• Large wave
Large wave periods:
periods: most
most ofof the
the types
types of of WECs
WECs rely rely on
on resonance
resonance to to achieve
achieve efficient
efficient energy
energy
capturing, and as discussed earlier, high energetic locations such as the
capturing, and as discussed earlier, high energetic locations such as the southern Australian southern Australian
shores tend
shores tend to
to have
have aa relatively
relatively large
large wave
wave period.
period. This
This necessitates
necessitates bigbig devices
devices with
with very
very large
large
masses in order to coincide the device’s natural frequency with the ocean
masses in order to coincide the device’s natural frequency with the ocean waves frequency and waves frequency and
achieve resonance
achieve resonance with
with the
the incoming
incoming waves,
waves, which
whichresults
results in
in design,
design,manufacturing,
manufacturing,transport,
transport,
implementation, mooring,
implementation, mooring, andand maintenance
maintenance difficulties
difficulties due
due to
tothe
themassive
massivevolumes
volumesand andmasses.
masses.
• Theoretical difficulties:
Theoretical difficulties:Wave Wave
energy energy harvesting
harvesting is very is very multidisciplinary
multidisciplinary containingcontaining
boundary
boundary
element element
methods methods of hydrodynamics
of hydrodynamics [8,9,13,16–28],
[8,9,13,16–28], finite element methodsfinite of element methods
fluid mechanics
of fluidmechanical
[29–33], mechanicsto electrical
[29–33], energy
mechanicaltransferto [34],
electrical
power energy
electronics transfer
[35,36],[34], power
and control
electronics[37–41].
theories [35,36], and control theoriesfor
Hydrodynamics [37–41].
exampleHydrodynamics for example
are theoretically are theoretically
intensive, containing
intensive, containing
complicated diffraction complicated
and radiation diffraction and radiation
wave theories [2] and wave theories
sometimes [2] and high
non-linear sometimes
order
non-linear
wave high
theories order wave
[32,42,43]. Thistheories
results [32,42,43]. This results
in considerably intenseinmodelling.
considerably intense modelling.
• PTO
PTO mechanisms:
mechanisms: There There are
are plenty
plenty ofof PTO
PTO mechanisms
mechanisms in in wave
wave energy
energy harvesters,
harvesters, the the main
main
ones being linear generators [27,35,36,44], power hydraulics [45], turbines [46],
ones being linear generators [27,35,36,44], power hydraulics [45], turbines [46], linear to rotary linear to rotary
motion transmission mechanisms [7,37,47], etc. The seasonal variance presented earlier presents
a real challenge for the PTOs, as they are usually designed to operate under consistent
conditions. Conventional PTOs are also designed to operate under high velocities and low forces
(except for linear generators, which are the opposite), in ocean waves conditions, the velocities
Energies 2019, 12, 47 4 of 36
motion transmission mechanisms [7,37,47], etc. The seasonal variance presented earlier presents a
real challenge for the PTOs, as they are usually designed to operate under consistent conditions.
Conventional PTOs are also designed to operate under high velocities and low forces (except
for2019,
Energies linear
12, xgenerators, which are the opposite), in ocean waves conditions, the velocities are4 low,
FOR PEER REVIEW of 38
and the forces are high, rendering the PTOs’ efficient operation tricky. Finally, there is the issue
are low,
with and the
offshore forces are high,
management, rendering
as these devicesthewillPTOs’ efficient
be placed operation
offshore tricky. 40–50
(sometimes Finally,
kmsthere
from is
the issue withand
landline) offshore
maybe management, as these devices
submerged underwater, this will be placed
renders offshoreextremely
maintenance (sometimes 40–50
difficult,
kms causes
and from the landline) andissues
contamination maybe forsubmerged underwater,
the surrounding ecologicalthis environment.
renders maintenance extremely
• difficult, and causes
Survivability: Harshcontamination
sea conditions,issues for the surrounding
and especially under storms ecological environment.sea states,
or unconventional
 where extremely high waves of large heights and forces are being excited on the WECsea
Survivability: Harsh sea conditions, and especially under storms or unconventional states,
raise a lot
where
of extremely
structural high waves ofquestions.
and survivability large heightsOnlyand forces are
a handful of being
WECsexcited on theatWEC
were tested raise
a large scalea lot
in
of structural
the sea like theand survivability
PowerBuoy questions.
in Figure Only a handful of WECs were tested at a large scale in
2 below.
• the sea like
Finally, thethe PowerBuoy
transition fromindesign
Figure 2tobelow.
testing to commercial manufacturing has proved to
 Finally,
be the transition
extremely difficult from design
for wave to testing
energy to commercial
harvesters, and thismanufacturing
is caused by has proved
multiple to be
reasons
extremely difficult for wave energy harvesters, and this is caused by
including: No WEC has standout as the definitive answer to harvesting energy from waves, multiple reasons including:
No WEC has
especially standout
with a largeas the definitive
number answer
of different to harvesting
designs. energyof
Scaled testing from
the waves,
WECs in especially
real seaswith
has
a large number
proved of different
to be extremely designs.
difficult Scaled testing
and expensive, henceof resulting
the WECs in real
from seas has difficulties
the financial proved to be of
extremely difficult and expensive, hence resulting from the
commercialisations. Ruehl and Bull [48] suggested a design stage roadmap for WECs to transit financial difficulties of
commercialisations.
from early design stagesRuehl andcommercialisation.
to full Bull [48] suggested Thea design
iterations,stage roadmap forand
developments, WECs to transit
optimization
from early design stages to full commercialisation.
needed to reach commercialisation were detailed in the publication. The iterations, developments, and
optimization needed to reach commercialisation were detailed in the publication.
Figure 2. The PowerBuoy WEC oscillating in the sea [49].

Figure 2. The PowerBuoy WEC oscillating in the sea [49].
1.4. Point Absorbers Focus
1.4. Point Absorbers Focus
Point absorbers are a type of floating oscillating bodies, which consist of a heaving buoy that
extracts theabsorbers
Point wave energyare awith
typeaofPower
floating oscillating
Take-Off (PTO)bodies, which
from the consist
relative of a heaving
motion betweenbuoy that
the buoy
extracts the wave energy with a Power Take-Off (PTO) from the relative motion
and a fixed reference (one-body point absorber) like in Figure 3 below, or between the buoy and a between the buoy
and a fixed reference
submerged oscillating(one-body point absorber)
body (two-body like in Figure
point absorber), 3 below,
or between theorsubmerged
between the buoy
body and and a
the
submerged
sea bed. oscillating body (two-body point absorber), or between the submerged body and the sea
bed. One of earliest patents recorded for point absorbers was published in 1885 by Leavitt [50] and
One of earliest
it suggested utilizingpatents recorded
the wave forvia
forces point absorbers
a heaving wasconnected
buoy published to in a1885 by and
racks Leavitt [50]system
gears and it
suggested
to pump the utilizing
water to theutilize
waveitforces
for airvia a heaving buoy
compression. connected development
The theoretical to a racks andofgears system
heaving buoysto
pump the water to utilize it for air compression. The theoretical development
developed in relation in the 1900s with the studies concerning hydrodynamics of ships and marine of heaving buoys
developed in relation in
structures [9,25,51,52], andtherecently
1900s with
many theoptimization
studies concerning hydrodynamics
studies were conducted of as ships and marine
discussed later in
structures [9,25,51,52], and recently many optimization studies were conducted
the paper. On the experimental side of things, some of the early attempts to test scaled down as discussed later in
point
the paper. On the experimental side of things, some of the early attempts to test
absorbers took place in the 1980s in Japan [53] and a few years later in Norway [54], further wave scaled down point
absorbers took place in the 1980s in Japan [53] and a few years later in Norway [54], further wave
tanks and ocean tests took place afterwards, and recently large scale point absorbers are being tested
in real seas [6].
There are extensive literature reviews of wave energy harvesters in general; Drew, Plummer and
Sahinkaya [1] presented the general status on wave energy harvesters, focussed on the WEC
development in the United Kingdom, and concluded that there is a lack of a main platform for WECs
Energies 2019, 12, 47 5 of 36
tanks and ocean tests took place afterwards, and recently large scale point absorbers are being tested
in real seas [6].
There are extensive literature reviews of wave energy harvesters in general; Drew, Plummer
and Sahinkaya [1] presented the general status on wave energy harvesters, focussed on the WEC
development
Energies 2019, 12,in the PEER
x FOR United Kingdom, and concluded that there is a lack of a main platform for WECs
REVIEW 5 of 38
as there are difficulties surrounding the optimizations of their powertrains. Falcão [2] presented an
extensive literature
extensive literature review
review of wave energy
of wave utilization since
energy utilization since the
the 1970s
1970s and
and covered
covered all aspects from
all aspects from
theories to commercial testing and development. Babarit, et al. [55] compared the performance
theories to commercial testing and development. Babarit, et al. [55] compared the performance of eight of
eight different WECs; a numerical simulation model was formulated for each
different WECs; a numerical simulation model was formulated for each WEC. The study comparedWEC. The study
comparedperformance
different different performance measures
measures such such width,
as capture as capture
powerwidth, power
per mass andper massper
power andsurface
powerarea
per
surface area for different sites around the European
for different sites around the European coastlines. coastlines.
Figure 3. Schematic of a point absorber with a linear generator PTO [56].

Figure 3. Schematic of a point absorber with a linear generator PTO [56].
All the previous literature review and performance comparison papers focus on wave energy
All theinprevious
harvesting general, literature
while this review andfocus
paper will performance comparison
on only point absorbers papers focus
as they offeronmany
wavebenefits
energy
harvesting
as in general,
an offshore environmentwhile this paper will
platform. Thisfocus
type on only point
of WECs has aabsorbers as they offer
low complexity many to
compared benefits
other
as an offshore environment platform. This type of WECs has a low complexity
designs, can harvest energy from different wave directions and offers high efficiency, reliability, and compared to othera
designs,
range can harvest
of control methodsenergy from different wave directions
[1,35,37,38,40,41,57–59]. And also, and offers below
as shown high efficiency,
in Figure 4, reliability,
the southernand
a range ofcoast
Australian control
is onemethods [1,35,37,38,40,41,57–59].
of the most wave energetic placesAnd also,
in the world,as shown
and these below in Figure
locations 4, the
are offshore
southern
with high Australian
depth, renderingcoast is
theone of the most
oscillating pointwave energetic
absorber ideal places
to harvestin the world,
energy fromand these
such locations
locations, as
are
it is offshore withtohigh
usually used depth,
exploit the rendering
energy from thethe
oscillating point absorber
offshore energetic ideal
locations withto harvest
high waterenergy
depth from
[2].
such locations,
Typically, high as it is usually
energetic oceanused to exploit
locations suchtheus asenergy
in thefrom the offshore
southern energetic
hemisphere tendlocations
to have highwith
high water
depth, depth to
compared [2].the
Typically,
low energy highseaenergetic
locationsocean
suchlocations such us as in the
as the Mediterranean southern
[3,60]. A reviewhemisphere
of some
tend to have high depth, compared to the low energy sea locations such as
of the different techniques and innovations to harvest ocean waves energy using point absorbers the Mediterranean [3,60].
was
A review of some of the different techniques and innovations to harvest ocean
presented by Santhosh, et al. [61]. Compared to other literature reviews of WECs, this paper focuses waves energy using
on
point
the absorbers
technical was presented
development of onebyand
Santhosh,
two-bodyet al.point
[61]. absorbers,
Comparedas toitother literature
covers the recent reviews of WECs,
theoretical and
this paper focuses
experimental studies onofthe
onetechnical development
type of harvesters, whichof one
is theand two-body
point absorber,point absorbers,
as it is as it covers
a strong candidate to
the recent theoretical and experimental studies of one type of harvesters, which is the point absorber,
as it is a strong candidate to be the standout type of WECs to harvest energy from high energetic
locations, it has undertaken a lot of design and optimizations in the recent years, and many novel
PTOs have been incorporated for it in an attempt to increase both the power and cost efficiencies. The
remainder of this literature review will focus on the recent developments and studies concerning the
Energies 2019, 12, 47 6 of 36
be the standout type of WECs to harvest energy from high energetic locations, it has undertaken a lot
of design and optimizations in the recent years, and many novel PTOs have been incorporated for it in
an attempt to increase both the power and cost efficiencies. The remainder of this literature review will
focus on the recent developments and studies concerning the point absorber WEC. It will be divided
as follows: the first part will cover the one-body point absorber and will focus on the dynamics and
hydrodynamics modelling, and theoretical and experimental development. The second part will focus
on the two-body point absorber similarly to the first part. The third part will cover PTOs and focus
on both linear PTOs and linear to rotary mechanisms. Then the paper will discuss moorings and our
contributions
The briefly
third
Energies part12,
2019, and
will finish
cover
x FOR with
PTOs
PEER anda focus
REVIEW briefonconclusion.
both linear PTOs and linear to rotary mechanisms. Then
6 of 38
the paper will discuss moorings and our contributions briefly and finish with a brief conclusion.
The third part will cover PTOs and focus on both linear PTOs and linear to rotary mechanisms. Then
the paper will discuss moorings and our contributions briefly and finish with a brief conclusion.
Global
Figure 4.Figure distribution
4. Global distributionofofmean
mean power
power ininkW/m
kW/m of ocean
of ocean wave generated
wave generated by the by the
WAVEWATCH-III wind wave model using wave climate data between 1997
WAVEWATCH-III wind wave model using wave climate data between 1997 and 2006 [62].and 2006 [62]
Figure 4. Global distribution of mean power in kW/m of ocean wave generated by the
2. 2. One-Body
One-Body Point Point Absorber
WAVEWATCH-III
Absorber wind wave model using wave climate data between 1997 and 2006 [62]
2. Modelling
2.1. One-Body Point Absorber
2.1. Modelling
This is the simplest type of all wave energy harvesters, as it is basically a floating buoy of a
is2.1.
theModelling
This cylindrical,
simplest
sphericaltype of all cylinder
or a hollow wave energy
oscillatingharvesters,
with the largeas it is
wave basically
forces exerted aonfloating
it against buoy of a
cylindrical, This
spherical
a fixed is the simplest
or a(mainly
reference hollowthetype of
cylinder all wave energy
oscillating
sea bottom). harvesters,
Energywith as
the large
is harvested it is basically
wave
with a
forces
a PTO floating
exerted
(usually buoy
linear ofita against a
onor
cylindrical,
hydraulic) spherical
placed or athe
between hollow
buoy cylinder
and the oscillating
fixed with where
reference the large
the wave forces kinetic
oscillating exertedenergy
on it against
(the
fixed reference (mainly the sea bottom). Energy is harvested with a PTO (usually linear or hydraulic)
a fixed reference
dominating oscillation(mainly the heave)
one is the sea bottom). Energy
of the floater is harvested
is converted intowith a PTO
electrical (usually
power, linearin or
as shown
placed between the buoy
hydraulic)
Figure placedand
5 below.
the the
between fixedbuoyreference where
and the fixed the oscillating
reference kinetic kinetic
where the oscillating energy (the (the
energy dominating
oscillation one is the heave)
dominating of one
oscillation the isfloater is converted
the heave) into
of the floater electrical
is converted intopower, aspower,
electrical shownasin Figure
shown in 5 below.
Figure 5 below.
Figure 5. Direct drive cylindrical one-body point absorber WEC [27].
Direct
Figure 5.Figure drivedrive
5. Direct cylindrical one-body
cylindrical point
one-body point absorber
absorber WECWEC
[27]. [27].
Energies 2019, 12, 47 7 of 36
2.1.1. Dynamics
The dynamics of a one-body point absorber WEC can be studied in either the frequency domain
or the time domain. Each domain has its pros and cons; the frequency domain is very simple,
and non-computationally demanding, but cannot model non-linear interactions and forces. While the
time domain is more computationally demanding, but can contain nonlinear elements such as higher
order waves, non-linear wave excitation forces, non-linear viscous drag forces, complex mooring and
end stop requirements, etc. Usually, the time domain simulations are done using a non-linear numerical
model or a computational fluids dynamics (CFD)-based finite element analysis (FEA) simulation where
the point absorbers are simulated within a numerical wave tank. Connell and Cashman [30] presented
a detailed method to simulate waves in ANSYS Fluent (16.0, Ansys, Canonsburg, PA, USA) within
a numerical wave tank, with a numerical beach and focused on mesh sensitivity and the damping
required to minimize wave reflection, numerically simulated fluid velocities were compared with
the results calculated by theory to validate theory. Even though the time domain results are more
accurate than the frequency domain ones, for the one-body wave energy harvesters, it was proved
that the linear interactions dominate the dynamics, and a simplified model in the frequency domain
should be accurate enough for modelling. Guo, Patton, Jin, Gilbert and Parsons [43] compared a
linear dynamics model of a cylindrical one-body point absorber with a non-linear model containing
non-linear friction and viscous damping forces, and verified the simulated results against experimental
measurement results, it was concluded that the linear model can be accurate enough for modelling
scaled devices. Zurkinden, Ferri, Beatty, Kofoed and Kramer [42] studied the numerical modelling
of a non-linear spherical point absorber with non-linear hydrostatic stiffness and viscous drag and
verified the simulation results against experimental measurement results as well. It was shown that
the linear model is accurate enough to model spherical buoys. Giorgi and Ringwood [32] compared
9 different modelling techniques, with linear and extremely non-linear models (using CFD to model
nonlinear Froude-Krylov wave and viscous drag forces), and he concluded that the non-linearities are
insignificant for uncontrolled heaving point absorbers, but introducing latching control increases the
non-linear viscous drag forces to an extent where they affect the accuracy of the results. Li and Yu [15]
also compared different approaches to model a WEC, and it was concluded that a linear analytical
method with a linearized viscous damping coefficient can be as accurate as a fully non-linear CFD
modelling method.
There is also very recent work done on the dynamics and non-linearities of one-body point
absorbers. Penalba, et al. [26] studied the influence of the non-linear Froude-Krylov forces on the
performance of a spherical and cylindrical point absorbers, and it was shown that the linear modelling
is accurate enough except for the non-uniform cross sectional shape of a spherical buoy where a
non-linear hydrostatic force takes place, but this force can be linearized in the frequency domain for a
better accuracy. Also, Jin, et al. [63] conducted a comprehensive study where he compared a fully linear
dynamics model without viscous damping with a non-linear dynamics model which incorporates
viscous drag damping. The results were verified against those of both the experimental wave tank
testing and CFD simulations. In the absence of PTO damping from both the models, and viscous
damping from the linear one, the author proved that the viscous damping can have a large effect at
large oscillation, especially around resonance. And also, away from the resonance point, the relative
velocity difference between the buoy and the water particles is too insignificant to create a viscous
drag force.
Therefore, the frequency domain is appropriate for solving the dynamics of a one-body point
absorber WEC, and the linear equation based on Newton’s second law of motion in a single degree of
freedom is given by:
.. . . .
My + k p y + c p y + k hs y + cvd y + cr y = Fwe (2)
. ..
where y, y, and y are the displacement, velocity, and acceleration of the system respectively in the
vertical heave direction; M is the total mass of the point absorber, k hs is the hydrostatic stiffness, cr
2019, 12, 47𝐹

