Critical Reasoning 01

Introduction to Critical Reasoning

Weaken & Strengthen

Instructor: Phuong Linh Le

Introduction to Critical Reasoning (CR)

9-10 CR questions

Steps:

1. Read to understand the argument

2. Identify the structure of the argument: the premises/the conclusion/the example/…
3. Read carefully the question
4. Pre-think
5. Scan through the answers, choose one that fits your pre-think
6. Re-read if necessary

Try not to write anything down. Train your mind.

Example
A recent study has shown that, all other characteristics being equal, bilingual persons
memorize more quickly and retain information longer than those who speak only one Stimulus
language. Clearly, learning several languages can be used as a way to improve memory.

Which of the following most seriously weakens the conclusion above? Question Stem
A. None of the bilingual participants in the study possessed particularly good memory before
starting to learn a second language.

B. A study of those knowing several languages has shown that their memories are no better
than those of monolingual persons.

C. Monolingual speakers usually score better on tests of spatial reasoning.

D. Most of the study's participants who speak only one language have never tried to master
another language.

E. Another study has revealed that the memory of those knowing several languages is only
slightly better than that of bilingual persons.

Recommended time allocation: 1.5 min - 2 min / question

CR common types

1. Weaken
2. Strengthen
3. Conclusion
4. Evaluation
5. Inference
6. Assumption
7. Boldface
8. Paradox
WEAKEN
What is a weaken question?

There's a conclusion drawn in the argument and you must find an answer choice that weakens that
conclusion.

-> Find new evidence to prove that the author is wrong.

Note that the word “weaken” will not always show up in the question itself.

Common types of weaken questions

1. Action plan
2. Causation
3. Recommendation
4. Correlation & Coincidence
5. Generalization
6. Past-present
7. Prediction
8. Percentage
9. Comparison
Steps to solve a weaken question

1. Identify the question

2. Deconstruct the argument, identify which is the premise, which is the conclusion
3. Prethink : Ask yourself: “What assumption is being made to reach that conclusion?”
or “Are there any other cases/conditions that make the conclusion wrong, even
though the given premise is true?” or “Why the conclusion is true if I accept the
reasons?”
4. Scan through the answer, eliminate ones that are not relevant
5. Consider one that fits your prethink the most
How to identify the assumption of an argument?

C.R.U.E of an argument: Claim - Reason - Underlying assumption - Evidence

A simple example:

Question: Should we eat cats?

Claim: Eating cats is unethical.

Reason: Because cats are pets.

-> Underlying assumption: Eating pets is unethical.

GMAT CR: To reduce the danger to life and property posed by major earthquakes, scientists have been investigating several
techniques for giving advance warning of dangerous earthquakes. Since catfish swim erratically before earthquakes, some
investigators propose monitoring catfish to predict dangerous earthquakes.

In one GMAT CR question, there are multiple underlying assumptions being made to reach one conclusion;
therefore, identifying all of them in just 30-40 seconds is pretty challenging. However, you can become familiar
with some certain types of assumptions that the test often gives.
Action plan 1
Can the action be implementable?

To reduce the danger to life and property posed by major earthquakes, scientists have been investigating several
techniques for giving advance warning of dangerous earthquakes. Since catfish swim erratically before earthquakes,
some investigators propose monitoring catfish to predict dangerous earthquakes.

Which of the following, if true, most seriously undermines the usefulness of the proposal?

(A) In Japan, which is subject to frequent earthquakes, the behavior or catfish has long been associated with
earthquakes.

(B) Mechanical methods for detecting earthquakes have not been effective.

(C) Tremors lead to the release of hydrogen sulfide gas into the water, thereby causing various fish and shellfish to
behave erratically.

(D) Careful construction can reduce the dangers posed by earthquakes.

(E) Even very slight fleeting tremors can cause catfish to swim erratically.
Action plan 2
Are there any side effects?

Some manufacturers of computer software have proposed cutting costs by distributing instruction manuals for their programs on
computer disk only, so that computer users can refer to them on a computer screen rather than having to deal with unwieldy
printed manuals that are costly for manufacturers to produce.

Which of the following, if true, provides the best reason against adopting the proposal described above?

(A) Most computer users are just as comfortable using instructions on a computer screen as they are using printed manuals.

