Neuroscience and Behavior

Neuroscience and Behavior

• Neurons: The Basic Elements
• The Nervous System
• The Brain: Structure and functions
 Neuroscience and Behavior
• Why are we interested in our brain and
nervous/endocrine systems in a course of psychology?
– Remember: Psychology is the scientific study of
behaviors and mental processes
– It is our brain and nervous/endocrine systems that
CONTROL all our behaviors and mental processes
• Behavioral neuroscientists (or biopsychologists);
– Psychologists who specialize in considering the ways in
which the biological structures and functions of the body
affect behavior
– some questions;
• How does the brain control the voluntary and involuntary
functioning of the body
• What is the physical structure of the brain?
• Are psychological disorders created by biological factors,
and how can such disorders be treated?
– Biological factors are central to our sensory
experiences, states of consciousness,
motivation and emotion, development
throughout the life span, physical and
psychological health
– We cannot understand human behavior unless
we understand our biological makeup
 Nervous System
• Muscles are the biological structures that enable us to
move
– To understand how we coordinate our muscles, we
need to learn about more fundamental processes
• Nervous system: a complex communication network
transmitting and receiving info throughout the body
– Signals pain, pleasure, and emotion
– Controls reflexive responses as well as voluntary ones
– Regulates basic processes such as breathing and hearth
rate
 Neurons
• Neurons: Nerve cells, the
basic elements of the
nervous system
– Come in many varieties
– Some extend from spinal
cord to extremities (long)
– Some very short
– BUT, most neurons have
the same key structures to
serve their purpose
 Neurons
Three Main Parts
• Cell Body: contains a nucleus & incorporates the
hereditary material that determines how a cell will function
• Dendrites: a cluster of fibers at one end of a neuron that
receives messages from other neurons
• Axon: carries messages destined for other neurons
 How Neurons Fire
• The inner and outer environments of the neurons differ
in their concentrations of charged atoms called ions
– The outside of the neuron has a high concentration of
positively charged ions, particularly sodium and potassium

– The interior has relatively high concentration of negatively

charged chloride ions
• Firing; transmitting electrical impulse along the axon
• Resting state: The state in which there is a negative
electrical charge of about -70 millivolts within a neuron
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 How Neurons Fire?
Firing: transmitting electrical impulse along the axon
All-or-none law: The rule that neuron either fires or
doesn’t
Action potential: brief electrical charge that travels from the
cell body, down the length of the neuron’s axon, ending at
the axon terminal
 Speed of Transmission
• Action potentials are always the same magnitude and
speed
• The intensity of a stimulus determines
– The number of nerve cells stimulated
• The particular speed at which an action potential travels
along an axon is determined by the:
– Axon’s size
– Thickness of the myelin sheath
 Where Neurons Meet: Bridging the Gap
• How do the electrical signals pass from one
neuron to the next?
– There is no structural connection between the
neurons
– Instead, a chemical connection bridges the gap
(synapse) between two neurons
– The signal is transmitted by the emission of
neurotransmitters by the neuron sending the
signal
– So, although the message goes within the cell as
an electrical signal, the signal passes in the form
of chemical process
 Where Neurons Meet: Bridging the Gap
• Synapse: The space between two neurons
where the axon of a sending neuron
communicates with the dendrites of a
receiving neuron by using chemical
messages
– The neurotransmitters are released into the
synaptic cleft for the communication to occur

• Neurotransmitters: Chemicals that carry

messages across the synapse to the
dendrite (and sometimes the cell body) of
a receiver neuron
– May act differently depending on its place
 Mirror Neurons

• Specialized neurons that fire, when a person:

– Enacts a particular behavior
– Observes another individual carrying out the same
behavior
• Explain why people have to capacity to understand
other people and their intentions
– Suggests that the capacity of even young children to imitate
others is an inborn behavior
– They may be the root of empathy-feelings of concern,
compassion, and sympathy
 Neurons: How they work?