coefficient,
Energies is the wave excitation force exerted on the point absorber, and finally, 8 of 36 𝑘 and 𝑐
are the PTO’s stiffness and damping coefficients to form the PTO force: 𝐹 = 𝑘 𝑦 + 𝑐 𝑦.
represents In the
the frequency domain,
radiation damping solving the
coefficient, linear equations
cvd represents require
the linearized the assumption
viscous that the wave and
damping coefficient,
Fweitsisexcitation
the wave force are harmonic,
excitation andonthat
force exerted thethepoint buoy is following
absorber, the wave
and finally, displacement.
k p and The harmonic
c p are the PTO’s
.
buoy displacement is assumed by: y = Y e st and the wave excitation
stiffness and damping coefficients to form the PTO force: Fpto = k p y + c p y.
j j force is assumed by: Fwej = Fjest
whereIn theYjfrequency
is the complex
domain, amplitude
solving theoflinear
the displacement
equations require in m,
the assumption that the wave and
Fj is the complex amplitude of the wave excitation force in displacement.
its excitation force are harmonic, and that the buoy is following the wave N, s = iω where i is the imaginary
The harmonic
and ω is the by: yj = Y st excitation force is assumed by: Fwej = Fj est
buoy
unit, displacement is assumed
wave angular j e and theinwave
frequency rad/s.
where YAlternatively,
j is the complexin amplitude
the timeofdomain,
the displacement
the Cummins’s in m, equation [51], which was originally applied
forFships
j is themotions
complexcanamplitude
be usedoffor
thepoint
waveabsorbers
excitation as force in N, s = iω where i is the imaginary
well:
unit, and ω is the wave angular frequency in rad/s.
Alternatively, in the time domain, the Cummins’s equation [51], which was originally applied for
(𝑚 + 𝑚 )𝑦( ) + 𝑅𝐼𝐹(𝑡 − 𝜏)𝑦 𝑑𝜏 + 𝑘 𝑦( ) = 𝐹( ) − 𝐹( ) (3)
ships motions can be used for point absorbers as well: ( )
where 𝑦( ) , 𝑦( ) and 𝑦(∞) ..are the Z t

instantaneous . displacement, velocityextand acceleration respectively
( m + m a ) y(t) + RIF (t − τ )y(t) dτ + k hs y(t) = F(wave
t) − F(t) (3)
in the time domain, 𝑚 is the physical −∞ dry mass of the system, 𝑚 is the hydrodynamic added mass
at the infinity
. frequency,
.. 𝑅𝐼𝐹 is the radiation impulse response function (the inverse Fourier
where y(t) , y(t) and y(t) are the instantaneous displacement, velocity and acceleration respectively in
transform of radiation damping spectrum 𝑐 from the ∞frequency domain to the time domain), 𝐹( )
the time domain, m is the physical dry mass of the system, m a is the hydrodynamic added mass at
isinfinity
the the instantaneous
frequency, RIF wave
is theexcitation force exerted
radiation impulse responseon the point
function (the absorber, 𝐹( ) represents the
and transform
inverse Fourier
ofexternal
radiationforces on the
damping system,
spectrum cr these might
from the include
frequency linear to
domain orthe
non-linear F(wave
PTO forces,
time domain), t)
isviscous
the forces,
mooring forces,…etc.
instantaneous wave excitation force exerted on the point absorber, and F(ext t)
represents the external
Many
forces on hydrodynamic
the system, terms
these might are present
include linear orinnon-linear
the previous PTOequations, and the
forces, viscous hydrodynamics
forces, mooring is one
forces, . . . etc.
of the most important design characteristics of a point absorber (along with the PTO), the next section
Many
will dealhydrodynamic terms are present
with the hydrodynamics in the
of the previous
point equations, and the hydrodynamics is one
absorbers.
of the most important design characteristics of a point absorber (along with the PTO), the next section
will dealHydrodynamics
2.1.2. with the hydrodynamics of the point absorbers.
2.1.2. Hydrodynamics
The hydrodynamics of point absorbers are derived from the hydrodynamics of ships motions,
they Theare based on solving
hydrodynamics theabsorbers
of point problemare of derived
an oscillating
from thepoint absorber inofocean
hydrodynamics ships waves
motions, by dividing
theare
they solution
based on intosolving
two parts: the firstofone
the problem is based on
an oscillating assuming
point absorber that
in the point
ocean wavesabsorber is fixed and the
by dividing
wave
the pressure
solution into twois exerted onfirst
parts: the its one
surface, while
is based the second
on assuming is the
that based
pointonabsorber
assuming thatand
is fixed the the
water surface
wave pressure
is still and the is exerted on itspoint
oscillating surface, while the
absorber issecond
causingis based on assuming
radiated waves due thatto
the
itswater surface is
dynamics.
still andLet’s
the oscillating
go back to point
theabsorber is causingterms
hydrodynamic radiated waves
in the due to itsabove
equations dynamics.
to have a clearer view of the
Let’s go back to the hydrodynamic terms in the equations
hydrodynamic interactions between the heaving buoy and the surrounding above to have a clearer view of the
waves.
hydrodynamic interactions between the heaving buoy and the surrounding waves.
The wave excitation force exerted on the heaving point-absorber is constituted of both the
The wave excitation force exerted on the heaving point-absorber is constituted of both the
Froude-Krylov and the wave diffraction forces. This force is caused by the incident wave hitting the
Froude-Krylov and the wave diffraction forces. This force is caused by the incident wave hitting the
surface of the WEC held still in water, which arises from the potential flow wave theory. One has to
surface of the WEC held still in water, which arises from the potential flow wave theory. One has to
integrate
integrate the incident
the incident wave potential
wave potential pressure (Froude-Krylov)
pressure (Froude-Krylov) and potential
and diffracted wave diffracted wave potential
pressure
pressure (diffraction) over the surface of the WEC to calculate
(diffraction) over the surface of the WEC to calculate the wave excitation force: the wave excitation force:
body
x
𝐹 ⃗= 𝑝 n̂dS𝑛𝑑𝑆 (4)
= pwave (4)
Wetted sur f ace
where 𝑝 is the pressure of both the incident wave potential and the diffracted wave potential,
where pwave is the pressure of both the incident wave potential and the diffracted wave potential, n̂
is 𝑛theisunit
the direction
unit direction
vector,vector, and S represents
and S represents thesurface
the wetted wettedofsurface of the oscillating
the oscillating bodies. One bodies.
can One can
revert
revert to to finite
finite element
element methods
methods to solve
to solve the integral
the integral aroundaround the boundaries
the boundaries of the oscillating
of the oscillating bodies, bodies,
alternatively, in the linear domain; the wave excitation force (N) is assumed to be an
alternatively, in the linear domain; the wave excitation force (N) is assumed to be an oscillatory force oscillatory force
proportional
proportional to the
to the incoming
incoming wavewave elevation
elevation and canand can be written
be written as: as:
 ∅()
𝐹 ==AF
𝐴𝐹 (eiωt 𝑒 +∅( ω ) (5)
Fwe ex (ω ) ) (5)
where 𝑖 is the imaginary unit, 𝐴 is the wave amplitude,  is the wave angular frequency in rad/s,
and 𝐹 () is the complex amplitude of the Froude-Krylov and diffraction wave excitation forces,
and ∅() is the phase angle between the incoming wave and the excitation force.
Energies 2019, 12, 47 9 of 36

where i is the imaginary unit, A is the wave amplitude, ω is the wave angular frequency in rad/s, and
Fex(ω ) isInthe
the time domain,
complex amplitudeinstead of modelling and
of the Froude-Krylov the diffraction
high order wave
wave excitation
excitation force
forces, andusing
∅(ω ) the finite
is element
the phaseanalysis,
angle between themodel
one can incomingthewave
waveand the excitation
excitation forceforce.
(N) of a first order regular wave similar to
In the time
Equation (5): domain, instead of modelling the high order wave excitation force using the finite
element analysis, one can model the wave excitation force (N) of a first order regular wave similar to
Equation (5): 𝐹( ) = 𝐹 () 𝐴 cos(𝑤𝑡 + ∅( ) ) (6)