(B) Although instructions on a computer disk can be printed out cheaply using a computer printer, such printouts are less
convenient to use than instructions displayed on a computer screen.

(C) Because they are expensive and inconvenient to copy, printed instruction manuals provide one of the best deterrents against
the illegal copying of software, which costs manufacturers enormous profits.

(D) Instructions supplied on a computer disk are more appropriate for business and educational programs than for computer
games and other entertainment software.

(E) Instructions supplied on a computer disk can be designed to provide more extensive and more easily utilized cross-references
than those provided by printed manuals.
Recommendation

A should or should not do B, because of some reasons -> Find the evidence proving that the reasons can be wrong.

The proposal to hire ten new police officers in Middletown is quite foolish. There is sufficient funding to pay the salaries
of the new officers, but not the salaries of additional court and prison employees to process the increased caseload of
arrests and convictions that new officers usually generate.

Which of the following, if true, will most seriously weaken the conclusion drawn above?

A. Studies had shown that an increase in city’s place force does not necessarily reduce crime

B. When one major city increased its police force by 19% last year, there were 40% more arrests and 13% more
convictions

C. If funding for the new police officers’ salaries is approved, support for other city services will have to be reduced
during the next fiscal year

D. In most US cities, not all arrests result in convictions, and not all convictions result in prison terms

E. Middletown’s ratio of police officers to citizens has reached a level at which an increase in the number of officers will
have a deterrent effect on crime
Causation

Common pattern of a weak causation argument: How to weaken? Point out:

A led to B -B happened without A

-C led to B
B happened
-B happened before A
→ A must had happened.
-A happened, but B did not

-There were actually no B

Causation example
In an experiment, volunteers walked individually through a dark, abandoned theater. Half of the volunteers had been told
that the theater was haunted and the other half that it was under renovation. The first half reported significantly more
unusual experiences than the second did. The researchers concluded that reports of encounters with ghosts and other
supernatural entities generally result from prior expectations of such experiences.

Which of the following, if true, would most seriously weaken the researchers’ reasoning?

A. None of the volunteers in the second half believed that the unusual experiences they reported were supernatural.

B. All of the volunteers in the first half believed that the researchers’ statement that the theater was haunted was a lie.

C. Before being told about the theater, the volunteers within each group varied considerably in their prior beliefs about
supernatural experiences.

D. Each unusual experience reported by the volunteers had a cause that did not involve the supernatural.

E. The researchers did not believe that the theater was haunted.
Correlation & Coincidence

How to weaken? Point out:

Pattern of a weak argument:
A did not cause B, because:
A happened
- Both happened due to the same reason
B happened
- B happened due to C
→ A caused B
- B caused A
Correlation & Coincidence Example

A study of marital relationships in which one partner’s sleeping and waking cycles differ from those of the other
partner reveals that such couples share fewer activities with each other and have more violent arguments than
do couples in a relationship in which both partners follow the same sleeping and waking patterns. Thus,
mismatched sleeping and waking cycles can seriously jeopardize a marriage.

Which of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument above?

(A) Married couples in which both spouses follow the same sleeping and waking patterns also occasionally have
arguments that can jeopardize the couple’s marriage.
(B) The sleeping and waking cycles of individuals tend to vary from season to season.
(C) The individuals who have sleeping and waking cycles that differ significantly from those of their spouses tend
to argue little with colleagues at work.
(D) People in unhappy marriages have been found to express hostility by adopting different sleeping and waking
cycles from those of their spouses.
(E) According to a recent study, most people’s sleeping and waking cycles can be controlled and modified easily.
Generalization

Homeowners aged 40 to 50 are more likely to purchase ice cream and are more likely to purchase it in
larger amounts than are members of any other demographic group. The popular belief that teenagers eat
more ice cream than adults must, therefore, be false.

The argument is flawed primarily because the author

A. fails to distinguish between purchasing and consuming

B. does not supply information about homeowners in age groups other than 40 to 50
C. depends on popular belief rather than on documented research findings
D. does not specify the precise amount of ice cream purchased by any demographic group
E. discusses ice cream rather than more nutritious and healthful foods
Past-Present

Guidebook writer: I have visited hotels throughout the country and have noticed that in those built before 1930 the quality
of the original carpentry work is generally superior to that in hotels built afterward. Clearly carpenters working on hotels
before 1930 typically worked with more skill, care, and effort than carpenters who have worked on hotels built
subsequently.