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c5cab4hgmoE
 Neurotransmitters
• Particularly important link between the nervous
system and behavior.
• Not only are they important for maintaining vital
brain and body functions, a deficiency or an excess
of a neurotransmitter can produce severe behavior
disorders.
• Excitatory – make it more likely that a receiving
neuron will fire and an action potential will travel
down its axon.
• Inhibitory – in contrast, do just the opposite; they
provide chemical information that prevents or
decreases the likelihood that the receiving neuron
will fire.
 Neurotransmitters

• Acetylcholine:
– Involved in every move
– Transmits messages relating our
skeletal muscles
– Also involve attention, memory
capabilities
– Diminished production of
Alzheimer disease
 Neurotransmitters

• Glutamate:
– Main excitatory transmitter
– Plays role in learning & memory
 Neurotransmitters

• GABA:
– Produces inhibition in brain
– Moderates variety of behaviors from
eating to aggression
 Neurotransmitters
• Serotonin:
• Function: regulation of sleep,
eating, mood, pain.
• Malfunction may cause
alcoholism, depression, suicide,
aggression, coping with stress
 Neurotransmitters

• Dopamine:
– major neurotransmitter regulating
movement, attention, and learning
– Malfunction may cause movement
disorders (e.g. Parkinson’s disease),
some mental disorders (e.g.
schizophrenia)
– Certain drugs can have significant
effect on dopamine release
 Neurotransmitters
• Endorphin:
– Function: Regulation of pain
suppression, pleasurable feelings,
elevation of mood
– Similar in structure to painkiller drugs
such as morphine
– Malfunction may cause mood
disorders
 Nervous System

Central Peripheral
Nervous Nervous
System System
(CNS) (PNS)
 Information Processing
Nervous systems process information in three
stages
Sensory input, integration, and motor output

Sensory input

Integration
Sensor

Motor output

Effector
Peripheral nervous Central nervous
system (PNS) system (CNS)
 Nervous System
Central Nervous System (CNS)
- Brain
- Spinal cord
- conveys information to and from
the brain to the PNS
- also produces reflexes
independently of the brain
- A reflex is the body’s automatic
response to a stimulus, e.g., a
doctor uses a mallet to trigger a
knee-jerk reflex
 Nervous System
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
- Made up of neurons with long axons
and dendrites
- Branches out from the spinal cord
and brain and reaches the extremities
of the body
- Spinal cord connects the brain with
the peripheral nervous system
forming a network that spans the
body
 Peripheral Nervous System
• Two major divisions
– Somatic: Specializes in the control of voluntary
movements and the communication of information
to and from the sense organs

– Autonomic: Controls involuntary movement of

the heart, lungs, and other organs
• Sympathetic & Parasympathetic
 Peripheral – Automatic
Nervous System
Sympathetic
Acts to prepare the body in
stressful emergency
situations, engaging resources
to respond to a threat
• Fight or flight response
Peripheral – Automatic
Nervous System
Parasympathetic
• Division of ANS that
relaxes body & conserves
energy;
• produces effects opposite
of sympathetic nervous
system
Brain and Its Functions
 Brain
Our brains are what
controls our mental
processes and behavior
So..
Whenever we talk about
a psychological
phenomenon, we are
actually talking about
our brain!
 Techniques for Studying the Brain
Electroencephalography, EEG:
measures electrical activity in the brain,
epilepsy, learning disabilities

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging, fMRI:

measures blood flow in the brain, detailed (3D) images
of the functioning of the brain. Planning brain surgery,
Alzheimer
Positron Emission Tomography (PET):
A radioactive substance (safe) is injected into a patient
and then brain scans are taken to follow where the brain
activation is located. Memory problems, seeking tumors

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS): Magnetic

pulses are applied to the head which temporarily disrupt a
brain region. Depression, schizophrenia
1) The Central Core:
Our “Old Brain”
-The most primitive part of our brain.
Controls many basic biological
functions: e.g eating, reflexes, sleep,
respiration, balance

2) Limbic System:
-Like a bridge. Other low level
functions: e.g. targeting auditory and
visual stimuli, regulating body
temperature

3) The Cerebral Cortex:

Our “New Brain”
- Is responsible for our higher order
Functioning: e.g. language, memory,
thinking, problem solving, decision
making, personality
The Central Core: Our “Old Brain”

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 BRAIN

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=snO68aJTOpM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=esPRsT-lmw8