wave
This equation is accurateF(enough
t) = Fexto wt +forces
) A cos the
(ωmodel ∅(wω )under the excitation of regular(6)wave force.
One of equation
This the advantages of the
is accurate timetodomain
enough model the is the ability
forces undertothe
model waveofforces
excitation under
regular wavethe excitation of
force.
irregular
One waves. This
of the advantages is done
of the by the superposition
time domain of 𝑁 different
is the ability to model wave forcessinusoidal
under the irregular
excitation waves
of (from
𝑛 = 1 towaves.
irregular 𝑛 = 𝑁), inisthe
This time
done bydomain it is modelled
the superposition as the following
of N different sinusoidalsummation:
irregular waves (from
n = 1 to n = N), in the time domain it is modelled as the following summation:
𝐹( ) =N 𝐹 ( ) 𝐴 cos(𝑤 𝑡 + ∅( ) +𝜑 ) (7)
F(wave
t) = ∑ Fex(ωn ) An cos wn t + ∅(ωn ) + ϕn (7)
n =1
𝐴 is the wave amplitude calculated using the mean square value from an irregular wave spectrum
Asuch
n is the
aswave
the amplitude
JONSWAP calculated
spectrum using theand
[64], mean𝜑square
is a value from anchosen
randomly irregular wavevalue
phase spectrum
for the wave
such as the JONSWAP spectrum [64], and ϕn is a randomly chosen phase value for the wave elevation
elevation between 0,2𝜋 .
between [0, 2π ].
The wave radiation forces are derived by the assumption that the water surface is still, the point
The wave radiation forces are derived by the assumption that the water surface is still, the point
absorber is oscillating on the surface, creating radiated waves, which react on the point absorber as
absorber is oscillating on the surface, creating radiated waves, which react on the point absorber
asradiation forces. These
radiation forces. Theseforces
forcesareare calculated
calculated with with the integration
the integration of the radiated
of the radiated wave potential
wave potential
pressure
pressure 𝑝 wave over the
pradiated over the wetted
wetted surface
surface of of the WEC:
the WEC:
body
x
𝐹 ⃑= 𝑝 𝑛𝑑𝑆 (8)
= pradiated wave n̂dS (8)
Wetted sur f ace
In In
thethe frequency
frequency domain
domain of a linear
of a linear system,system, the radiation
the radiation forces
forces are equalare
to aequal to a damping
radiation radiation damping
term
term proportional
proportional to the to the velocity
velocity of the WEC’s of oscillating
the WEC’s oscillating
bodies, bodies,
and an added massand
terman added mass term
proportional
toproportional to the acceleration:
the acceleration:
. ..
radiation = c=
F𝐹 r (ω𝑐) y +𝑦m+ 𝑚) y 𝑦
a(ω (9)
(9)
() ()
These hydrodynamic coefficients are presented differently in the time domain, Falnes [25]
These hydrodynamic coefficients are presented differently in the time domain, Falnes [25]
presented the non-causality of the radiation damping forces, which are presented as:
presented the non-causality of the radiation damping forces, which are presented as:
Z t
.. .
Fradiation = m∞
a y(t) + RIF (t − τ )y(t) dτ (10)
𝐹 = 𝑚 𝑦( ) −+∞ 𝑅𝐼𝐹(𝑡 − 𝜏)𝑦( ) 𝑑𝜏 (10)
With the first term representing the added mass, and the second term the radiation damping.
With the first term representing the added mass, and the second term the radiation damping.
RIF(t) is the Radiation Impulse Function in the time domain, it is derived with an inverse Fourier
𝑅𝐼𝐹( ) isofthe
transform theRadiation Impulse coefficient
radiation damping Function in cr(ωthe time domain, it is derived with an inverse Fourier
) , the non-causality of the radiation damping is
transformwith
showcased of the radiation damping
the convolution the second 𝑐term
integral incoefficient () ,of
the non-causality
Equation (10). of the radiation damping is
showcased with(5)–(10),
In Equations the convolution
the waveintegral in the
excitation forcessecond term of
coefficient FexEquation (10).
(ω ) , the radiation damping
In Equations
coefficient cr(ω ) and the(5)–(10),
added massthe wave excitation
m a(ω ) can forceswith
be calculated empirical𝐹value
coefficient () , the radiation
function of the damping
incoming
coefficient 𝑐 ()frequency
wave’s with the
and the added mass 𝑚 () derived
equations as a solution
can be calculated withto the boundary
empirical element
value function of the
method which solves the hydrodynamics of a point absorber based on
incoming wave’s frequency with the equations derived as a solution to the boundary element the linear potential flow method
theory. Traditionally, more than one publication worked on the analytical solution of these
which solves the hydrodynamics of a point absorber based on the linear potential flow theory.
hydrodynamic coefficients, for example derived the analytical solution for the hydrodynamic added
Traditionally, more than one publication worked on the analytical solution of these hydrodynamic
mass and radiation damping. But more recently, and with the help of new analytical mathematical
coefficients,
methods, for been
there has example
some derived the analytical
work on deriving solution for
the hydrodynamic the hydrodynamic
coefficients added mass and
in different methods.
radiation
Shi and Huang damping.
[22] usedBut
the more
processrecently, and of
of separation with the help
variables alongofwith
newtheanalytical mathematical
eigenfunction expansion methods,
there has
matching been in
method some
orderwork on deriving
to derive analyticalthe hydrodynamic
expressions coefficients
for the horizontal andinvertical
different
wavemethods.
forces Shi and
Huang [22] used the process of separation of variables along with the eigenfunction expansion
matching method in order to derive analytical expressions for the horizontal and vertical wave forces
exerted on a heaving cylindrical buoy. Kara [65] utilized the Neumann–Kelvin method to solve the
transient wave-body interaction problem for a hemispherical buoy in order to investigate the
captured power under latching control. The hydrodynamic coefficients were calculated as an
Energies 2019, 12, 47 10 of 36
exerted on a heaving cylindrical buoy. Kara [65] utilized the Neumann–Kelvin method to solve the
transient wave-body interaction problem for a hemispherical buoy in order to investigate the captured
power under latching control. The hydrodynamic coefficients were calculated as an impulsive velocity
problem. Throughout most of the recent literature [12,55,66], the fast computational simulations using
boundary element method (BEM) software such as ANSYS AQWA (13.0, Ansys, Canonsburg, PA,
USA) or WAMIT (7.0, WAMIT, Chestnut Hill, MA, USA) have been used to derive the hydrodynamic
coefficients in a fast and efficient way. The software is based on the BEM method, it is based on
the linear potential flow theory so it solves the hydrodynamics around the boundaries of the wave
absorber in question and only a boundary mesh is needed, therefore it is relatively fast and efficient to
use such simulation software.
2.2. Theoretical Development

This section will present the recent theoretical development of point absorbers, including design,
optimizations, and parameter studies.
The most basic yet constructive development is studying the response of one-body point absorbers
under different conditions and varying the parameters, in an attempt to optimize its power capturing
capacity in real sea conditions. Yavuz, McCabe, Aggidis and Widden [13] studied the resonance of a
point absorber in regular and real irregular sea conditions. A prediction algorithm was developed to
predict the incoming waves’ frequencies to tune the PTO parameters in an attempt to maintain the
quasi-resonance for regular waves, and to predict the dominant short term frequency for irregular
waves to continuously adapt the PTO parameters for better performance. McCabe and Aggidis [67]
calculated the optimum power output of a rectangular point absorber in regular waves with the
variations of design parameters such as enhancement peak factor, dimensions, aspect ratio, damping
coefficient, tuning frequencies, etc. The optimum power is calculated using impedance matching; as
in setting the PTO damping and stiffness coefficients equal to the hydrodynamic coefficients. It was
noticed that there is a significant difference in the captured power in irregular waves vs. regular ones
due to the distribution of energy contained within irregular waves, and that the power capture width
is largest with the smallest buoy volume. Eriksson, Isberg and Leijon [20] worked on the design of a
cylindrical point absorber with a focus on the hydrodynamic modeling and the power capture width
while resonating the device with the frequency of the incoming wave, he focused on how the radius
of the buoy has an impact on the resonant frequency and the damping affects the captured power
bandwidth. Engstrom [21] analyzed a comprehensive mathematical model and conducted a numerical
simulation and analysis for the Lysekil point absorber WEC project in Sweden. Chen, Zang, Hillis,
Morgan and Plummer [29] conducted a three dimensional CFD simulation of a point absorber in a
wave tank using OpenFoam, the fluid structure interactions were investigated while using high order
non-linear waves, and the simulation results were verified against available experimental measurement
results. Pastor and Liu [66] numerically simulated a point absorber in both the frequency domain
and the time domain, different shapes, diameters and drafts of point absorbers were investigated,
and the optimum values for the power absorption with the simulated conditions were pointed out,
it was deduced that the shape didn’t have a considerable impact on the captured power, whether the
increase in diameter resulted in a considerable increase of the captured power. Koh, Ruy, Cho and
Kweon [28] conducted a parametric study of the resonant type floater and optimization of the heaving
point absorbers where the different geometric parameters that have an influence on the resonant
frequency, generated power and production cost were studied. Giorgi and Ringwood [40] applied
latching control to a heaving spherical point absorber in a non-linear CFD simulation. The power
output was investigated and compared with traditional linear power estimation methods. The main
conclusion was that the generated power was overestimated using the traditional linear boundary
element methods. Illesinghe, Manasseh, Dargaville and Ooi [11] studied the PTO damping and stiffness
design parameters of a one body point absorber in different climates around the Australian costs,
and derived the best parameters for different regions and seasons. Chen, Dolguntseva, Savin, Zhang,
Energies 2019, 12, 47 11 of 36
Li, Svensson and Leijon [56] conducted a detailed numerical simulation of a point absorber WEC
where the Navier-Stokes equations were solved in a fully non-linear ANSYS Fluent CFD simulation.
The effects of irregular and extreme waves, such as wave height and wave overtopping (Figure 6
below) were examined, and it was found that there could be a considerable difference of the effects by
using the implemented method and the conventional linear BEM methods for large wave heights.
Figure 6. Wave overtopping in an ANSYS Fluent numerical simulation [56].

Figure 6. Wave overtopping in an ANSYS Fluent numerical simulation [56].
Sergiienko, et al. [68] compared floating- and submerged-point absorbers, and studied the effects
Sergiienko, et al. [68] compared floating- and submerged-point absorbers, and studied the effects
of sea states, geometry and volume. It was concluded that submerged point absorbers can perform
of sea states, geometry and volume. It was concluded that submerged point absorbers can perform
better in modes of motion other than heave, and that the natural frequency of a submerged point
better in modes of motion other than heave, and that the natural frequency of a submerged point
absorber is much lower to the one of a floating one due to the lack of hydrostatic stiffness. Park, Gu,
absorber is much lower to the one of a floating one due to the lack of hydrostatic stiffness. Park, Gu,
Kim, Cho, Jeong and Lee [41] implemented the maximum power point tracking algorithm to predict
Kim, Cho, Jeong and Lee [41] implemented the maximum power point tracking algorithm to predict
the response of a point absorber coupled with a linear generator and to conduct phase control in
the response of a point absorber coupled with a linear generator and to conduct phase control in
order to increase the captured power by insuring the wave excitation force and the buoy’s velocity are
order to increase the captured power by insuring the wave excitation force and the buoy’s velocity
in phase. The simulations proved that the control algorithm can predict the response well and can
are in phase. The simulations proved that the control algorithm can predict the response well and
increase the captured power. The results were validated using lab experiments. Koh and Cho [69]
can increase the captured power. The results were validated using lab experiments. Koh and Cho [69]
studied the heave response of a floating buoy with two damping plates attached to it; resembling
studied the heave response of a floating buoy with two damping plates attached to it; resembling to
to spars in real ocean waves energy harvesters. A mathematical model was developed based on the
spars in real ocean waves energy harvesters. A mathematical model was developed based on the
matched eigenfunction expansion method, and the results were validated against a small-scale model
matched eigenfunction expansion method, and the results were validated against a small-scale model
tested in a wave tank. The effects of the number of damping plates, their radius, submergence depth,
tested in a wave tank. The effects of the number of damping plates, their radius, submergence depth,
etc. were studied. The reduction of the heave response around the resonance point caused by the
etc. were studied. The reduction of the heave response around the resonance point caused by the
damping plates was highlighted. Genest, Bonnefoy, Clément and Babarit [59] investigated the effects
damping plates was highlighted. Genest, Bonnefoy, Clément and Babarit [59] investigated the effects
of PTO’s actuator efficiency on the reactive control and power harvesting of a point absorber WEC.
of PTO’s actuator efficiency on the reactive control and power harvesting of a point absorber WEC.
It was concluded that the actuator efficiency had a major effect on the absorbed power and control
It was concluded that the actuator efficiency had a major effect on the absorbed power and control
performance, especially when reactive control is applied, as it depends on the actuator. Wen, et al. [70]
performance, especially when reactive control is applied, as it depends on the actuator. Wen, et al.
utilized Taguchi method and an objective function in order to optimize the shape and dimensions of a
[70] utilized Taguchi method and an objective function in order to optimize the shape and dimensions
conical floater to maximize the power harvesting efficiency for the coast of China.
of a conical floater to maximize the power harvesting efficiency for the coast of China.
Some researchers conducted FEA analysis of one-body point absorbers to study the fluid dynamics
Some researchers conducted FEA analysis of one-body point absorbers to study the fluid
and viscous drag behavior. The simulations revolved around high Reynolds number and multi fluid
dynamics and viscous drag behavior. The simulations revolved around high Reynolds number and
ocean wave domains. Bhinder, Babarit, Gentaz and Ferrant [31] incorporated a 3D-CFD simulation
multi fluid ocean wave domains. Bhinder, Babarit, Gentaz and Ferrant [31] incorporated a 3D-CFD
to calculate the drag force by curve fitting the force results with the Morison equation to derive the
simulation to calculate the drag force by curve fitting the force results with the Morison equation to
drag coefficient. The results might be an overestimation since it is very difficult to separate the viscous
derive the drag coefficient. The results might be an overestimation since it is very difficult to separate
term from other non-linear forces in the CFD simulation, but nevertheless, even with a high drag
the viscous term from other non-linear forces in the CFD simulation, but nevertheless, even with a
coefficient, the drag force results were applied into a numerical code of the cylindrical buoy heave
high drag coefficient, the drag force results were applied into a numerical code of the cylindrical buoy
response/absorber power with hydrodynamics calculated using BEM, and it was found that the
heave response/absorber power with hydrodynamics calculated using BEM, and it was found that
viscous force had a negligible effect on the absorbed power of a heaving buoy. Giuseppe Giorgi [33]
the viscous force had a negligible effect on the absorbed power of a heaving buoy. Giuseppe Giorgi
Conducted simulation to identify the viscous drag of a spherical buoy with more than one method, it
[33] Conducted simulation to identify the viscous drag of a spherical buoy with more than one
was concluded that the viscous drag identification is difficult due to the presence of other non-linear
method, it was concluded that the viscous drag identification is difficult due to the presence of other
effects, it is complicated to separate viscous drag from other nonlinearities, also an over estimation of
non-linear effects, it is complicated to separate viscous drag from other nonlinearities, also an over
the viscous drag coefficient was derived to be 0.6.
estimation of the viscous drag coefficient was derived to be 0.6.
Lastly, some work has tried to implement novel ideas in the point absorber mechanism or
control, For example, Zhang, et al. [71] theoretically introduced a non-linearity in the PTO system by
suggesting a snap-through double spring system, and compared it to a typical one-spring linear PTO.
The snap-through system showcased negative stiffness which contributed to a highly chaotic
behavior at low amplitudes and frequencies and thus increasing the power capture. At high wave
Energies 2019, 12, 47 12 of 36
Lastly, some work has tried to implement novel ideas in the point absorber mechanism or
control, For example, Zhang, et al. [71] theoretically introduced a non-linearity in the PTO system by
suggesting a snap-through double spring system, and compared it to a typical one-spring linear PTO.
The snap-through system showcased negative stiffness which contributed to a highly chaotic behavior
at low amplitudes and frequencies and thus increasing the power capture. At high wave amplitudes,
the difference in the captured power between the linear and non-linear systems was less pronounced.
Yin, et al. [72] presented a novel one-body point absorber which is able to harvest both ocean waves’
energy and current energy. The buoy has an airfoil/blade shape, when it’s half submerged it captures
waves energy. When the available ocean waves’ energy is low, it gets fully submerged to capture the
current energy. The wave energy absorption was calculated using a linear potential theory based code
with theEnergies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER
hydrodynamics REVIEW using WAMIT, while the current energy absorption was
calculated 12 ofcalculated
38
using a CFD simulation in ANSYS Fluent. Abdelkhalik and Darani [73] proposed an optimization
ocean waves’ energy and current energy. The buoy has an airfoil/blade shape, when it’s half
algorithm for non-linear
submerged it capturespoint
wavesabsorbers
energy. Whenand showcased
the available that
oceana waves’
non-linear
energysystem
is low, with
it getsafully
non-linear
hydrostatic force caused
submerged to capturebythe
thecurrent
shapeenergy.
and non-linear PTO force
The wave energy can capture
absorption considerably
was calculated more power
using a linear
than a linear point
potential absorber
theory by the
based code withusetheofhydrodynamics
a non-linear controlcalculatedforce.
using WAMIT, while the current
energy
After pointabsorption
absorbers wasgo
calculated
through using
fulla scale
CFD simulation
development, in ANSYS Fluent. Abdelkhalik
connecting them to grids and Darani
will require
[73] proposed an optimization algorithm for non-linear point absorbers and showcased that a non-
implementation in arrays, similarly to wind turbines, farms will be needed to produce enough
linear system with a non-linear hydrostatic force caused by the shape and non-linear PTO force can
power. capture
There considerably
has been recent studies to look into the hydrodynamic interactions between point
more power than a linear point absorber by the use of a non-linear control force.
absorbers, and thepoint
After effect these interactions
absorbers go through full have ondevelopment,
scale the harvested power. Agamloh,
connecting them to grids et will
al. [74] conducted
require
computational fluid dynamics
implementation studiestoon
in arrays, similarly point
wind absorbers
turbines, andbearrays
farms will neededoftopoint
produce absorbers to study the
enough power.
There has
fluid structure been recent studies
interactions. Göteman to look
[75]into the hydrodynamic
studied the energyinteractions
harvestingbetween
of arrays point
ofabsorbers,
point absorbers
and the effect these interactions have on the harvested
through the hydrodynamic interactions between them. A numerical code was formulated power. Agamloh, et al. [74] conducted in the
computational fluid dynamics studies on point absorbers and arrays of point absorbers to study the
frequency domain, then in the time domain. Random arrays were formulated and tested, and it was
fluid structure interactions. Göteman [75] studied the energy harvesting of arrays of point absorbers
found that using
through thedifferent dimensions
hydrodynamic of point
interactions betweenabsorbers
them. A within
numericalan code
arraywas canformulated
produce in morethe power
throughfrequency
the increased
domain, then in the time domain. Random arrays were formulated and tested, and it wasbetween
power to mass ratio. Babarit, et al. [76] studied the effect of the distance
two-point absorbers
found that usingconnected to hydraulic
different dimensions of pointPTOs on their
absorbers energy
within production
an array can produce asmore
seenpower
in Figure 7.
through the increased power to mass ratio. Babarit, et al. [76] studied the effect of
It was noticed that both radiation and diffraction forces contribute similarly to the interactions between the distance between
the two two-point
buoys. The absorbers connected
front system to hydraulic
seemed to bePTOs on their
affected energy production
positively as seen in Figure
with the interactions, but7.theIt effect
was noticed that both radiation and diffraction forces contribute similarly to the interactions between
becomes neglected with the increase of the distance between the two bodies, unlike the effect on the
the two buoys. The front system seemed to be affected positively with the interactions, but the effect
rear system which
becomes is always
neglected with negative
the increase and stays
of the apparent
distance between eventhe with a largeunlike
two bodies, distance between
the effect on thethe two
bodies. rear
In general,
system which is always negative and stays apparent even with a large distance between the two as in
the interactions and the effects on the power generation were not massive,
irregular waves,
bodies. the totalthe
In general, interactions
interactions reduced the captured
and the effects on the power power by 4% were
generation for both systemsascombined.
not massive, in
irregular waves, the total interactions reduced the captured power by 4% for both systems combined.
Figure 7. Schematic of the two-buoys studied by [76] to check the effect of the interactions on the
Figure 7. Schematic of the two-buoys studied by [76] to check the effect of the interactions on the
power capture.
power capture.
2.3. Experimental Development