Which of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the guidebook writer’s argument?

(A) The quality of original carpentry in hotels is generally far superior to the quality of original carpentry in other structures,
such as houses and stores.

(B) Hotels built since 1930 can generally accommodate more guests than those built before 1930.

(C) The materials available to carpenters working before 1930 were not significantly different in quality from the materials
available to carpenters working after 1930.

(D) The better the quality of original carpentry in a building, the less likely that building is to fall into disuse and be
demolished.

(E) The average length of apprenticeship for carpenters has declined significantly since 1930.
Prediction

Oil analysis predict that if the price of oil fails by half, the consumer's purchase price for gasoline made from this
oil will also fall by half.

Which one of the following, If true, would cast the most serious doubt on the prediction made by the oil analysts?

(A) Improved automobile technology and new kinds of fuel for cars have enabled some drivers to use less gasoline.

(B) Gasoline manufacturers will not expand their profit margins.

(C) There are many different gasoline companies that compete with each other to provide the most attractive
price to consumers.

(D) Studies in several countries show that the amount of gasoline purchased by consumers initially rises after the
price of gasoline has fallen.

(E) Refining costs, distribution costs, and taxes, none of which varies significantly with oil prices. constitute a large
portion of the prices of gasoline.
Percentage

Automobile Dealer's Advertisement:

The Highway Traffic Safety Institute reports that the PZ 1000 has the fewest injuries per accident of any car in its class. This
shows that the PZ 1000 is one of the safest cars available today.

Which of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument in the advertisement?

(A) The Highway Traffic Safety Institute report listed many cars in other classes that had more injuries per accident than did
the PZ 1000.

(B) In recent years many more PZ 1000s have been sold than have any other kind of car in its class.

(C) Cars in the class to which the PZ 1000 belongs are more likely to be involved in accidents than are other types of cars.

(D) The difference between the number of injuries per accident for the PZ 1000 and that for other cars in its class is quite
pronounced.

(E) The Highway Traffic Safety Institute issues reports only once a year.
Comparison

In virtually any industry, technological improvements increase labor productivity, which is the output of goods and
services per person-hour worked. In Parland's industries, labor productivity is significantly higher than it is in
Vergia's industries. Clearly, therefore, Parland's industries must, on the whole, be further advanced
technologically than Vergia's are.

The argument is most vulnerable to which of the following criticisms?

A. It offers a conclusion that is no more than a paraphrase of one of the pieces of information provided in its
support.
B. It presents as evidence in support of a claim information that is inconsistent with other evidence presented
in support of the same claim.
C. It takes one possible cause of a condition to be the actual cause of that condition without considering any
other possible causes.
D. It takes a condition to be the effect of something that happened only after the condition already existed.
E. It makes a distinction that presupposes the truth of the conclusion that is to be established.
STRENGTHEN
How to solve a Strengthen question?

-> Find more evidence to support the conclusion of the author.

The new evidence should:
1. Eliminate the inherent weakness in the reasoning
2. Provide additional information to support the conclusion
3. Best fixes the weakness or supports the assumption.
Tips:
1. Answer that provides obvious facts is usually the wrong answer.
2. Answer that starts with “some” is usually the wrong answer.
3. You don't have to prove the argument, just strengthen it.
What is a Strengthen question?

There's a conclusion drawn in the argument and you must find an answer choice
that support that conclusion.

Which of the following, if true, most strongly supports the conclusion above?

Which of the following, if true, does most to justify the researchers' prediction?

Which of the following, if true, provides the best reason for believing that the new strategy will be
successful?
Sample question

Dietician: A kiwi contains twice as much vitamin C as an orange does. Nevertheless, those seeking to get
their daily dose of Vitamin C from fruits do not need to replace oranges with kiwis in their diet.

Which of the following, if true, would lend the most support to the dietician's conclusion?

A. Oranges also contain several other vitamins that are beneficial to human health.

B. In certain regions, kiwis might be harder to obtain than oranges.

C. Unlike that derived from oranges, Vitamin C from kiwis is easier for a human body to process.

D. An orange contains a necessary daily dose of Vitamin C.

E. Neither a kiwi nor an orange provides a sufficient daily dose of vitamin C.

Practice