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LNHBMFC
zznE
 Cerebral Cortex
Cerebral Cortex
• Cerebral Cortex: outer most
brain tissue
– Most recently evolved brain
structure; larger relative size
compared to other animals
– Responsible for most higher
order brain activity
Different regions of the cerebral cortex
controls different functions
 The Cerebral Cortex: Our “New Brain”
• Motor area: Responsible for the body’s voluntary
movement
– If we insert and electrode into a particular part of it and
apply electricity, involuntary movements in the
corresponding body part
– Large scale movements (e.g., leg, knee) require little
precision – centered in a very little space
– Precise movements (e.g., facial expressions and finger) –
controlled by larger portion of motor area
– Direct body parts into complex movements; e.g., swimmer
taking position before jumping into the pool
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 The Cerebral Cortex: Sensory area:
• Includes 3 regions; one that corresponds
• To body sensations (touch and pressure also)
• To sight
• To sound
– Somatosensory area in the parietal lobe encompasses specific
locations associated with the ability to perceive touch and
pressure in a particular area of the body
– Brain tissue related to a particular location on the body
determines the degree of sensitivity of that location
• The greater the area, the more sensitive is that area of the
body; e.g., fingers
 The Cerebral Cortex: Sensory area:
• The senses of sound and sight are also represented in
specific areas of the cerebral cortex.
• An auditory area in the temporal lobe is responsible for
the sense of hearing.
– If stimulated electrically, a person will hear sounds such as
clicks or hums.
• The visual area in the cortex, located in the occipital
lobe, responds to electrical stimulation.
– Experience of flashes of light or colors, suggesting
• The raw sensory input of images from the eyes is received in this
area of the brain and transformed into meaningful stimuli.
 The Cerebral Cortex: Our “New Brain”
• Association areas: higher mental processes, such as
thought, language, memory, and speech
– The accident of Gage; 3-foot-long iron bar went through
his skull destroying his associative areas
• Before; hard-working and cautious
• After; irresponsible, drank heavily and always in trouble doing
risky stuff
• Personality changed totally
– Control executive functions; planning, goal setting,
judgment, and impulse control

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 The Cerebral Cortex: Our “New Brain”
• Association areas: higher mental processes, such as
thought, language, memory, and speech
• Injuries to the association areas of the brain can
produce aphasia, problems with language.
– In Broca’s aphasia, speech becomes halting, laborious, and
often ungrammatical, and a speaker is unable to find the
right words.
• Post mortem examination of person suffering from problems
– Wernicke’s aphasia produces difficulties both in
understanding others’ speech and in the production of
language.
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 Neuroplasticity and the Brain
• Neuroplasticity
– Changes in the brain that occur throughout the life
span relating to the addition of new neurons
– New interconnections between neurons
– The reorganization of information-processing areas
• Neurogenesis: The creation of new neurons
– The ability of neurons to renew themselves during
adulthood has significant implications for the potential
treatment of disorders of the nervous system.

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 Neuroplasticity and the Brain
• Neuroplasticity: Specific experiences can modify the way
in which info is processed
– If learn to read Braille, the amount of tissue in your cortex
related to sensation in the fingertips will expand
– If learn to play violin, the brain area receiving messages from
the fingers will grow
– Parkinson’s disease; caused by gradual loss of cells that
stimulate the production of dopamine production
• Stem cells directly injected into the brains of Parkinson's
sufferers , take root and stimulate dopamine production
• Controversial treatment: source of cells are aborted fetuses
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 Cerebral Cortex

Left Hemisphere Right Hemisphere

Cerebral Hemispheres: outer brain divided into two

hemispheres (right & left)
• Right hemisphere: is stronger at nonverbal
processing: spatial, musical, visual recognition
• Left hemisphere: becomes more adept at verbal
processing: language, speech, reading, writing

• Hemispheres are connected by corpus collosum

Cerebral Hemispheres

Left hemisphere: receives info

from & controls right side of body
• Logical operations, analysis,
mathematics, language,
Right hemisphere: receives info
from & controls left side of body
• Recognition, creativity,
imagination, nonverbal thinking,
emotional processes
 Cerebral Hemispheres
Corpus Callosum

Corpus callosum: thick band of roughly 200 million

axons connecting the brain’s two hemispheres
 Severed Corpus Callosum

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lfGwsAdS9Dc
That’s all
folks!