This section will present the recent experimental development of point absorbers, it will most
address wave tank experiments and some scaled real ocean experiments.
2.3.1. Wave Tank Experiments

Energies 2019, 12, 47 13 of 36

This section will present the recent experimental development of point absorbers, it will most
address wave tank experiments and some scaled real ocean experiments.

This section will present the one-body point absorber experiments run through a wave tank with
scaled down models.
Simulation and Experimental Validation

The biggest advantage of the experimental aspect of any study is that it can validate the
simulations and mathematical models to gain further confidence in the design and optimization.
For example, Vantorre, et al. [77] optimized a heaving point absorber numerically based on the shape,
external damping, mass and non-linearities. The bi-cone buoy shape had the best performance in the
simulations, but the non-linearities imposed by the bi-cone shape resulted in some efficiency issues,
especially concerning the hydrostatic stiffness. Therefore, a conical shape was chosen for the wave
tank experiments. In the experiments, the mass was chosen so that the device will always resonate
with the incoming regular wave frequency, and the external damping was constant. There was a good
agreement between the simulation and experimental results, with the differences attributed to vortex
shredding and viscous damping. The conclusions from the experiments were that the decrease of
the absorbed power is larger when the resonance frequency of the device is lower than the excitation
frequency of the wave and more power can be captured with higher wave heights, but with a decrease
in the efficiency, whether the change of period doesn’t affect the capturing efficiency. Lok, et al. [78]
presented a numerical evaluation of a novel concept where the buoy is connected to a pulley driving
the shaft of a DC (Direct Current) generator with a flywheel, a clutch and a gearbox which is assured to
have a high rotational speed input to the generator, and a generator speed controller is assured to have
the maximum power output. The numerical model was undertaken for parameter identification and
validation in both regular and irregular waves using scaled 1:67 wave tank experiments. Binh, et al. [79]
also presented another novel PTO model with rack and pinions converting the bidirectional heave
oscillation of the buoy into a unidirectional rotation of an electric generator, a time domain dynamic
model was simulated, and then validated through a good agreement of its results with those of a
scaled experiment in a wave tank under regular waves, it was concluded that this device can have an
efficiency of 28.47%. As discussed earlier, Zurkinden, Ferri, Beatty, Kofoed and Kramer [42] conducted
experiments of a 1:20 scaled down Wavestar buoy model in a wave tank to validate the non-linear
model of a spherical buoy containing a non-linear hydrostatic stiffness and viscous damping.
Lastly, Tampier and Grueter [23] conducted simulations and experiments to investigate the
response of a semispherical buoy connected to a linear damper representing a PTO. The experiments
were conducted in a wave tank as seen in Figure 8. There was a good agreement between the simulation
and experiment results, and the experiments were conducted to study the effects of the PTO damping,
wave height and period on the absorbed power, and finally the potential extractable power from the
coast of Chile was calculated for different sea states.
Energies 2019, 12, 47 14 of 36
Figure 8.
Figure Experimental set-up
8. Experimental set-up for
for aa hemispherical
hemispherical buoy
buoy in
in aa wave
wave tank
tank [23]
[23]..
Experimental Investigation
In some cases, theoretical difficulties arise in investigating the response of floating WECs,
In some cases, theoretical difficulties arise in investigating the response of floating WECs,
especially when it comes to complex wave theories and non-linearities, therefore it would be more
especially when it comes to complex wave theories and non-linearities, therefore it would be more
convenient to conduct such investigations in wave tank experiments. Guo, et al. [80] compared
convenient to conduct such investigations in wave tank experiments. Guo, et al. [80] compared three
three different methods to experimentally estimate the incoming wave forces on the buoy in order
different methods to experimentally estimate the incoming wave forces on the buoy in order to
to optimize the control algorithms. In general, all these methods gave a good approximation of the
optimize the control algorithms. In general, all these methods gave a good approximation of the wave
wave excitation force, as their results were close to each other, but the more advanced approximation
excitation force, as their results were close to each other, but the more advanced approximation
methods which require more inputs were found to be more appropriate for short waves with quickly
methods which require more inputs were found to be more appropriate for short waves with quickly
varying conditions. Alamian, et al. [81] analyzed the effects of the WEC’s draft, position of center of
varying conditions. Alamian, et al. [81] analyzed the effects of the WEC’s draft, position of center of
gravity, and sea depths on the captured power in a scaled wave tank experiment of a rectangular WEC
gravity, and sea depths on the captured power in a scaled wave tank experiment of a rectangular
under regular waves and concluded that the lowest draft coupled with the lowest distance between
WEC under regular waves and concluded that the lowest draft coupled with the lowest distance
the center of gravity of the WEC and the water surface presented the best power capturing results
between the center of gravity of the WEC and the water surface presented the best power capturing
for the simulated data of the Caspian sea. Zhao, Ning, Göteman and Kang [16] studied the effects
results for the simulated data of the Caspian sea. Zhao, Ning, Göteman and Kang [16] studied the
of the PTO damping on the wave pressure exerted on a rectangular heaving buoy by running wave
effects of the PTO damping on the wave pressure exerted on a rectangular heaving buoy by running
tanks experiments. A slide rail with a low friction coefficient is used as a vertical linear slider to keep
wave tanks experiments. A slide rail with a low friction coefficient is used as a vertical linear slider
the device locked in heave. It was concluded that the increase of the PTO damping tends to decrease
to keep the device locked in heave. It was concluded that the increase of the PTO damping tends to
the exerted wave pressures on the buoy, and that the vortices generated on the front and back side of
decrease the exerted wave pressures on the buoy, and that the vortices generated on the front and
the buoy contributed greatly to the change of pressure behavior, especially on the front side. Another
back side of the buoy contributed greatly to the change of pressure behavior, especially on the front
experimental investigation was conducted by Göteman, et al. [82] who studied the response of a
side. Another experimental investigation was conducted by Göteman, et al. [82] who studied the
heaving buoy under the load of extreme waves, with the wave elevation being several times higher
response of a heaving buoy under the load of extreme waves, with the wave elevation being several
than the stroke length of the device, using a 1:20 scaled down device in a wave tank. Three buoys were
times higher than the stroke length of the device, using a 1:20 scaled down device in a wave tank.
tested (a normal cylindrical one, one with moonpool, and one with moonpool and additional top hat),
Three buoys were tested (a normal cylindrical one, one with moonpool, and one with moonpool and
and all models were connected to a linear PTO with limited stroke, simulated by a friction damping
additional top hat), and all models were connected to a linear PTO with limited stroke, simulated by
mechanism with springs as end stops. The experiments incorporated both regular (with an extreme
a friction damping mechanism with springs as end stops. The experiments incorporated both regular
wave height impulse) and irregular waves. The results indicate a trend of the measured wave force
(with an extreme wave height impulse) and irregular waves. The results indicate a trend of the
and the wave height. The variability of the measured force peaks is high; there is a sizeable variance
measured wave force and the wave height. The variability of the measured force peaks is high; there
of the measured maximum forces for the same wave height, indicating a relation between the PTO
is a sizeable variance of the measured maximum forces for the same wave height, indicating a relation
damping and the exerted wave force.
between the PTO damping and the exerted wave force.
Recently, Zang, et al. [83] conducted one of the most complete experimental parametric studies.
Recently, Zang, et al. [83] conducted one of the most complete experimental parametric studies.
The experimental set-up is shown in Figure 9 below, where an air-damper simulates the damping of
The experimental set-up is shown in Figure 9 below, where an air-damper simulates the damping of
a linear PTO. It was noticed that for small wave heights, there is a non-linear relation between the
wave height and the heave motion of the buoy. This might be related to the coulomb type friction.
Energies 2019, 12, 47 15 of 36
a linear PTO. It was noticed that for small wave heights, there is a non-linear relation between the
Energiesheight
wave 2019, 12,and
x FOR PEER
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heave 15 of 38
motion of the buoy. This might be related to the coulomb type friction.
Also, it was concluded that the power capture width in irregular waves was larger than that in regular
Also, itfor
waves wastheconcluded thatand
same height theperiod,
power capture
and thatwidth inthe
in both irregular waves
types of was
waves larger
there than
is an that in
optimal regular
damping
waves for the same height and period, and that in both the types of waves there
ratio which results in the maximum captured power, this is usually when the PTO damping is set is an optimal
damping
equal ratio
to the which resultsdamping.
hydrodynamic in the maximum captured power, this is usually when the PTO damping
is set equal to the hydrodynamic damping.
9. Experimental schematic of a heaving buoy connected to an air damper

Figure 9. damper which
which simulates
simulates a
permanent
permanent magnet
magnet linear
linear generator
generator [83].
[83].
2.3.2. Sea Testing
2.3.2. Sea Testing
Development of some point absorbers has matured from the simulations and wave tank testing
Development of some point absorbers has matured from the simulations and wave tank testing
into the sea testing. Placing a large scale WEC in the sea is tricky and costly to realize, nevertheless
into the sea testing. Placing a large scale WEC in the sea is tricky and costly to realize, nevertheless
some pioneers were able to recently conduct research and development in real seas. Lejerskog, Boström,
some pioneers were able to recently conduct research and development in real seas. Lejerskog,
Hai, Waters and Leijon [6] analyzed experimental results from a full-scale model of a directly driven
Boström, Hai, Waters and Leijon [6] analyzed experimental results from a full-scale model of a
point absorber placed in the Lysekil wave energy research site in Sweden as seen in Figure 10. It was
directly driven point absorber placed in the Lysekil wave energy research site in Sweden as seen in
concluded that the upward motion produces more power than the downward one and that the speed
Figure 10. It was concluded that the upward motion produces more power than the downward one
of the translator has a greater effect on the produced power than the area of the translator.
and that the speed of the translator has a greater effect on the produced power than the area of the
Liang, Ai and Zuo [7] also conducted sea testing of a scaled down model of a point absorber
translator.
connected to a novel rack and pinion PTO mechanism. The results of the sea testing showed the
excellent agreement with the simulation results. Finally Davis, et al. [84] used the results measured
from a model placed in Lake Washington to verify his simulation results.
Energies 2019, 12, 47 16 of 36
Figure 10.
Figure Deployment of
10. Deployment of the
the WEC
WEC developed
developed by
by Uppsala
Uppsala university
university in
in the
the sea
sea [6]
[6]..
3. Two-Body Point Absorber

Liang, Ai and Zuo [7] also conducted sea testing of a scaled down model of a point absorber
connected
3.1. Modellingto a novel rack and pinion PTO mechanism. The results of the sea testing showed the
excellent agreement with the simulation results. Finally Davis, et al. [84] used the results measured
One-body point absorbers present many challenges including the difficulty to design a one-body
from a model placed in Lake Washington to verify his simulation results.
point absorber big enough with a natural frequency coinciding with the low frequency of the incoming
waves in orderPoint
3. Two-Body to achieve
Absorberthe resonance. The distance between the floater and the reference sea bed is
too big in the energetic offshore locations, and the power capture width and efficiency are not very
encouraging
3.1. Modellingfor an expensive offshore power plant. A two-body point absorber might solve these
issues, the concept of a two-body point absorber is to add a submerged body oscillating under the
buoy.One-body
The PTO point absorbers
is usually placedpresent
betweenmany challenges
the buoy including
and the submerged the difficulty
body like toin design
Figure a11one-body
to avoid
point absorber big enough with a natural frequency coinciding
the long PTO connection distance between the seabed and the water surface, or rarelywith the low frequency
between of the
the
incoming waves in order to achieve the resonance. The distance
submerged body and the sea bed in some concepts as illustrated in Figure 12. between the floater and the reference
sea bed
Theissubmerged
too big in the
bodyenergetic
increasesoffshore
the totallocations, andsystem
mass of the the power capture
with the width
increase andhydrodynamic
of the efficiency are
not very encouraging for an expensive offshore power plant. A two-body
added mass and thus reduces the natural frequency of the system. Also, two-body systems point absorber might solve
like the
these issues, the concept of a two-body point absorber is to add a submerged
POWERBUOY benefit from the relative movement between the oscillating buoy and submerged body body oscillating under
the buoy.
with The PTO isofusually
the placement the PTO placed between
between the twothebodies,
buoy and thustheleading
submergedto an body
increaselikein
inthe
Figure 11 to
captured
avoid the long PTO connection distance between the seabed and the water surface,
power as seen in Figure 13, where the dashed and dotted lines represent two-body point absorbers, or rarely between
the
andsubmerged body andone-body
solid lines represent the sea bed in some
point concepts
absorbers. The as illustrated
increase of theinradiation
Figure 12.
and viscous damping
caused by the submerged body helps in keeping the device stable in the heave oscillation, as sometimes
the submerged body is referred to as a damping plate [85].
Energies 2019, 12, 47
x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 36
38
Energies
Figure 2019,11.
12, xWavebob
FOR PEER REVIEW
Powerbuoy (right) two-body point absorber models18[5].
(left) and of 38
Figure 11. Wavebob (left) and Powerbuoy (right) two-body point absorber models [5].
12. Conceptual
Figure Figure sketch
12. Conceptual sketchofofaa 22 degrees
degrees ofof freedom
freedom directdirect drive[27]
drive WEC WEC
. [27].
The submerged body increases the total mass of the system with the increase of the
hydrodynamic added mass and thus reduces the natural frequency of the system. Also, two-body
systems like the POWERBUOY benefit from the relative movement between the oscillating buoy and
submerged body with the placement of the PTO between the two bodies, thus leading to an increase
in the captured power as seen in Figure 13, where the dashed and dotted lines represent two-body
point absorbers, and solid lines represent one-body point absorbers. The increase of the radiation and
viscous damping caused by the submerged body helps in keeping the device stable in the heave
Energies2019,
Energies 12,x47
2019,12, FOR PEER REVIEW 1918ofof3836
Figure13.
Figure Powercapture
13.Power capturewidth
widthratio
ratiofor
fordifferent
differentbuoy
buoydimensions
dimensionswith
withand
andwithout
withoutaasubmerged
submerged
body, V . the energy period T , (the dotted lines are the two-body point absorbers) [12].
body, VS.S the energy period Te,e(the dotted lines are the two-body point absorbers) [12].
3.1.1. Dynamics
3.1.1. Dynamics
The dynamics of a two-body point absorber were first analyzed by Falnes [52] who provided an
The dynamics of a two-body point absorber were first analyzed by Falnes [52] who provided an
analysis of the dynamics equations of a two body wave energy harvester in the frequency domain, with
analysis of the dynamics equations of a two body wave energy harvester in the frequency domain,
a linearized viscous damping force and derived the maximum theoretical absorbed power for different
with a linearized viscous damping force and derived the maximum theoretical absorbed power for
assumptions and modes of oscillations. But most of the work dealing with WECs with submerged
different assumptions and modes of oscillations. But most of the work dealing with WECs with
oscillating bodies uses the time domain to solve for the heave response of a multiple degrees of
submerged oscillating bodies uses the time domain to solve for the heave response of a multiple
freedom WEC, as the viscous damping force plays a big role in the dynamics of the submerged body.
degrees of freedom WEC, as the viscous damping force plays a big role in the dynamics of the
Liang and Zuo [86] analyzed the dynamics of a two-body WEC in the frequency domain using a
submerged body. Liang and Zuo [86] analyzed the dynamics of a two-body WEC in the frequency
linearized form of the viscous damping and concluded that the viscous damping has a considerable
domain using a linearized form of the viscous damping and concluded that the viscous damping has
effect on the captured power of a two-body system (10–30% reduction). Therefore it is preferable to
a considerable effect on the captured power of a two-body system (10–30% reduction). Therefore it is
model two-body systems in the time domain where the non-linear viscous drag force can be modeled
preferable to model two-body systems in the time domain where the non-linear viscous drag force
accurately, even though some cases linearize this force for faster computation like in [5,86], and some
can be modeled accurately, even though some cases linearize this force for faster computation like in
authors derived linearized forms of the viscous drag force [87].
[5] and [86], and some authors derived linearized forms of the viscous drag force [87].
The dynamics equation of the two-body point absorber in both the frequency and time domains
The dynamics equation of the two-body point absorber in both the frequency and time domains
are very similar to the equations of the one-body point absorber except for the addition of some
are very similar to the equations of the one-body point absorber except for the addition of some
hydrodynamic terms related to the submerged body and the interactions between the two bodies.
hydrodynamic terms related to the submerged body and the interactions between the two bodies.
Presenting the equations with 1 denoting the buoy, and 2 denoting the submerged body, a linear PTO
Presenting the equations with 1 denoting the buoy, and 2 denoting the submerged body, a linear PTO
is assumed to be installed between the oscillating floater and submerged body to generate power by
is assumed to be installed between the oscillating floater and submerged body to generate power by
utilizing the relative movement between the two:
utilizing the relative movement between the two:
.. . . . . .. .
𝑀1 𝑦̈1M
+1 y𝑘1𝑝+
(𝑦1k− 𝑦12 )−+y𝑐2𝑝)(𝑦̇
p (y +1c−p (𝑦̇
y21 )−+y𝑘2 ℎ𝑠1
) +𝑦k1hs1
+ y𝑐1𝑣𝑑1
+𝑦̇c1vd1
+ y𝑐1𝑟1+
𝑦̇1c+
r1 y𝑚 +m
1 𝑎21 𝑦̈1a21
+y𝑐1𝑟21
+ 𝑦̇c1r21=y1𝐹𝑤𝑒1
= Fwe1 (11)
(11)
.. . . . . .. .
𝑀2 𝑦̈ 2M+2 y𝑘2𝑝+
(𝑦2k − 𝑦21 )−+y𝑐1𝑝) (𝑦̇
p (y +2c−p 𝑦̇
y12 )−+y𝑘1 ℎ𝑠2+𝑦2k hs2
+ y𝑐𝑣𝑑2
2 +𝑦̇c2vd2
+ y𝑐2𝑟2+
𝑦̇ 2c+
r2 y𝑚 +m
2 𝑎12 𝑦̈ 2a12
+y𝑐2𝑟12
+𝑦̇c2r12=y2𝐹𝑤𝑒2
= Fwe2 (12)
(12)
With all
With all terms being
being the
thesame
sameasasdescribed
describedininSection
Section2.12.1
except thethe
except lastlast
twotwo
terms on the
terms on left
thehand
left
side ofside
hand Equations
of Equations (12): m
(11) and (11) a21 and
and 𝑚𝑎21
(12):m a12 are the 𝑚𝑎12 are theadded
andhydrodynamics mass interactions
hydrodynamics addedbetween
mass
the buoy and
interactions the submerged
between the buoy andbody,
the while cr21 and
submerged cr12while
body, are the𝑐𝑟21hydrodynamic
and 𝑐𝑟12 are theradiation damping
hydrodynamic
interactions
radiation between
damping the buoy between
interactions and the submerged
the buoy and body.
the Similarly,
submerged in body.
the time domain,ina the
Similarly, modified
time
form of the Cummins equation [51] takes form:
domain, a modified form of the Cummins equation [51] takes form:
𝑡 𝑡
(𝑚m ∞ )𝑦 ∞ )𝑦∞ .. 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑡
̇ .𝑑𝜏 + 𝑘ℎ𝑠1 𝑦1(𝑡) + (𝑚𝑎21
..
1 1++
𝑚m𝑎1∞ ̈ + ∫ t𝑅𝐼𝐹1 (𝑡 − 𝜏)𝑦1(𝑡) ̇ 𝑑𝜏 .= 𝐹dτ
̈ + ∫ 𝑅𝐼𝐹t 21 (𝑡 − 𝜏)𝑦1(𝑡) =−F𝐹
wave
1(𝑡) − F ext (13)(13)
R R
a1 y1(t) + −∞ RIF1 ( t − τ ) y1(t) dτ + k hs1 y1(t) + m a21 y1(t) + −∞ RIF21 ( t − τ ) y1(t)1(𝑡)
1(𝑡) 1(𝑡)
−∞ −∞ 1( t ) 1( t )
∞∞ .. R𝑡 . .. 𝑡
. 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑡
(𝑚 )𝑦)2(𝑡) ∫ t𝑅𝐼𝐹2 (𝑡 2−(t𝜏)𝑦 (𝑚∞ )𝑦∞1(𝑡)
Rt
2 2++
𝑚m ÿ 2(t+ τ̇ )y𝑑𝜏 + 𝑘 + k𝑦hs2
2(𝑡)y+ ̈ y+1(∫ 𝑅𝐼𝐹 (𝑡 − 𝜏)𝑦 − ̇ τ𝑑𝜏
)y= 𝐹dτ =−F2𝐹 (14)(14)
(m − 2(𝑡) wave − F2ext
𝑎2a2 ) + −∞ RIF 2(t) dτ ℎ𝑠2 2(t) +𝑎12m a12 t) + −12 ∞ RIF12 ( t1(𝑡) 1(t) 2(𝑡) (2(𝑡)
t) (t)
−∞ −∞
Energies 2019, 12, 47 19 of 36
Also here in the time domain, all the terms are the same as described in Section 2.1 except the last
two terms on the left hand side of Equations (13) and (14): m∞ ∞
a21 and m a12 are the hydrodynamic added
masses at the infinity frequency interactions between the floater and the submerged body, while RIF21
and RIF12 are the radiation impulse functions of the interactions concerning the radiation damping
between the float and the buoy; RIF21 is the reverse Fourier transform of cr21 and RIF12 is the reverse
Fourier transform of cr12 .
Bosma, et al. [88] provided a design guide in the frequency domain for a two-body wave absorber
based on the POWERBUOY concept, the hydrodynamics simulations were conducted in ANSYS Aqwa
and the modeling is completely linear with the absence of the viscous damping force. The same
author [89] also developed a design guide for the same two-body WEC in the time domain and
accounted for the hydrodynamic interactions between the oscillating bodies and a linearized mooring
and viscous damping forces. A more accurate time domain model was developed by Ruehl, Brekken,
Bosma and Paasch [45] which included non-linear viscous damping interactions, a more comprehensive
hydraulic PTO model, and a two-term mooring system model in an attempt to develop a large-scale
two-body WEC mathematical model, all the equations were solved using the Matlab Simulink (7.9.0,
MathWorks, Natick, MA, USA) code with a Runge-Kutta integration solver.
3.1.2. Hydrodynamics
The hydrodynamics of two-body wave energy converters are very similar to the hydrodynamics
of one-body wave energy converters explained in Section 2.2. Falnes [52] first mentioned the possibility
of eliminating the interaction hydrodynamic coefficients from the dynamics equations given the fact
that they might be too small compared to the single-body specific hydrodynamic coefficients. Bozzi,
Miquel, Antonini, Passoni and Archetti [12] modeled a two-body wave energy harvester for the Italian
seas, and the hydrodynamic interactions between the oscillating bodies were studied using ANSYS
Aqwa simulations under the influence of increasing of the distance between the two bodies. It was
noticed that when the distance between the buoy and the submerged body is greater than 15 m,
the hydrodynamics interactions between the two bodies can be regarded as negligible. Also, if the
submerged body is placed far enough from the water surface, the radiation damping acting on it can
be neglected compared to the viscous damping on the submerged body and radiation damping acting
on the buoy [5,86]. These assumptions would render Equations (11)–(14) simpler and reducing the
computational effort and time.
As for the hydrodynamic coefficients of a two-body point absorber system, most of the literature
use boundary element method simulation software such as ANSYS Aqwa or WAMIT to calculate
the coefficients in an efficient and accurate method. Regarding the recent literature, there is some
work done on deriving empirical equations to calculate the hydrodynamic coefficients for a two-body
point absorber accounting for the individual hydrodynamic properties of the submerged body and
the interactions between the two oscillating bodies. Zheng, Shen, You, Wu and Rong [18] derived
the hydrodynamic properties of two oscillating cylinders under the excitation of linear ocean waves,
a floating one and a submerged one representing a two body WEC. The analytical solution is obtained
through separation of variables and matched eigenfunction expansion. A minor parameter study
was conducted where the effect of the oscillating devices’ radii on the hydrodynamic properties was
investigated. Wu, et al. [90] studied the response of a two-body WEC while changing the design
parameters, but more importantly derived and validated an analytical solution for the non-dimensional
added mass, damping coefficient, and wave excitation force for both the floater, submerged body,
and the interactions between them. A parameter study was conducted, and it was deduced that the
design parameters, especially the ones related to the resonant frequency can have a large effect on the
captured power. This indicates a high dependency between all the different design parameters.
Energies 2019, 12, 47 20 of 36
3.2. Theoretical Development

The concept of two-body point absorber WECs is not new, but recently this type of harvesters
has been witnessing more focus as it is theoretically proven to be able to capture more power than
one-body point absorbers at a lower resonant frequency closer to the real frequency of ocean waves.
This section will discuss the theoretical design, optimizations, and parameter studies.
The advantages of a two-body point absorber theoretically compared to a one-body device are best
shown in [27] where a comprehensive mathematical model was developed for the Lysekil one-body
point absorber and the numerical analysis compared this WEC to a proposed two-body one where
a submerged spherical
one-body pointbody wasatintroduced.
absorbers a lower resonantThe addition
frequency of to
closer a submerged body
the real frequency was waves.
of ocean regarded as a
This section will discuss the theoretical design, optimizations, and parameter
passive control method. It was concluded that the power capture ratio can be increased by 10–20% in a studies.
The advantages of a two-body point absorber theoretically compared to a one-body device are
two-body system depending on the dimensions of the system, placing the submerged body at a higher
best shown in [27] where a comprehensive mathematical model was developed for the Lysekil one-
depth increases
body the
pointcaptured
absorber and power by increasing
the numerical analysisthe phase this
compared difference
WEC to aand relative
proposed velocity,
two-body one and the
two-body system
where adoesn’t
submerged need as much
spherical as control
body was compared
introduced. to aofconventional
The addition a submerged bodyone-body
was regardedsystem due
as aof
to the increase passive
inertia.control method. It was concluded that the power capture ratio can be increased by 10–
20% in a two-body system depending on the dimensions of the system, placing the submerged body
There are also extensive analysis and parameter studies conducted to investigate the response of
at a higher depth increases the captured power by increasing the phase difference and relative
two-body point absorbers
velocity, WECs under
and the two-body systemdifferent conditions
doesn’t need and
as much as parameters.
control compared toYua and Li [49] conducted
conventional one- a
body of
CFD simulation system
a two due to theheaving
body increase of inertia.
point absorber based on the Reynolds-Averaged Navier–Stokes
There are also extensive analysis and parameter studies conducted to investigate the response
equations, the main focus was the heave response and the extracted power. The results were verified by
of two-body point absorbers WECs under different conditions and parameters. Yu and Li [49]
experimentalconducted
ones, and the nonlinear wave interactions (such as wave overtopping) and viscous effects
a CFD simulation of a two body heaving point absorber based on the Reynolds-Averaged
were showcased. Amiri, equations,
Navier–Stokes et al. [91]the
formulated a comprehensive
main focus was the heave response linear
and themathematical
extracted power.model of two-body
The results
WECs in both were
theverified
frequencyby experimental
and timeones, and the
domain, nonlinear
with wave interactions (such
the hydrodynamics as waveusing
calculated overtopping)
ANSYS Aqwa.
and viscous effects were showcased. Amiri, et al. [91] formulated a comprehensive linear
The simulations were validated against experiments of a similar scaled down model, and a parametric
mathematical model of two-body WECs in both the frequency and time domain, with the
study was conducted to study the effect of different sea states, PTO damping coefficient and float
hydrodynamics calculated using ANSYS Aqwa. The simulations were validated against experiments
geometry onofthe power
a similar output.
scaled A cylindrical
down model, buoy with
and a parametric a small
study was drafttoand
conducted a the
study conical bottom
effect of differentas shown
sea states, PTO damping coefficient
in Figure 14 was proved to capture the most power. and float geometry on the power output. A cylindrical buoy with
a small draft and a conical bottom as shown in Figure 14 was proved to capture the most power.
Figure 14. Optimized buoy shape to harvest more power [91].

Figure 14. Optimized buoy shape to harvest more power [91]..
Davis, Thomson, Mundon Mundon

Davis, Thomson, and Fabienand [84] modeled
Fabien a multiple
[84] modeled degrees
a multiple of freedom
degrees of freedompoint
pointabsorber,
absorber,
and numerically and numerically
designed the PTO designed the PTO
as a third as a third
degree degree of freedom,
of freedom, then a parametric
then a small small parametric
study was
study was conducted where the design parameters influencing the generated power were analyzed,
conducted where the design parameters influencing the generated power were analyzed, it was
it was deduced that the floater’s buoyancy and the submerged body’s added mass had the greatest
deduced that theonfloater’s
effect buoyancy
the generated power. and theand
Tarrant submerged
Meskell [92]body’s added
investigated mass had
parametric the greatest
resonance of the effect
Energies 2019, 12, 47 21 of 36

on the generated power. Tarrant and Meskell [92] investigated parametric resonance of the Wavebob
two-body two-body
Wavebob WEC. When WEC. the When
incoming the excitation
incoming wave frequency
excitation wave is twice theispitch/roll
frequency twice the resonance
pitch/roll
frequency, frequency,
resonance a coupling of two or more
a coupling of twodegrees of freedom
or more degreesoccurs and theoccurs
of freedom WEC becomes
and the WEC parametrically
becomes
resonated. A comprehensive
parametrically resonated. A nonlinear
comprehensive mathematical
nonlinear model was developed
mathematical modelinwasthe time domaininwith
developed the
non-linear wave excitation and hydrostatic forces. The simulation
time domain with non-linear wave excitation and hydrostatic forces. The simulation results were results were validated by the
experimental
validated by ones, and extensiveones,
the experimental simulations were conducted
and extensive simulations to study
were the parametric
conducted resonance
to study the
where the system’s
parametric resonance stability
wherelimits were calculated.
the system’s stability limits were calculated.
Some researchers
researchersattempted
attemptedtotooptimize
optimize thethe
design
design of two body
of two point
body absorbers
point absorbersto maximize
to maximizetheir
power output.output.
their power For example, Son, et al.
For example, Son,[93]etoptimized a two-body
al. [93] optimized point absorber
a two-body pointwith the inclusion
absorber with the of
non-linear of
inclusion forces on the buoy.
non-linear forcesTheonoptimization
the buoy. resulted in doublingresulted
The optimization the energy in extraction
doubling efficiency
the energy by
proposing
extraction aefficiency
curved shape of the buoy
by proposing which resulted
a curved shape ofinthe thebuoy
decrease
which of resulted
the viscous forces.
in the The optimal
decrease of the
working conditions
viscous forces. were derived
The optimal working toconditions
maximize were the power
derived efficiency
to maximize and the power
results efficiency
were verifiedand
against the results of the wave tank experiments with the excitation of
the results were verified against the results of the wave tank experiments with the excitation of regular waves. Also, Piscopo,
Benassai,
regular Cozzolino,
waves. Also, Della
Piscopo,Morte and Scamardella
Benassai, Cozzolino, [17]
Dellasuggested
Morte and a new optimization
Scamardella method for
[17] suggested a
two-body
new WECs; the
optimization design
method forparameters
two-body WECs; such asthethedesign
PTO damping,
parameters submerged
such as the body PTOadded mass,
damping,
buoy diameter
submerged bodyand draftmass,
added were iterated
buoy diameterin an attempt
and draft to derive the optimal
were iterated in andesign
attempt with regardsthe
to derive to
the varying
optimal designyearly
withoperating
regards to variables.
the varying Recently,
yearlyAl Shami, et
operating al. [94] conducted
variables. Recently, Al a parametric
Shami, et al. study
[94]
by utilizinga the
conducted Taguchi study
parametric method byand basedthe
utilizing onTaguchi
the results, two body
method WECson
and based were
the optimized
results, twosobody that
the power
WECs were capture and bandwidth
optimized so that theincrease,
power whilecapture theand
resonance
bandwidthfrequency decrease.
increase, whileItthe wasresonance
deduced
that the shape
frequency of theItsubmerged
decrease. was deduced body hasthe
that a big impact
shape of theonsubmerged
both the harvested
body haspower and theon
a big impact natural
both
resonant
the frequency.
harvested power and the natural resonant frequency.
Finally, some novel concepts were implemented in two-body wave energy harvesters to reduce
some of their complexities. Gao, Gao, et et al.
al. [95]
[95] tackled
tackled thethe issues
issues of maintenance,
maintenance, complexity, mooring
cables and
andhigh highsubmergence
submergencedepths depths ofoftwo body
two bodypoint absorbers
point absorbersby suggesting
by suggesting a novel concept
a novel with
concept
a linear
with generator
a linear sealedsealed
generator between two heaving
between buoys buoys
two heaving as seenasinseen
Figure 15. Both
in Figure 15.bodies float infloat
Both bodies this
concept, and theand
in this concept, relative movement
the relative is used in
movement a clever
is used in away while
clever way keeping
while the PTO the
keeping sealed
PTO between
sealed
the two devices.
between the twoItdevices.
was found thatfound
It was the loadthatresistance, spring constant,
the load resistance, springdamping
constant,coefficient, and wave
damping coefficient,
height
and wave have a bighave
height effecta on
bigthe generated
effect power. Chen,
on the generated power. et al. [96] et
Chen, also
al. attempted to designtoa design
[96] also attempted sealed
two bodytwo
a sealed point absorber
body point by placingby
absorber theplacing
second thebody as moving
second body mass
as movingwithinmass
the buoy.
withinThe thesecond
buoy.
bodysecond
The is a mass-spring-damper oscillating inside
body is a mass-spring-damper the buoy
oscillating insidecreating
the buoya second degree
creating of freedom.
a second degree of A
parametric
freedom. A study was study
parametric conducted where thewhere
was conducted some theof some
the design
of the parameters
design parameterswere assumed
were assumedto be
controllable variables,
to be controllable and the
variables, anddevice was studied
the device and optimized
was studied based based
and optimized on theon long-term sea states
the long-term sea
of Zhejiang,
states China.China.
of Zhejiang,
Figure
Figure 15.
15. A
Atwo-body
two-body WEC
WEC with
with both
both bodies
bodies floating,
floating, and
and aa linear
linear PTO
PTO sealed in between [95]
sealed in [95]..

Energies 2019, 12, 47 22 of 36
Simulation and Experimental Validation

Two-body point absorbers are difficult to study in experiments due to the increased complexity
and degrees of freedom
Simulation of the system.
and Experimental Also, wave tanks usually have a small depth which is not
Validation
very practicalTwo-body
for testing a device with a submerged body at a certain distance from the buoy/water
point absorbers are difficult to study in experiments due to the increased complexity
surface. The
andrecent
degreesexperimental
of freedom of thedevelopment of two-body
system. Also, wave tanks usuallypoint
have aabsorbers
small depthis not isasnot
which numerous
very as all
practical development
the experimental for testing a device with a submerged
of one-body devices. body at a certain distance from the buoy/water
surface. The recent experimental development of two-body point absorbers is not as numerous as all
Nevertheless, Beatty, Hall, Buckham, Wild and Bocking [5] conducted a comprehensive
the experimental development of one-body devices.
experimental and numerical study of the two most popular two body point absorbers, the WAVEBOB
Nevertheless, Beatty, Hall, Buckham, Wild and Bocking [5] conducted a comprehensive
and POWERBUOY
experimentalasand shown in Figure
numerical study of11. Themost
the two experiment
popular twofocused onabsorbers,
body point the heave theonly and the devices
WAVEBOB
anddown
were scaled POWERBUOY to 1:25as shown inFigure
models. Figure 11.
16The experiment
below focused
portraits theonWAVEBOB
the heave onlyinand the deviceswave tank
a physical
were scaled down to 1:25 models. Figure 16 below portraits the WAVEBOB in a physical wave tank
installed with all the sensors and equipment.
installed with all the sensors and equipment.
Figure 16. WAVEBOB floating in a wave tank with all the equipment [5]
Figure 16. WAVEBOB floating in a wave tank with all the equipment [5].
A comprehensive numerical model with a linearized viscous drag force was developed in the
A comprehensive
frequency domain numerical model with of
with the implementation a linearized viscous
a reactive control drag
method to force
maximizewasthedeveloped
power in the
frequencycapture.
domain All with the implementation
the numerical of athereactive
simulations, including control
hydrodynamic method
coefficients forto maximize
both WECs werethe power
validated
capture. All by experimental
the numerical tests in the
simulations, wave tank,the
including there was a good agreement
hydrodynamic between
coefficients numerical
for both WECs were
and experimental results. It was concluded that each device is suitable for a specific sea state due to
validated the
bydifferent
experimental tests in the wave tank, there was a good agreement
submerged body shape. The WAVEBOB has a more streamlined submerged body, and
between numerical
and experimental
therefore was able to capture more power due to the decrease of the viscous drag forces. While the state due
results. It was concluded that each device is suitable for a specific sea
to the different submerged
POWERBUOY body
exhibited shape.
a lower The
natural WAVEBOB
resonant frequencyhasduea to
more streamlined
the higher added masssubmerged
of the body,
submerged
and therefore body,to
was able and therefore,
capture eachpower
more device will
dueexhibit
to thebetter performance
decrease of thedepending
viscous on the forces.
drag sea While
wave frequencies and design objectives.
the POWERBUOY exhibited a lower natural resonant frequency due to the higher added mass of the
submerged body, and therefore, each device will exhibit better performance depending on the sea
wave frequencies and design objectives.
Energies 2019, 12, 47 23 of 36
As discussed earlier in Section 2.3.1, some cases are computationally intensive to investigate
due to theoretical
Energies 2019,difficulties; this is particularly true for the two-body devices due 24
12, x FOR PEER REVIEW toofthe
38 increase
of viscous damping and non-linearities. Kim, et al. [97] experimentally investigated a 1:5.95 scaled
down model of a dual buoy WEC in a wave tank under both regular and irregular waves. The model
As discussed
consists of a main earlier and
outer buoy, in Section 2.3.1, some
an inner cases are
one with computationally
water in between. intensive to investigate
The magnets are due
placed on the
to theoretical difficulties; this is particularly true for the two-body devices due to the increase of
outer buoy and the coils on the inner one. Preliminary simulations were carried out and validated
viscous damping and non-linearities. Kim, et al. [97] experimentally investigated a 1:5.95 scaled down
with experiments,
model of a and dual the
buoyrest
WEC ofinthe study
a wave was
tank conducted
under both regularexperimentally.
and irregular waves.In theory,
The modelthis concept
has three natural resonant frequencies, it was found in the experiments that
consists of a main outer buoy, and an inner one with water in between. The magnets are placed on due to the low weight
the outer buoy and the coils on the inner one. Preliminary simulations were
of the inner buoy compared to the outer buoy, the device resonates with the frequency of the inner carried out and validated
fluid. Thewith
deviceexperiments, and the rest of the study was conducted experimentally. In theory, this concept
was able to resonate at two working wave frequencies, therefore, the experiments
has three natural resonant frequencies, it was found in the experiments that due to the low weight of
showcasedthethat
inner itbuoy
wascompared
possibletototheoperate thethe
outer buoy, novel
devicedevice in with
resonates a wider range of
the frequency of frequencies
the inner fluid. compared
to typical The
one-body point
device was absorbers.
able to resonate at two working wave frequencies, therefore, the experiments
showcased that it was possible to operate the novel device in a wider range of frequencies compared
3.3.2. Sea Testing
to typical one-body point absorbers.
As for3.3.2.
realSea
sea testing, [85,98] presented the numerical modelling based on many hydrodynamic
Testing
theories and software
As for real and conducted
sea testing, an experimental
[85,98] presented validation
the numerical modelling in a wave
based on manybasin of a scaled 1:33 for
hydrodynamic
the 1:15 model
theoriesofand
a novel WEC
software and designed
conducted an and developed
experimental by Columbia
validation in a wavePower
basin ofTechnologies
a scaled 1:33 for which can
theheave
convert the 1:15 model
andofsurge
a novelmotions
WEC designed and rotation
into the developedofby the
Columbia
shaftPower
of anTechnologies which canThere was
electric generator.
convert the heave and surge motions into the rotation of the shaft of an electric generator. There was
a good agreement between the simulation and experimental results. And then, a 1:7 model was
a good agreement between the simulation and experimental results. And then, a 1:7 model was
developed, built and
developed, tested
built in real
and tested seasseas
in real in in
Puget
Puget Sound,
Sound, WAWA as as seen
seen in Figure
in Figure 17 below.
17 below.
17. SeaRay
FigureFigure 1:71:7
17. SeaRay scaled
scaledmodel being
model being tested
tested in seas
in real real[4]
seas [4].
4. Power Take-Off
4. Power Take-Off
To some wave energy harvesting pioneers like Falcão [2], the PTO is considered the most
To some wave energy harvesting pioneers like Falcão [2], the PTO is considered the most important
important aspect of harvesting power from the motion of ocean waves. The PTO mechanism is
aspect of harvesting
responsible ofpower from
transferring thethe motion
harvested of ocean
mechanical waves.
energy The PTO
to electrical one.mechanism is cover
This section will responsible of
transferring theexamples
some harvested mechanical
of the energy
different PTO to electrical
mechanisms one.
that can Thiswith
be used section
one will cover some
or two-body point examples
absorbers.
of the different PTO mechanisms that can be used with one or two-body point absorbers.
4.1. Linear4.1. Linear Generators

Generators
Typical PTOs work well with high velocity mechanisms and low forces, like piezoelectric elements
that are used to harvest energy from environmental vibration [99,100]. These piezoelectric PTOs have
been proposed before for wave energy harvesting [101], but the implementation and efficiency are
Typical PTOs work well with high velocity mechanisms and low forces, like piezoelectric
Energies 2019, 12, 47 24 of 36
elements that are used to harvest energy from environmental vibration [99,100]. These piezoelectric
PTOs have been proposed before for wave energy harvesting [101], but the implementation and
efficiency are very questionable
very questionable given that they given
work that
forthey
verywork for very higha frequencies,
high frequencies, magnitude ora two magnitude or two
higher than the
higher
ocean than
waves thefrequencies.
ocean waves frequencies.
Ideally,
Ideally, the theconditions
conditionsofoflow lowvelocity
velocityand andhigh
highforces
forcesworkworkwell wellwith
withdirect
directdrive
drivelinear
linear
generators,
generators, especially with withheaving
heaving point
point absorbers.
absorbers. Also, Also, these generators
these generators don’ta mechanical
don’t require require a
mechanical
interface tointerface
transmitto transmit
the mode of the mode of
motion; motion;
they they are
are directly directly
linked linked
to the heavetodynamics
the heaveof dynamics
the WEC,
ofhence
the WEC, hence increasing the efficiency and lowering the maintenance.
increasing the efficiency and lowering the maintenance. Even though it was designed Even though it wasfor
designed for the Archimedes
the Archimedes Wave Swing Wave
(AWS) Swingtype(AWS)
WEC,type WEC, the transverse-flux
the transverse-flux permanent permanent magnet
magnet generator
generator
developed developed
by Polinder,by Polinder,
Mecrow, Mecrow, Jack, Dickinson
Jack, Dickinson and Mueller and [35]
Mueller
can be [35] canfor
used be point
used for point
absorbers
absorbers
given that given that it operates
it operates for themotion,
for the heave heave motion,
with low with low velocities,
velocities, and under
and under the excitation
the excitation of
of high
high forces.
forces. TheThe proposed
proposed linear
linear generatorisischeaper
generator cheaperand andmore
more efficient
efficient than the the conventional
conventionaldirect direct
drive
drivepermanent
permanentmagnet magnetlinear
lineargenerators.
generators.Ulvgård,
Ulvgård,Sjökvist,
Sjökvist,Göteman
Götemanand andLeijon
Leijon[44][44]conducted
conducted
experiments
experimentson onaafull-scale
full-scale linear
linear generator for for the
the purpose
purposeof ofwave
waveenergy
energyharvesting
harvestingwith witha focus
a focus on
onthethe PTO’s
PTO’s linear
linear electromagnetic
electromagnetic forceforce
andand its variation
its variation withwith the generator
the generator damping,
damping, transator
transator speed,
speed, and overlap.
and stator stator overlap. The generator
The generator damping damping coefficient
coefficient 𝑐𝑝 was measured
c p was measured for different
for different load casesloadand
cases and was concluded
was concluded that it constant
that it remains remains for constant forstator
the full the full stator and
overlap, overlap, anddecrease
linearly linearly decrease
when the
when
overlapthe decrease.
overlap decrease.
Crozier, Crozier,
et al. [102] et al. [102] presented
presented a novelgenerator
a novel linear linear generator
installedinstalled
at the sea at bed
the sea
and
bed andto
linked linked to a heaving
a heaving buoy usingbuoya using
snapper a snapper
system. system.
AsAsseen
seenininFigure
Figure18,18,the
thenovel
novelPTO PTOuses usesaalarge
largespring
springtotoexert
exerthigh
highforces
forceson onthe
thedirect-drive
direct-drive
linear
linear generator, thus increasing the relative velocities for a very short period when the springforce
generator, thus increasing the relative velocities for a very short period when the spring force
isishigher
higherthan than the magnetic
the magnetic force
forcein order
in orderto produce
to produce largelarge
amountsamountsof powers for short
of powers periods.
for short The
periods.
design, simulation and testing of the device were able to prove that the
The design, simulation and testing of the device were able to prove that the PTO is able to produce PTO is able to produce high
energy pulses pulses
high energy for shortforamount of times.
short amount of The
times.testing
The was done
testing wasondone
two different stages; astages;
on two different dry testing
a dry
intesting
the labinusing
the laba ball
usingscrew
a ballmechanism
screw mechanismto drive tothedrive
buoy, theand a wet
buoy, andtesting
a wetin a wave
testing in tank.
a wave tank.
Figure
Figure 18.18.
TheThe snapper
snapper PTO
PTO schematic
schematic [71].
[71] ..
There is a lot of research on the control and power electronics side of linear generators, the readers
are referred to [57,58,103] for the electrical side of the development, this paper focuses on the
hydrodynamic and mechanical aspects of point absorbers WECs.
There is a lot of research on the control and power electronics side of linear generators, the
readers are referred to [57,58,103] for the electrical side of the development, this paper focuses on the
Energies 2019, 12, 47 25 of 36
hydrodynamic and mechanical aspects of point absorbers WECs.
4.2.Linear
4.2. Linearto
toRotary
RotaryMechanisms
Mechanisms
Permanent magnet
Permanent magnet directdirect drive
drive linear
lineargenerators
generators require
requirerelatively
relativelylow lowmaintenance
maintenance and and have
have
highefficiency
high efficiencyin inoffshore
offshoreapplications,
applications,but butthey
theyare
arevery
veryexpensive,
expensive,and andthethemagnets
magnetstechnologies
technologies
are still under development to iterate a financially acceptable solution.
are still under development to iterate a financially acceptable solution. Another proposal would Another proposal wouldbe be
usingaa cheap,
using cheap, off -the-shelf dc or or acac synchronous
synchronousgenerator.
generator.This Thiswill
willrequire
requirea amechanical
mechanical system
system to
transfer
to transfer thethe
translating
translating heaveheavemotion
motion intointo
a rotary one,one,
a rotary therefore, because
therefore, of theofadded
because moving
the added parts,
moving
this system
parts, will require
this system more more
will require maintenance, but the
maintenance, butsimplicity and low
the simplicity andcost
loware appealing
cost are appealingto the
commercial
to the commercial stage stage
implementation.
implementation. One One of the biggest
of the biggest ocean
oceanwaves
wavesenergy mechanism
energy PTO mechanism
comparisonwas
comparison wasdonedoneby byRhinefrank,
Rhinefrank,et et al.
al. [104]
[104] where
where 18 18 different
differentPTOs
PTOsbasedbasedon onboth
bothdirect
directdrive
drive
linear generators and rotary synchronous generators were evaluated
linear generators and rotary synchronous generators were evaluated and compared using a method and compared using a method
developed by
developed byPugh.
Pugh. ItIt isisananindustrial
industrialsystematic
systematic procedure
procedurefor forassessing
assessing systems
systems which
which have havehighhigh
complexity. The 18 different designs were shortlisted to 5 which were
complexity. The 18 different designs were shortlisted to 5 which were designed, built and tested to designed, built and tested to
comparetheir
compare theirperformances.
performances.ItItwas wasfound
foundthat thataapermanent
permanentmagnet magnetlinear
lineargenerator
generatorcan canbe bedesigned
designed
byutilizing
by utilizinga asea sea water
water gapgap between
between the armature
the armature and theandmagnet
the magnet
section,section,
renderingrendering
the design the simple.
design
simple. But, at high power ratings, the gap must be big and the electromagnetic
But, at high power ratings, the gap must be big and the electromagnetic material costs become too material costs become
too high.
high. It was It also
was deduced
also deduced that
that for for power
high high power
offshoreoffshore
ocean ocean
energyenergy applications,
applications, the to
the linear linear
rotaryto
rotary mechanisms
mechanisms were actually
were actually suitable.suitable.
There There have many
have been been many proposals
proposals and designs
and designs to transfer
to transfer the
the heaving
heaving motion motion of buoys
of buoys into into
rotary rotary
motion motion to drive
to drive the shaft
the shaft of a generator.
of a generator.
A crank
A crank slider,
slider, similar
similar to tothe
theconventional
conventional combustion
combustion engine engine mechanism
mechanism was was theoretically
theoretically
studied in [37,47]. The mechanism, showcased in Figure 19,
studied in [37,47]. The mechanism, showcased in Figure 19, was designed and simulated in was designed and simulated inboth
boththethe
frequencyand
frequency andtimetimedomains
domainsunder underthe theexcitation
excitationof ofboth
bothregular
regularandandirregular
irregularwaves.
waves.A Acontrol
controlcodecode
wasdeveloped
was developed to match
to match the electrical
the electrical impedanceimpedance
with the with the mechanical
mechanical one for higherone for
power higher power
absorption.
Itabsorption.
was concluded It was that
concluded
the gear thatratio
the gear
playsratio plays
a big role,a big role,itwhere
where it is desirable
is desirable to have to ahave a variable
variable one
one accommodating
accommodating for thefor the different
different sea conditions,
sea conditions, and thatand that aamount
a decent decentofamount
energy ofcanenergy can be
be harvested
harvested
even undereven under
irregular irregular
wave wave conditions.
conditions.
Figure 19. Crank

Figure 19. Crank slider
slider mechanism
mechanism schematic
schematic [37,47].
[37,47].
Agamloh, et al. [105] presented a novel PTO as seen in Figure 20. The wave forces are transmitted
Agamloh, et al. [105] presented a novel PTO as seen in Figure 20. The wave forces are transmitted
to the sealed PTO via a contactless force transmission system based on permanent magnets. These
to the sealed PTO via a contactless force transmission system based on permanent magnets. These
forces drive a ball screw nut mechanism to transfer the linear motion into rotary one rotating a sealed
generator at the far end. Some losses occur during the force transmission, but the generator is sealed
Energies 2019, 12, 47 26 of 36

forces drive a ball screw nut mechanism to transfer the linear motion into rotary one rotating a sealed
generator at the far end. Some losses occur during the force transmission, but the generator is sealed
Different magnets
and protected from extreme conditions. Different magnets configurations
configurations were
were simulated
simulated using
using FEA,
FEA,
and wave tank experiments were conducted
conducted with two different generators,
generators, it
it was found
found that the
impedance generated
generator with the lower impedance generated more
more power
power due to more stability in the generated
reduced).
voltage (the voltage drops were reduced).
Figure 20. Buoy connected to a ball and screw type PTO via a magnetic contactless force transmission
Figure 20. Buoy
mechanism connected to a ball and screw type PTO via a magnetic contactless force transmission
[105].
mechanism [105].
Liang, Ai and Zuo [7] designed, simulated and fabricated a PTO system with a mechanical motion
rectifier system
Liang, Ai andwhich Zuo uses
[7]adesigned,
rack and pinion
simulatedsystemandtofabricated
transfer the bidirectional
a PTO system with heavea motion
mechanical into
a single rectifier
motion directionsystem
rotary which
movement uses of a generator’s
a rack and pinion shaft. The device
system was the
to transfer tested in both labs
bidirectional and
heave
real seas, there was an excellent agreement between the simulation results
motion into a single direction rotary movement of a generator’s shaft. The device was tested in both and the experimental ones.
It wasand
labs concluded
real seas, that this system
there was an can produce
excellent more power
agreement than an
between theequivalent
simulationdirect-drive
results and linear
the
generator model,
experimental ones.and It that
was the optimal that
concluded damping neededcan
this system is less than the
produce moredamping
powerof a linear
than generator
an equivalent
model, thus linear
direct-drive reducing the need
generator for high
model, and PTO forces.
that the optimal Another
dampinglinear to rotary
needed motion
is less than transmission
the damping
concept
of was
a linear introduced
generator by De
model, Koker,
thus et al. the
reducing [106]
needwhere for ahigh
planetary gears Another
PTO forces. system ensures
linear to both the
rotary
transmission and control. The transmission is composed of three shafts
motion transmission concept was introduced by De Koker, et al. [106] where a planetary gears system connected to a planetary
gear system;
ensures both theonetransmission
is connectedand to the buoy,The
control. another to the main
transmission generator
is composed ofand
threeflywheel, and one
shafts connected
to athe auxiliary
planetary gearmachine
system;whichone isprovides
connected control
to the to the another
buoy, system to the ensure
main a generator
high efficiency. Torque,
and flywheel,
operational speed, and operating point external load resistance and
and one to the auxiliary machine which provides control to the system to ensure a high efficiency.output power were calculated,
and an impressive
Torque, operational efficiency
speed, of and88% was achieved
operating point by the system,
external load as the generator
resistance was controlled
and output power wereto be
kept running
calculated, and at an
rated speed. efficiency of 88% was achieved by the system, as the generator was
impressive
Boren,toetbe
controlled al.kept
[107] designed
running a vertical
at rated speed. axis pendulum PTO, sealed inside the buoy. This design
can take advantages
Boren, et al. [107]from the heave
designed and roll
a vertical axismotions
pendulum to oscillate
PTO, sealedthe pendulum,
inside the buoy.whichThis in its turn
design
drive a generator. A scaled down model was developed and tested
can take advantages from the heave and roll motions to oscillate the pendulum, which in its turn under the influence of different
parameters relatedAtoscaled
drive a generator. the PTO,
down seamodel
states,wasanddeveloped
mooring lines. A similar
and tested underconcept was presented
the influence of different by
Takaramoto, et al. [108]
parameters related to the where
PTO, a swinging
sea states,spherical
and mooring mass sealed
lines. Ainside the buoy
similar concept utilizes
was the roll/pitch
presented by
motion to glide
Takaramoto, along
et al. [108] the spherical
where boundaries
a swinging of themass
spherical buoysealed
driving a rotating
inside the buoygenerator
utilizesatthe
theroll/pitch
centre of
the buoytovia
motion a cable.
glide alongThe themathematical model was
spherical boundaries of thepresented, and the
buoy driving capturedgenerator
a rotating power was at calculated
the centre
for the
of both a controlled
buoy via a cable. PTOThe andmathematical
one with fixed damping;
model a theoretical
was presented, andmaximum
the capturedefficiency
power of was
34%
was achieved by the calculations. Dai, et al. [109] numerically presented
calculated for both a controlled PTO and one with fixed damping; a theoretical maximum efficiency a novel idea of a PTO
designed
of 34% was to achieved
power marine by themonitoring
calculations. buoys
Dai, with
et al. a[109]
small submergedpresented
numerically body as presented
a novel idea in Figure
of a PTO 21.
Energies 2019, 12, 47 27 of 36
designed to power marine monitoring buoys with a small submerged body as presented in Figure
A rope connects the heaving floater and the submerged body, and the relative motion is harvested
21. A rope connects the heaving floater and the submerged body, and the relative motion is harvested
through a pulley connected to a spring on one end and a gearbox/generator on the other. The spring
through a pulley connected to a spring on one end and a gearbox/generator on the other. The spring
increases the relative motion through added stiffness and stores the excess energy. A scaled model was
increases the relative motion through added stiffness and stores the excess energy. A scaled model
manufactured and tested in a wave tank, where 20% efficiency was achieved.
was manufactured and tested in a wave tank, where 20% efficiency was achieved.
Figure 21. A two-body WEC with a rope/pulley/spring sealed PTO [109].

Figure 21. A two-body WEC with a rope/pulley/spring sealed PTO [109].
Hadano, et al. [110] also presented a pulley based novel PTO concept. A counterweight model
was Hadano,
first presented where
et al. [110] the
also buoy is attached
presented to a system
a pulley based novel of PTOtwo pulleysAvia
concept. cables that connect
counterweight model
to a first
was counterweight
presented whereat thethe
other end,
buoy and the heave
is attached motion
to a system is transformed
of two pulleys via into
cables rotary motion to
that connect of aa
shaft, connected to a ratchet/gear system which rotates a generator. The system’s
counterweight at the other end, and the heave motion is transformed into rotary motion of a shaft, efficiency and cable
tensions were
connected to aimproved by removing
ratchet/gear system which the counterweight
rotates a generator.and introducing
The system’sa rectangular
efficiencyclosed loop
and cable
system with 4 pulleys, and cables connected to both the top and bottom
tensions were improved by removing the counterweight and introducing a rectangular closed loopof the buoy, with two pulleys
underwater.
system with 4Both simulations
pulleys, and cablesandconnected
experiments were
to both theconducted to verify
top and bottom of the buoy,
model,withandtwo
to calculate
pulleys
the producedBoth
underwater. power under different
simulations wave conditions.
and experiments were conducted to verify the model, and to calculate
Using turbines
the produced poweras PTOsdifferent
under with ocean wavewaves energy is rare, nevertheless, Kim, Wata, Zullah, Ahmed
conditions.
and Lee
Using [46]turbines
utilized asthePTOs
pitch/roll
withmotion
ocean of a point
waves absorber
energy in hisnevertheless,
is rare, novel conceptKim, to operate
Wata,aZullah,
turbine
sealed inside
Ahmed and Lee the[46]
floater. A working
utilized fluid motion
the pitch/roll inside theof afloater goes in and
point absorber outnovel
in his fromconcept
the turbine as the
to operate
device pitches. CFD simulations were conducted to investigate the device, and
a turbine sealed inside the floater. A working fluid inside the floater goes in and out from the turbine a 1:3 scaled down
model
as was built
the device and tested
pitches. using a shaker.
CFD simulations wereAconducted
hydraulictoefficiency of 35–45%
investigate wasand
the device, achievable with
a 1:3 scaled
the device.
down model was built and tested using a shaker. A hydraulic efficiency of 35–45% was achievable
Table
with the 1 below presents a summary of the different novel PTOs presented in this section, it should
device.
be noted
Tablethat the efficiencies
1 below are not directly
presents a summary comparable,
of the different novel asPTOs
somepresented
are theoretical
in thiswith linearization
section, it should
assumptions, and others are based on test results and include non-linearities.
be noted that the efficiencies are not directly comparable, as some are theoretical with linearization
assumptions, and others are based on test results and include non-linearities.
Energies 2019, 12, 47 28 of 36
Table 1. Novel PTOs recently developed.

Reference Type Innovation Highest Efficiency Tested/Scale Target
Polinder, Damen and Linear Transverse-flux Yes/Full scale
>90% AWS
Gardner [36] generator permanent magnet (sea testing)
Ulvgård, Sjökvist, Linear Forces variations Full scale point
N.A. Yes/Full scale
Göteman and Leijon [44] generator analysis absorbers
Crozier, McKeever, Yes/scaled to
Linear Full scale point
Mueller, Spooner and Snapper spring system N.A. wave tank
generator absorbers
Bailey [102] requirements
Sang, Karayaka, Yan and Full scale point
Linear to rotary Crank slider mechanism N.A. No
Zhang [37] absorbers
Contactless force
Yes/scaled to
Agamloh, Wallace and transmission Full scale point
Linear to rotary 60% wave tank
von Jouanne [105] system/Ball screw nut absorbers
requirements
mechanism
Yes/scaled
Rack and pinion motion Full scale point
Liang, Ai and Zuo [7] Linear to rotary 28% capture width down and
rectifier absorbers
tested in the sea
De Koker, Degrieck, De
Planetary gear system
Maeyer, Verbelen,
Linear to rotary with control 88% No Suitable for small buoys
Verbrugghe, Vantorre
transmission
and Vandevelde [106]
Yes/scaled to
Boren, Lomonaco, Batten Suitable for small to
Linear to rotary Vertical axis pendulum N.A. wave tank
and Paasch [107] medium buoys
requirements
Takaramoto, Kashiwagi Swinging mass like a Suitable for small to
Linear to rotary 34% No
and Sakai [108] pendulum medium buoys
Pulley/spring connected
Yes/1:10 scale Marine monitoring
Dai, Chen and Xie [109] Linear to rotary to two submerged 20%
in a wave tank buoys
bodies
Yes/scaled to
Hadano, Lee and Closed loop with 4 Suitable for small to
Linear to rotary N.A. wave tank
Moon [110] pulleys medium buoys
requirements
A working fluid inside
Kim, Wata, Zullah, 35–45% hydraulic Yes/1:3 scale in Suitable for small to
Linear to rotary the buoy operates a
Ahmed and Lee [46] efficiency dry lab testing medium buoys
turbine
Ahmadian, Murray, Suitable for cylindrical
Two stage High frequency
Ghasemi-Nejhad and N.A. No buoys with large height
linear Piezoelectric
Rastegar [101] to diameter ratio
5. Mooring
In general, all the offshore floating devices require some sort of mooring, but the mooring
requirements of WECs, and specifically point absorbers revolve around keeping them in place under
severe ocean conditions as this was emphasized by Harris, et al. [111] who assessed different mooring
systems used in the gas and oil industry and analysed their applicability in ocean waves energy
harvesting. It was suggested that for point absorbers, the mooring requirements are not severe, and
they circle around keeping the WEC in station especially in severe storm conditions. Also, the mooring
system can be a part of an optimum control system for the specific power bandwidth of a WEC unit.
Different mooring cables were assessed for WEC applications, the second and third generation flexible
stiffness mooring systems were found to potentially decrease the system stiffness and therefore reduce
the mooring loads, while fibre ropes are recommended for deep water, as they have neutral buoyancy,
and their stiffness range can contribute to the motion response. Finally, plastic protected wire ropes
could provide ideal long-term mooring properties for long life span WECs.
Fitzgerald and Bergdahl [112] developed a method to investigate the effects of mooring systems
on the dynamics of point absorbers in the frequency domain. Different types of mooring systems were
assessed. It was concluded that the mooring systems have different effects on the heave performance
of devices, and the configuration in Figure 22 was found to be the most advantageous as it almost
showcased a heave performance similar to an unmoored system where there were negligible effects
of the mooring system on the captured power. Also, in the surge and pitch movements, the mooring
system, if designed properly, can assist in capturing more power by increasing the inertia of the system.
Richter, Magana, Sawodny and Brekken [39] applied non-linear model predictive control algorithm
in an attempt to optimize the power generation of a point absorber with a non-linear mooring force.
performance of devices, and the configuration in Figure 22 was found to be the most advantageous
as it almost showcased a heave performance similar to an unmoored system where there were
negligible effects of the mooring system on the captured power. Also, in the surge and pitch
movements, the mooring system, if designed properly, can assist in capturing more power by
Energies 2019, 12,
increasing the47inertia of the system. Richter, Magana, Sawodny and Brekken [39] applied non-linear 29 of 36
model predictive control algorithm in an attempt to optimize the power generation of a point
absorber
The with aalgorithm
non-linear non-linear mooring
was force.
compared toThe non-linear
a linear one, andalgorithm was compared
it was concluded to aa non-linear
that for linear one,
and it was concluded that for a non-linear mooring force, the linear model predictive
mooring force, the linear model predictive control can produce good results if the stiffness was tuned control can
produce
and good results
optimized. if the stiffness
The non-linear was tuned
model predictive and optimized.
control will requireThe non-linear
more non-linearmodel
effectspredictive
to justify
control
its use. will require more non-linear effects to justify its use.
Figure 22. Mooring configurations studied by [112], configuration d was proved to have the best
performance in heave.
Vicente, et al. [113] studied the response of a heaving buoy under the influence of a tight mooring
system connected directly to the PTO placed at the sea bottom and introduced a non-linear hydraulic
PTO. The cable stretch and angle were analyzed, and it was noted that the change of the mooring
cable’s length is related to the heave oscillations while the change in its angle with the vertical axis
is related to the surge oscillations. Finally, the linear and non-linear hydraulic PTOs were compared
under different regular and irregular wave conditions. It was found that the non-linearities have a
bigger effect on the surge oscillations than on the heave one. Bachynski, et al. [114] investigated the
response of a point absorber under the effect of mooring cables in irregular waves and focused on
optimizing the system to minimize failure in the mooring system. It was deduced that the mooring
cables don’t have a substantial effect on the PTO or heave response but can induce a pitch surge
coupling resonance effect that can cause failure. A low center of gravity of the buoy and small radius
of gyration are needed to reduce the pitch surge coupling effects.
Energies 2019, 12, 47 30 of 36
6. Our Contributions
Our team has been working on point absorbers since mid-2017. We are a multidisciplinary team
working on wave energy harvesting for Australia; focusing on three main aspects: Hydrodynamics
and design of point absorbers WECs; where hydrodynamic and design optimizations of two-body
WECs ensure that they are able to capture the most power for places with low frequency and high
energy density like Australia [94]. Development of novel PTO concepts for point absorbers; where
novel vibration energy harvesting systems are numerically and experimentally developed for point
absorbers to operate at low frequency and be cost effective [34,115]. And finally, power electronics,
electrical energy storage and grid connectivity for WECs to ensure a smooth and stable electric power
supply [116]. The team is still trying to tackle many gaps in point absorbers WECs; and this paper
points out some of the research questions that are being focused on:
• How can one optimize the shape of the submerged oscillating body in two-body point absorbers
to have a good balance between the hydrodynamic added mass and viscous damping?
• Are the hydrodynamics affected by the PTO and control forces? If so, how can one correlate the
linear and non-linear hydrodynamic parameters to the PTO forces?
• Can one increase the efficiency, rigidity, and stability of linear to rotational power take offs by
using a harmonic mechanism which is compatible with ocean waves?
7. Conclusions
This paper presented a review of the recent development of the point absorber WECs with a focus
on one-body, two-body point absorbers and PTOs. Their dynamics and hydrodynamics were detailed
along with the theoretical and experimental development. A discussion of the recent development
on the novel PTO concepts and finally some of the mooring analysis done recently of point absorbers
were presented.
One-body point absorbers are theoretically mature and well optimized using various
theoretical/modelling with experimental validation. Two-body point absorbers on the other hand are
more appropriate for wave energy harvesting, as the high energetic locations around the world tend to
have long wave periods. Even though there are extensive researches to further optimize two-body
point absorbers, more hydrodynamic optimizations are required to ensure high added mass and inertia
of the submerged body with the reduced viscous drag forces to increase the efficiency at lower ocean
waves frequencies. It’s difficult to experimentally study two-body wave energy harvesters due to the
small depth of wave tanks, but hopefully the high-power capture potential might open the door for
bigger research budgets for large scale sea tests.
Linear generators might be the most suitable for ocean waves energy harvesting, but recently there
is a lot of focus on linear to rotary motion transfer mechanisms, which can directly be connected to the
off the shelf generators. These mechanisms might be more complex less robust, harder to maintain
and have lower efficiency than traditional permanent magnet linear generators, but the low price and
technological maturity of these mechanisms can open the door for the first real sea implementation of
WECs farms.
Finally, the studies concerning mooring connections all conclude that the mooring system doesn’t
affect the heave oscillation of point absorbers, and hence the captured power should be little affected,
as most of the available ocean wave power is in the heave direction.
The transition to commercial development is proven to be difficult mainly because of the slow
process of scaling up these devices, the high costs of manufacturing and real sea implementation.
The development and design of wave energy harvesters in general still hasn’t overcome many obstacles
such as the low excitation frequency of ocean waves, the multidisciplinary nature, and the development
of a robust, inexpensive, and efficient PTO. The availability of large amounts of ocean wave energy in
some locations around the world, and the extensive recent development on point absorbers WECs
shown in this paper are pushing the point absorber towards commercial implementation.
Energies 2019, 12, 47 31 of 36
Nevertheless, after the first steps of commercialisation of simple one-body point absorbers,
with high industry focused budgets and research, the two-body point absorber can be the future
of ocean wave energy harvesting, and it can play a vital part in the transition towards sustainable
power systems.
Author Contributions: E.A.S., data curation, investigation, writing—original draft preparation; R.Z.,
writing—review and editing; X.W., writing—review and editing, supervision.
Funding: This project was funded by Australia Research Council Discovery Project grant DP170101039.
Acknowledgments: Authors would like to thank Australia Research Council Discovery Project grant DP170101039
for financial support. The authors wish to thank Elise Farah for useful discussions.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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energies

Energies 2019, 12, 47; doi:10.3390/en12010047 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

1.1. Wave Energy Resources

Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 38

Figure 2. The PowerBuoy WEC oscillating in the sea [49].

Figure 3. Schematic of a point absorber with a linear generator PTO [56].

Figure 5. Direct drive cylindrical one-body point absorber WEC [27].

2019, 12, 47𝐹

where 𝑦( ) , 𝑦( ) and 𝑦(∞) ..are the Z t

Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 38

2.2. Theoretical Development

Figure 6. Wave overtopping in an ANSYS Fluent numerical simulation [56].

2.3. Experimental Development

2.3.1. Wave Tank Experiments

2.3. Experimental Development

2.3.1. Wave Tank Experiments

Simulation and Experimental Validation

9. Experimental schematic of a heaving buoy connected to an air damper

3. Two-Body Point Absorber

3.2. Theoretical Development

Figure 14. Optimized buoy shape to harvest more power [91].

Davis, Thomson, Mundon Mundon

Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 22 of 38

3.3. Experimental Development

3.3.1. Wave Tank Experiments

3.3. Experimental Development

3.3.1. Wave Tank Experiments

Simulation and Experimental Validation

4.1. Linear4.1. Linear Generators

Figure 19. Crank

Energies 2019, 12, 47 26 of 36

Figure 21. A two-body WEC with a rope/pulley/spring sealed PTO [109].

Table 1. Novel PTOs recently developed.

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